|
vii.
GEORGIANS
IN
THE
SAFAVID
ADMINISTRATION
Safavid
interaction
with
Georgia
and
its
inhabitants
dates
from
the
inception
of
the
state
in
the
early
16th
century,
when
Georgians
fought
alongside
the
Qezelba@æ
in
Shah
Esma@¿^l
I's
army
(Grey,
ed.,
pp.
190,
193;
Scarcia
Amoretti,
p.
61).
Under
Shah
T®ahma@sb
I
(930-84/1524-76),
Georgians,
taken
captive
during
the
shah's
four
expeditions
into
Georgia,
began
to
be
imported
into
Safavid
territory.
T®ahma@sb's
campaign
in
961/1554
is
said
to
have
brought
thirty
thousand
people
from
the
Caucasus
to
Persia
(Shah
T®ahma@sb,
p.
72;
H®asan
Ru@mlu@,
ed.
Nava@÷^,
p.
492;
Eskandar
Beg,
p.
88).
For
the
most
part
women
and
children,
these
were
taken
to
the
harems
of
the
shah
and
the
elite.
Shah
¿Abba@s
I
further
enlarged
the
pool
of
Georgians
in
Persia.
Thousands
were
captured
and
taken
south
during
his
various
campaigns
in
the
Caucasus
between
1023/1614
and
1025/1616.
Fifteen
thousand
families,
Muslims,
Jews,
and
Armenians,
are
said
to
have
been
deported
from
the
Georgian
capital
of
Zagam,
ˆ^rva@n,
and
Qaraba@g@
and
resettled
in
Faraháa@ba@d
in
Ma@zandara@n,
where
they
were
put
to
work
to
develop
the
area
(Eskandar
Beg,
p.
881,
tr.
Savory,
II,
p.
1096;
Della
Valle,
1843,
I,
p.
598;
Brosset,
1874-76,
I,
p.
488).
According
to
the
Georgian
historian
Parsadan
Gorgidzhanidze
and
the
Frenchman
Jean
Chardin,
eighty
thousand
families,
Georgians,
Armenians,
and
Jews,
were
deported
to
Ma@zandara@n
and
other
areas
(Gorgidzhanidze,
p.
73;
Chardin,
II,
p.
62).
Eskandar
Beg
speaks
of
130,000
as
the
number
of
Georgians
taken
to
Persia
during
the
campaign
of
1025/1616,
and
Malekæa@h
H®osayn
S^sta@n^
even
claims
the
huge
number
of
200,000
captives
(Eskandar
Beg,
pp.
900-901,
tr.
Savory,
II,
p.
1116;
Malekæa@h
H®osayn,
p.
509).
Into
the
19th
century,
concentrations
of
transplanted
Georgians
were
still
visible
throughout
Persia
(Oberling
and
sources
quoted
therein).
The
influence
and
power
acquired
by
the
Georgians
in
this
period
began
in
the
royal
harem,
where
women
from
the
Caucasus,
many
of
them
of
Georgian
origin,
became
prominent.
No
less
than
four
of
Shah
T®ahma@sb's
surviving
sons
were
born
to
him
by
Georgian
wives
(Eskandar
Beg,
p.
133;
tr.
Savory
I,
pp.
215-17),
and
one
of
his
daughters
by
a
Georgian
wife,
the
powerful
Zaynab
Begom,
played
an
important
role
at
the
court
of
her
nephew,
Shah
¿Abba@s
I.
According
to
John
Fryer
(II,
pp.
290-91),
the
queen
mother
in
the
17th
century
was
always
a
Georgian.
In
reality,
she
was
usually
Circassian,
though
the
difference
is
not
always
clear.
Georgian
women
played
an
important
role
in
the
court's
marriage
politics,
and
by
the
end
of
the
Safavid
reign
a
whole
web
of
relations
had
been
established
(Krusinski,
I,
p.
122).
Krusinski
(I,
pp.
128-29),
inter
alia
insists
that
the
influence
of
the
Georgian
harem
women
accounted
for
the
Safavid
tolerance
for
the
country's
Christian
population.
Writing
in
the
early
17th
century,
Pietro
Della
Valle
(1663,
p.
8;
q.v.)
claimed
that
there
was
not
a
household
in
Persia
that
did
not
have
its
Georgian
slaves.
Georgians
entered
the
ranks
of
the
army
and
the
bureaucracy
in
great
numbers
as
well,
turning
into
the
mainstay
of
g@ola@ms,
or
slave
soldiers.
Alla@hverd^
Khan
(q.v.),
an
Armenian
from
Georgia,
served
as
the
army's
commander-in-chief
for
more
than
fifteen
years
(1004-22/1595-1613).
During
the
reign
of
Shah
¿Abba@s
I,
most
of
the
soldiers
equipped
with
firearms
were
Georgians,
their
integration
into
the
army
facilitated
by
the
relative
ease
with
which
they
apparently
gave
up
their
religion
and
converted
to
Islam
(Della
Valle,
1843,
I,
p.
760;
Kaempfer,
p.
273).
A
total
of
thirty
thousand
Georgians
are
said
to
have
served
in
Shah
¿Abba@s's
army
(Della
Valle,
1663,
p.
8).
Georgians
soon
occupied
administrative
positions
of
the
highest
rank.
Shah
¿Abba@s
in
998/1590
created
the
qollar
(slave)
corps,
consisting
of
Circassians,
Georgians,
and
Armenians,
and
its
leader,
the
qollar-a@qa@s^,
became
one
of
the
principal
state
officials
(Eskander
Beg
II,
p.
1106,
tr.
I,
p.
527;
Jona@ba@d^,
p.
716;
Savory,
p.
419;
Tadòkerat
al-molu@k,
tr.
Minorsky,
pp.
33,
46-47).
Alla@hverd^
Khan
was
one
of
the
first
to
hold
this
post.
In
the
1630s
its
incumbent
was
the
equally
powerful
K¨osrow
M^rza@
(Rostam
Khan),
who
has
resided
at
the
Safavid
court
since
the
days
of
Sultan
K¨oda@-banda.
Many
provinces
also
fell
under
Georgian
control.
The
first
Georgian
to
occupy
the
governorship
of
a
major
province
was
Alla@hverd^
Khan,
who
in
1003-4/1595-96
received
Fa@rs
(Ku@hg^lu@ya
was
added
to
his
domain
a
year
later).
His
son,
Ema@mqol^
Khan
(q.v.),
succeeded
him
as
the
governor
(beglerbeg^)
of
Fa@rs
and
ruled
that
province
until
Shah
S®af^
had
him
and
his
family
executed
in
1042/1632.
ˆ^rva@n/ˆarva@n
was
another
of
the
provinces
to
which
Georgian
governors
were
appointed.
In
1013/1605
Shah
¿Abba@s
sent
Constantin
(Konstand^l)
M^rza@,
the
son
of
the
Georgian
king
Alexander,
to
head
this
region.
Ema@mqol^
Khan's
brother,
Da@wu@d
Beg,
served
as
governor
of
Qaraba@g@
between
1037/1627
and
1040/1630
(Moháammad-Ma¿sáu@m,
p.
51;
Eskander
Beg
and
Wa@la,
p.
81;
Molla@
Jala@l-al-D^n,
pp.
275-76;
Gorgidzhanidze,
p.
85;
Alonso,
pp.
56,
105,
107).
Gola@ms
ruled
ˆu@ætar
from
1042/1632
until
the
last
days
of
the
Safavids
(ˆu@ætar^,
pp.
46-47).
S®af^qol^
Khan,
the
governor
of
Hamada@n,
was
appointed
beglerbeg^
of
Baghdad
following
Shah
¿Abba@s's
conquest
of
the
city
in
1033/1622-23
(Eskander
Beg,
p.
1004,
tr.
Savory
II
p.
1226-27).
Georgia
itself
continued
to
be
governed
by
a
Georgian
after
the
Safavid
conquest,
following
an
agreement
between
Shah
¿Abba@s
and
Taimuraz
(T®ahmu@rat¯)
Khan,
its
last
independent
ruler,
whereby
the
latter
submitted
to
Safavid
rule
in
exchange
for
being
allowed
to
rule
as
the
region's
wa@l^
and
for
having
his
son
serve
as
da@ru@g@a
(city
prefect)
of
Isfahan
in
perpetuity
(Chardin,
X,
p.
29;
Kaempfer,
pp.
110-11).
The
first
Georgian
to
hold
the
position
of
da@ru@g@a
of
the
capital
since
1620
was
K¨osrow
M^rza@
(Della
Valle
1843,
II,
p.
176).
K¨osrow
M^rza@
held
the
position
until
his
death
in
1658,
though
he
mostly
let
himself
be
represented
by
a
deputy
(na@÷eb).
Georgians
continued
to
occupy
this
position
until
the
last
days
of
the
Safavid
rule.
The
position
of
the
Georgian
g@ola@ms
was
further
strengthened
under
Shah
S®af^
and
Shah
¿Abba@s
II.
Eskandar
Beg
claims
that
at
the
time
of
Shah
Abba@s's
death,
g@ola@ms
(not
all
of
them
Georgian)
held
twenty-one
of
the
ninety-two
most
powerful
positions
(Eskandar
Beg,
pp.
1084-89,
tr.
Savory
II,
pp.
1309-17).
And
of
the
thirty-seven
great
amirs
appointed
under
Shah
¿Abba@s
II,
at
least
twenty-three
were
g@ola@ms
(Röhrborn,
p.
33).
Following
the
slaughter
of
a
great
many
Qezelba@æ,
the
Georgians
under
Shah
S®af^
consolidated
their
hold
over
key
positions
in
the
inner
palace,
the
bureaucracy,
and
the
military.
The
shah's
own
chamberlain
(mehtar)
was
a
white
eunuch
of
Georgian
origin
(Olearius,
p.
571;
Tadòkerat
al-molu@k,
tr.
Minorsky,
pp.
127,
138).
Aside
from
the
positions
of
qollar-a@qa@s^
and
da@ru@g@a
of
Isfahan,
they
virtually
monopolized
the
posts
of
d^va@nbeg^
(q.v.,
chief
justice)
and
sepahsa@la@r
(military
commander).
These
and
other
positions
tended
to
become
hereditary,
and
one
powerful
functionary
typically
held
more
than
one
simultaneously.
Thus
K¨osrow
M^rza@
served
as
d^va@nbeg^
and
da@ru@g@a
of
Isfahan
under
Shah
¿Abba@s,
played
a
crucial
role
in
the
accession
of
Shah
S®af^
in
1038/1629,
and
was
made
qollar-a@qa@s^
the
following
year,
on
which
occasion
he
was
renamed
Rostam
Khan
(Eskandar
Beg,
p.
1078,
tr.
p.
1302;
Moháammad-Ma¿sáu@m,
p.
46).
In
1632,
following
a
rebellion
in
Kartli,
he
became
wa@l^
of
that
part
of
Georgia
(Eskander
Beg
and
Wa@la
Esáfaha@n^,
pp.
114,
136;
Moháammad-Ma¿sáu@m,
p.
144).
Having
been
appointed
to
all
of
Georgia
in
1058/1648,
he
remained
in
power
until
his
death
in
1069/1658.
He
is
not
to
be
confused
with
another
Rostam
Beg,
who
was
d^va@nbeg^
in
the
last
years
of
Shah
¿Abb@a@s
I's
reign,
and
served
as
tofang±^-a@qa@s^
(rifleman
commander),
sepahsa@la@r,
and
beglerbeg
of
Azerbaijan
between
1040/1631
and
his
execution
in
1053/1643.
Rostam
Beg's
younger
brother,
¿Al^qol^
Khan,
had
a
remarkable
career
spanning
fifty
years,
during
which
he
served
as
d^va@nbeg^
under
Shah
S®af^
(Eskander
Beg
and
Wa@la
Esáfaha@n^,
pp.
146,
166;
Moháammad-Ma¿sáu@m,
p.
197;
Wahá^d
Qazv^n^,
p.
47;
Olearius,
p.
671),
held
the
post
of
sepahsa@la@r
and
the
attendant
position
of
beglerbeg^
of
Azerbaijan
between
1058/1648
and
1064/1654,
fell
out
of
favor,
but
was
rehabilitated
by
Shah
Solayma@n,
who
reinstated
him
as
sepahsa@la@r.
Chardin
called
him
the
effective
ruler
of
the
country
at
the
time
of
his
death
in
1667
(Wahá^d
Qazv^n^,
pp.
138,
174-75;
Tavernier,
I,
p.
638-43;
Chardin,
IX,
pp.
555-63,
X,
p.
70).
Rostam
Beg's
son,
S®af^qol^
Khan,
was
appointed
d^va@nbeg^
in
1067/1657
(ˆa@mlu@,
fol.
133v.;
Algemeen
Rijks
Archief,
VOC
1224,
fol.
316
v.),
and
took
up
the
governorship
of
Maæhad
in
1074/1664
(ˆa@mlu@,
fol.
146v.).
S®af^qol^
Khan's
son,
Rostam
Khan,
was
d^va@nbeg^
under
Shah
Solayma@n
and
also
served
as
tofang±^-a@qa@s^,
and
in
1692
was
appointed
sepahsa@la@r
and
beglerbeg^
of
Tabr^z
(Maæ^z^,
p.
626;
K¨a@tu@na@ba@d^,
pp.
548,
550).
The
brother
of
Gorg^n
Khan
(Giorgi
XI,
the
former
king
of
Kartli),
Levan
(Leon),
also
known
as
ˆa@hqol^
Khan,
was
appointed
d^va@nbeg^
of
Isfahan
in
1700
upon
his
victorious
return
from
a
campaign
against
the
Baluch
marauders
in
Kerma@n
(Lockhart,
p.
46;
Lang,
1952,
p.
527).
Levan's
son,
Kay-kòosrow
(K¨osrow
Khan)
similarly
briefly
served
as
d^va@nbeg^
in
1709
and
was
rewarded
with
the
position
of
da@ru@g@a
of
Isfahan
for
quelling
a
bread
revolt,
and
in
1709
became
sepahsa@la@r
and
was
also
made
wa@l^
of
Georgia
(Algemeen
Rijks
Archief,
VOC,
1753,
fol.
293v.;
Mostawf^,
p.
116;
Lockhart,
pp.
49-50).
He
was
killed
during
an
expedition
in
Afghanistan
against
the
GÚilz^
(q.v.)
Afghans.
The
sepahsa@la@r
(and
beglarbeg^
of
Azerbaijan
and
wa@l^
of
Georgia)
in
1716
was
H®osaynqol^
Khan
(Wahtang
VI),
the
brother
of
the
qollar-a@qa@s^,
Rostam
M^rza@.
In
1717
he
succeded
his
brother
as
qollar-a@qa@s^
(Bushev,
pp.
181-82;
Algemeen
Rijks
Archief,
VOC
1897,
fol.
271;
Krusinski,
I,
pp.
190,
198-99).
As
these
examples
show,
the
administrative
and
military
power
of
Georgians
continued
right
up
to
the
end
of
the
Safavid
period.
Fryer's
claim
(II,
p.
291)
that
in
1677
Georgians
contributed
forty
thousand
soldiers
to
the
Persian
army,
is
surely
exaggerated,
but
Engelbert
Kaempfer
(p.
204)
may
well
have
been
right
in
his
assertion
that,
by
the
1680s,
about
twenty
thousand
Georgians
(including
Circassians
and
Daghestanis)
were
living
in
Isfahan.
Shah
Solayma@n,
who
seemed
to
have
favored
Georgians,
asked
ˆahnava@z
Khan
(Vakhtang
V),
the
king
of
Kartli,
to
marry
his
daughter
Anusa
and
made
ˆahanava@z's
son,
Alexander,
the
da@ru@g@a
of
Isfahan
(Brosset,
1856,
II/2,
p.
9).
It
is
also
said
that
Shah
Solayma@n
kept
the
Georgians
content
and
forgetful
of
their
origins
by
promoting
them
to
high
positions
(Sanson,
pp.
176-77).
Their
internal
divisions,
noted
by
Chardin
(II,
p.
42)
and
the
fact
that
they
never
achieved
full
autonomy
but
had
to
compete
with
other
groups,
kept
them
from
establishing
supremacy
in
the
administration.
The
Georgians,
moreover,
were
not
universally
loved
and
their
tremendous
power
gave
rise
to
a
great
deal
of
friction
and
factionalism.
Chardin
tells
the
story
of
¿Al^qol^
Khan,
a
Georgian,
who
was
sent
to
Loresta@n
and
caused
a
local
revolt
(Chardin,
IX,
p.
206).
The
same
author
(V,
p.
228)
further
notes
that
older
Persians
loathed
the
Georgian
newcomers,
calling
them
qara
og@lu@,
sons
of
blacks;
he
also
remarks
(II,
pp.
42-43,
150)
on
the
animosity
that
existed
between
Georgians
and
Armenians,
another
group
that
figured
conspicuously
in
governmental
circles.
Others
noted
that
the
Georgians
were
feared
in
Persia
(Carmelite
Archives,
O.C.D.
243
1
bis;
Avril,
p.
60).
In
late
Safavid
times
an
anti-Georgian
faction
consisting
of
the
superintendant
of
the
royal
workshops
(na@záer-e
boyu@ta@t)
and
the
grand
vizier
is
reported
(Lang,
1952,
pp.
530-31).
There
surely
was
no
love
lost
between
the
Qezelba@æ
and
the
Georgians
in
late
Safavid
times;
while
the
Qezelba@æ
are
said
to
have
encouraged
the
Afghans
to
invade
Persia
to
further
their
own
cause
against
the
Georgians,
anti-Muslim
sentiments
seem
to
have
prompted
some
of
the
latter
to
hope
for
a
Russian
invasion
(Lang,
1957,
p.
109;
Lockhart,
pp.
86,
89;
Röhrborn,
p.
38).
However
that
may
be,
the
very
demise
of
the
Safavid
state
is
entwined
with
Georgian
military
leadership.
Giorgi
XI
or
Gorg^n
Khan
(ˆahnava@z
Khan
III),
was
the
ruler
of
Georgia
who,
having
lost
his
throne,
in
1699
was
made
governor
of
Kerma@n
with
the
task
of
halting
the
Baluchi
incursions
that
threatened
the
country's
southeast.
Four
years
later
the
need
to
repel
invading
Afghans
prompted
the
shah
to
appoint
him
as
sepahsa@la@r,
beglerbeg^
of
Qandaha@r
and,
nominally,
wa@l^
of
Kartli.
In
1716
it
was
the
turn
of
H®osaynqol^
Khan
(Vakhtang
VI),
Giogi
XI's
regent
in
Georgia,
to
be
appointed
sepahsa@la@r
and
charged
with
fighting
the
Afghans.
Georgian
troops,
led
by
Rostam
Khan,
fought
valiantly
against
the
Afghans
at
the
battle
of
Golna@ba@d
in
1134/1722,
but
their
number
was
too
small
to
keep
the
enemy
from
laying
siege
to
Isfahan.
A
refusal
on
the
part
of
Vakhtang
VI,
now
again
residing
in
Georgia,
to
send
relief
troops
to
Persia,
finally
made
it
impossible
for
the
Safavids
to
save
the
city
and
their
realm
(Mostawf^,
p.
129;
Lang,
1957,
pp.
104-13;
Röhrborn,
p.
89).
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(RUDI
MATTHEE)
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