M. Boyce, I. K. Poonawala, P. Beaumont “water.” R. Holod, M. Sotu@da “water reservoir.” H. Gaube E DEZ or AÚB-DEZ, a major river of K¨u@zesta@n, the one most vital to its economy. It rises in the central Zagros mountains about 20 km (all distances are given in a straight line) northeast of Boru@èerd near the village of Ùaha@r Borra. Flowing past Boru@èerd to the west, it runs southeast until it is joined near Do Ru@d, some 60 km southeast of Boru@èerd, by the Ma@rbora flowing from the east. The combined waters of both rivers then flow southwest through a narrow, often gorgelike valley for about 70 km, as far as KeÞvar. ... E. Ehlers -E GARM “warm water”: hot springs and mineral springs in Iran (Figure 10). N. Ramazani (or AÚB-E GÚUÚRA), the juice of g@u@ra, i.e. unripe grapes. (The term is applied secondarily to other unripe fruit. For examples of the term g@u@ra in literature, see Dehk¨oda@, fasc. no. 74, pp. 361-62.) Such juice, sour and highly acidic, is used in Persian cuisine both for its own sake and as a substitute for lemon juice. The Editors and N. Ramazani literally “water-meat” signifying “meat juice” (i.e., a@b-e gu@Þt), a popular Persian meat-based soup or stew, consisting of lamb, some legume, and herb and seasoning. Currently the standard variety of a@b-gu@Þt is made of lamb shank (ma@h^±a), dried chick peas, white beans, and potato, with salt, turmeric, and dried Persian lime (l^mu@-ye ¿oma@n^) for seasoning. C. E. Bosworth E ÈSTAÚDA “still water,” a salt lake in the province of GÚazna in modern Afghanistan, lying 30 km southeast of the present GÚazna-Kandaha@r highway and 100 km south of GÚazna itself, in 32°30 ‚ north latitude and 67°55 ‚ east longitude and at an altitude of 2,130 m above sea level. The lake, some 25 km by 10 km in size but very shallow, is fed by the river of GÚazna, and out of it the river Lora flows down to the Arg@anda@b. Being one of the few extensive stretches of water in Afghanistan, it is much frequented by migrating wild fowl. ... M. Boyce “Na@h^d of the Water,” a Zoroastrian woman's name, first attested in the poem Vis o Ra@m^n (sec. 9, line. 5). This poem is held to be a composition of the late Parthian period, but was translated subsequently into Middle Persian, and finally into the classical Persian version which alone survives. Hence the exact form of the name in the Parthian period remains uncertain. In the poem its bearer is said to be a noble lady of Isfahan, the daughter of a scribe (deb^r). The name is theophoric, being that of Ana@hita, and it appears, by the epithet “of the water,” to emphasize the identification of this originally foreign mother goddess with the Zoroastrian Ar™dv^ Su@ra, the river yazata. ... M. Boyce “offering of water,” the Middle Persian for of a Zoroastrian technical term, Av. Ape zaoϑra. Currently, the Irani Zoroastrians speak of a@b-zo@r (Dari, with metathesis, o@w-ru@z), while the Parsis use a half-Gujarati expression, zor-melavvi “giving the offering.” (in Arabic, also ¿aba@÷a and ¿aba@ya), a loose outer garment, generally for men, worn widely throughout the Middle East, particularly by Arab nomads. In Iran the ¿aba@÷ is used almost exclusively by religious scholars. In its most common form, that prevalent in Syria and Arabia, the ¿aba@÷ has the form of a loose cloak; open in the front, it is kept closed neither by buttons nor by belt. It is without sleeves, but the arms are passed through side openings which serve also to keep the ¿aba@÷ in place on the shoulders. ... J. Van Ess , Arabic theological term meaning “eternity a parte post” (already in early Mu¿tazilite theology); it corresponds to Greek ate‚leuton. It sometimes also serves as a general term for unlimited time (dahr). Abad and its opposing term, azal (“eternity a parte ante”) represent different aspects of qedam, “eternity.” A suggested derivation is from the Middle Persian *a-pa@d, “without foot (i.e., without end).” For a surmise on the Iranian origin of azal, see Monnot in bibliography. ... C. E. Bosworth 1. The name of a small town in northern Fa@rs province, lying to the northeast of the chaîne magistrale of the Zagros at an altitude of 2,011 m/6,200 ft in 52°40 ‚ east longitude and 31°11 ‚ north latitude. It is on the easterly (formally the winter, now the all-weather) main Isfahan-Shiraz highway, 204 km from the former and 280 km from the latter city. A branch road from the highway, leaving it at Abarqu@h, connects AÚba@da with Yazd. In earlier times, the town was sometimes called AÚba@da-ye Eql^d to distinguish it from the more southerly AÚba@da-ye T®aÞk (see 2, below); in the H®odu@d al-¿a@lam (tr. ... L. P. Elwell-Sutton, X. de Planhol island and city in the osta@n (province) of K¨u@zesta@n at the head of the Persian Gulf. Persian term meaning “settlement, inhabited space;” it is applied basically to the rural environment, but in colloquial usage it often refers to towns and cities as well. The Persian word derives from Middle Persian a@pa@t, “developed, thriving, inhabited, cultivated” (see H. S. Nyberg, A Manual of Pahlavi II, Wiesbaden, 1974, p. 25); the Middle Persian word is based on the Old Iranian directional adverb a@, “to, in” and the root pa@, “protect” (AirWb. ... a Zoroastrian of the 9th century A.D. who apostatized to Islam (hence his epithets in Pahlavi , “accursed” [gizistag/guèastag] and “heretic” [zand^g]). His original name was Day-Ohrmazd, and he apparently adopted an Arabic one after his conversion. Its precise form is disguised by the ambiguous Pahlavi spelling ÷b÷lÞ (or ÷b÷lh, etc.), which is transcribed in Pazand by the otherwise unattested “Aba@l^Þ.” Suggested explanations of the name include *Aba@ Lays¨ (H. H. ... M. Boyce Middle Persian term, “the waters” (Av. a@po@). In Indo-Iranian the word for water is grammatically feminine; the element itself was always characterized as female and was represented by a group of goddesses, the AÚpas. These evidently represented water apprehended in its diversity, whether as countless waves and droplets or as innumerable separate streams, pools, and wells. The link between them and the element they personified was very close. A Vedic poet, speaking of water, could say that the AÚpas were wholesome to drink (see H. ... I. Abbas B. ¿ABD-AL-H®AMÈD B. LAÚHEQ, called LAÚHEQÈ, late 2nd/8th century poet. He was of a Persian family, originally from Fasa@, which had settled (probably at an early date) in Basára. Aba@n was born there, and he flourished in the period of the Barmak^s. By his own account, he was of average and graceful stature, with a handsome face and lank beard. He was well versed in the learning and culture of Basára, including mathematics, grammar, rhetoric, and literature. His fellow citizen, Ôa@háezá, thought highly of his sagacity, a trait that distinguished him in the Basran clique of intellectuals to which he attached himself. ... M. Boyce the eighth month of the Zoroastrian year, dedicated to the Waters, AÚba@n (q.v.). From the 5th to the beginning of the 11th century A.D., as a result of the second Sasanian calendar reform (see Calendar, Zoroastrian), AÚba@n Ma@h became the twelfth month of the religious “leaping” (wihe@zag) year, with five epagomenae, the Ga@tha@ days, set between it and AÚdòar Ma@h (q.v.). The last five days of AÚba@n Ma@h were accordingly celebrated, for this half millennium, as the lesser Farvard^ga@n (q. ... M. Boyce Middle Persian (Pazand) name of the fifth among the Zoroastrian hymns to individual divinities. It is the third longest, with 131 verses (only Farvard^n and Mihr YaÞt are longer). Although the name indicates that the hymn is devoted to the Waters (AÚba@n), the Lady Ardv^su@r (Ba@nu@ Ardv^su@r) is invoked in the Middle Persian preliminaries; and the Avestan xÞnu@man (dedication) dedicates its recital to the satisfaction of “the water Ar™dv^ Su@ra@ Ana@hita@, the righteous.” This accords with the content of the yaÞt better than its title, since it is in fact devoted to the river divinity Ar™dv^ Su@ra@ Ana@hita@ (q. ... the name used by B^ru@n^ (AÚt¯a@r, p. 224) for the Zoroastrian feast-day dedicated to the Waters, which was celebrated on the day AÚba@n of the month AÚba@n. See further under AÚba@n Ma@h. W. L. Hanaway, Jr. character in the prose romance Da@ra@bna@ma (q.v.) of Abu@ T®a@her Moháammad b. H®asan b. ¿Al^ b. Mu@sa@ al-T®arsu@s^ (q.v.), a storyteller of the Ghaznavid period. A lengthy tale, which includes a version of the Iranian Alexander romance, the Da@ra@bna@ma probably took its present written form in the 6th/12th century. It purports to recount the adventures of Da@ra@b and his son, likewise named Da@ra@b, the latter representing Darius III. AÚba@ndokòt is the wife of the younger Da@ra@b and the mother of Bu@ra@ndokòt. ... (or ABAGÚA, “paternal uncle” in Mongolian; ABAÚQAÚ in Persian and Arabic), eldest son and first successor of the Il-khan Hülegü (q.v.; Hu@la@gu@). He was born of Yesün±in K¨a@tu@n in Ôoma@da@ I, 631/February, 1234 in Mongolia, and accompanied his father on his great expedition to the west. At the outbreak of war with Berke of the Golden Horde around 659-60/1261-62, he was sent eastwards, according to the Armenian chronicler Kirakos (tr. E. Dulaurier, “Les Mongols d'apreàs les historiens arme‚niens,” JA, 5e se‚rie, 11, 1858, p. ... AL-ANWAÚR, a large Arabic work by M^r H®a@med H®osayn b. Moháammad-qol^ b. Moháammad b. H®a@med of Lucknow on the legitimacy of the imamate and the defense of Shi¿ite theology. The book, arranged in two parts, is one of several refutations of Toháfa et¯na@¿aÞar^ya (specifically chap. 7) by ¿Abd-al-¿Az^z Fa@ru@q^ Dehlav^ (d. 1239/1823-24). The first part (unpublished) deals with the question of the imamate on the basis of the Koran. In the second part the author bases his argument on twelve Hadith, and so the text is subdivided into twelve sections. ... . See EBER-NAÚRÈ M. Kasheff late Sasanian name of QeÞm (q.v.) island in the Straits of Hormoz. It occurs in this form (Baladòor^, Fotu@há, p. 386) and as Abarka@fa@n (Nozhat al-qolu@b, p. 186), Barka@va@n (Ebn H®awqal, p. 183; Ebn al-At¯^r, III, p. 41), Banu@ Ka@va@n (Mas¿u@d^, Moru@è I, p. 240; Ebn al-Balkò^, pp. 113-14), etc. (For a more ancient name of the island, see Brokòt; see also La@ft.) The form of the name may be compared with those of Abarqoba@dò (q.v.), Abar ˆahr^a@r (Ebn H®awqal, p. 300), and Bar Ba@bak (Ebn K¨orda@dòbeh, p. ... an ancient town of lower Iraq between Basára and Va@setá, to the east of the Tigris, in the region adjacent to Ahva@z, known in pre-Islamic and early Islamic times as Me@Þu@n (Mid. Pers. form) or Maysa@n/MayÞa@n (Syriac and Arabic forms). The correct form of the town name is given by D^navar^ (al-Akòba@r al-táewa@l, pp. 68, 124). Other geographers (such as Ya¿qu@b^, Bolda@n, p. 322; idem, tr. Wiet, p. 166; and Ya@qu@t, I, p.90; idem [Beirut], I, pp. 72-73) mistakenly write Abazqoba@dò or even Izqoba@dò and Izadqoba@dò. ... C. E. Bosworth, R. Hillenbrand (or ABARQUÚYA), a town in northern Fa@rs; it was important in medieval times, but, being off the main routes, it is now largely decayed. H. Gaube name of N^Þa@pu@r province in western Khorasan. From the early Sasanian period, N^Þa@pu@r, which was founded or rebuilt by ˆa@pu@r I in the first years of his reign, was the administrative center of the province. On a Sasanian clay sealing, the names of AbarÞahr and N^Þa@pu@r appear together. In the inscription of ˆa@pu@r I at NaqÞ-e Rostam and in Manichean texts, AbarÞahr is mentioned in various spellings. On Sasanian coins the Pahlavi form of AbarÞahr appears abbreviated as ÷pr, and on Arab-Sasanian coins we find the form ÷pr, ÷prÞ(t). ... E. Yarshater (APURSAÚM in Middle Persian), a dignitary and high-ranking officeholder of the court of the Sasanian king ArdaÞ^r I (A.D. 226-42). According to T®abar^ (I, pp. 816, 818; cf. Ebn al-At¯^r, I, p. 247), Abarsa@m became ArdaÞ^r's chief minister (vuzurgframadòa@r ; see Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, p. 9, n. 2, on the reading of the title) when the king conquered Esátáak¨r; he was responsible for defeating the king of Ahva@z, whom Ardava@n, the last Parthian king of kings, had sent against ArdaÞ^r. ... C. J. Brunner Middle Persian for of the Avestan name Upa@iri.sae@na, designating the Hindu Kush mountains (Average. iÞkata; Mid. Pers. ko@f, gar) of central and eastern Afghanistan. YaÞt 19.3 lists it as one of the ranges envisaged as spurs of the High Hara@ (see Alborz), which, as the mythical world-encircling range, is the source of the mountains. The divine Ho@m is said in Yasna 10.11 to have been carried to the Upa@iri.sae@na range by birds (the Pahlavi version says “Powers” in the shape of birds). Thus already appears an association between the mountains and a bird motif. ... C. E. Bosworth (AÚBASKUÚN), a port of the medieval period on the southwest shore of the Caspian Sea in Gorga@n province. Perhaps it should be connected with the So@kanda river in ancient Hyrcania mentioned by Ptolemy (Geographia 6.9.2.). It seems to have been at or near the mouth of the Gorga@n river (the Herand river in H®odu@d al-¿a@lam). According to Swedish archeologists “Abaskun should be identified with GumüÞ Tepe with its wealth of ruins” (T. J. Arne, Excavations, p. 16). N. Sims-Williams (“Father”) ISAIAH, late 4th century A.D., author of Christian ascetical texts; from these it appears that he was a hermit who lived in the desert of Scete in Egypt, of whom several anecdotes are told in the Apophthegmata patrum (q.v.). The generally accepted identification of him with the Monophysite Isaiah of Gaza (d. ca. 488) has recently been refuted (see R. Draguet, Les cinq recensions de l'Asce‚ticon syriaque d'Abba Isaïe, CSCO, Scriptores Syri, CXX-CXXIII, Louvain, 1968). After Abba@ Isaiah's death, his disciple Peter collected his writings and sayings into a book, usually known by its Greek title, Asketikon. ... W. Madelung B. SALMAÚN (or SOLAYMAÚN) B. ¿ALÈ AL-SáAYMARÈ, ABUÚ SAHL, Mu¿tazili theologian of the 3rd/9th century. Although Ebn al-Nad^m calls him a Basran, his nesba indicates that he came from Sáaymara in southwestern Ôeba@l. He must have been born before the year 200/816, for his teacher in Mu¿tazili theology, HeÞa@m b. ¿Amr Fovatá^, appears to have died not later than 218/833. During the time of inquisition against upholders of the doctrine of the uncreated nature of the Koran, ¿Abba@d debated with Sunni traditionalist motakallem (theologian) ¿Abdalla@h b. ... R. M. Savory styled “the Great,” king of Iran (996-1038/1588-1629) of the Safavid dynasty, third son and successor of Soltáa@n Moháammad Shah. He was born on 1 Ramazµa@n 978/27 January 1571, and died in Ma@zandara@n on Ôoma@da@ I 1038/19 January 1629, after reigning for forty-two lunar and forty-one solar years. R. M. Savory king of Iran (1052-77/1642-66) of the Safavid dynasty. The son of Shah Sáaf^, he was born on 18 Ôoma@da@ II 1043/20 December 1633, and succeeded his father on 12 Sáafar 1052/12 May 1642, when he was only eight and a half years old; he died on 26 Rab^¿ II 1077/25 September 1666. R. M. Savory son of Shah T®ahma@sp II, roi faine‚ant of the Safavid dynasty. After the deposition of his father by Na@der Khan AfÞa@r in Rab^¿ I, 1145/August, 1732, the eight-month-old ¿Abba@s was invested as ¿Abba@s III on 17 Rab^¿ I 1145/ 7 September 1732 (or possibly earlier). Na@der Khan, who was the real ruler of the country, dropped his own now obviously inappropriate style of T®ahma@sp-qol^ Khan and assumed the titles of vak^l-al-dawla (deputy of the state) and na@÷eb-al-saltáana (viceroy). ¿Abba@s III was deposed in his turn on 24 ˆavva@l 1148/8 March 1736, when Na@der Khan had himself crowned as Na@der Shah and by this act officially terminated the Safavid dynasty. ... J. W. Allan a signature found on a number of pieces of metalwork from Iran; three different individuals or workshops should probably be distinguished. [Author ID1: at Thu Jan 29 14:10:00 1998 C. Cahen B. H®OSAYN ˆÈRAÚZÈ, ABU÷L-FAZ˜L, Buyid vizier, d. 362/973. He first appears after the death of Mohallab^, the Shi¿i vizier of Mo¿ezz-al-dawla, as chief of the d^wa@n al-nafaqa@t, the bureau of expenditures. He was subsequently charged with the functions, but not the title, of the vizierate jointly with Ebn Fasa@nèos (Abu÷l-Faraè), another official of the regime. The history of the period is characterized by rivalries among high dignitaries in the administration and their clients, the amassing of considerable fortunes, and maneuvers to force restitution from those who benefited from their positions. ... D. M. Dunlop leader with ¿Amr al-Azraq (Mas¿u@d^: al-Afvah) of an Arab invasion of the lower Euphrates region in which the Sava@d of Iraq was ravaged, about A.D. 589, toward the end of the reign of Hormozd IV. This event is represented by some ancient historians as part of a coalition of the enemies of Iran. The Arab invasion was probably made from Bahárayn (see Bal¿am^). Bal¿am^ states that it was bought off by subsidies of provisions and money through the agency of Hawdòa b. ¿Al^, ruler of al-Yama@ma, whose pro-Persian policy ended disastrously later. ... See ¿ABD-AL-BAHAÚ÷. H. Busse son of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah and father of the line of Qajar rulers from Moháammad Shah on. He was born on 4 Dòu÷l-háeèèa 1203/26 August 1789 in the town of Nava@, Ma@zandara@n. His mother, AÚs^ya K¨a@nom, was a daughter of Fathá-¿Al^ Khan Devellu@; Fathá-¿Al^ Shah had married her at the behest of AÚqa@ Moháammad Shah. A Qoyonlu@ on his father's side and a Devellu@ on his mother's, ¿Abba@s M^rza@, the future crown prince, united in his person the two main branches of the Qajar tribes. By reconciling them, AÚqa@ Moháammad Shah had paved the way for his own accession to the throne (Heda@yat [see bibliog. ... P. P. Soucek B. REZ˜AÚ-QOLÈ KHAN NUÚRÈ, calligrapher and civil servant, b. at Ta@ker-e Nu@r in Ma@zandara@n, d. 1255/1839-40 and buried in Naèaf. According to one account, he joined the entourage of Ema@m-verd^ M^rza@ b. Fathá-¿Al^ Shah, under whose protection he achieved fame and wealth, including sumptuous residences in Tehran and Ta@ker. But in 1251/1835, after twenty years of prosperity, ¿Abba@s suffered a reverse of fortune; his home in Ta@ker was destroyed by a flood, and he was forced to retire from government service. ... D. M. Lang Persian viceroy in eastern Georgia, 1099-1105/1688-94, under the Safavid shahs Solayma@n and Soltáa@n H®osayn. ¿Abba@s-qol^ Khan's ill-starred intervention in Georgian affairs arose from the Persian court's desire to achieve direct control over the Georgian vassal provinces. This action involved a policy of divide and rule and the exploiting of dynastic feuds between the local Georgian Bagratid rulers of Kartli, residing in Tiflis, and the related Bagratid kings of neighboring Kakheti. In 1099/1688 the king of Kartli, Giorgi XI (Gorè^n Khan), headed an unsuccessful conspiracy against the Persian governor of Kakheti. ... H. Busse son of Ebra@h^m Khan Z®ah^r-al-dawla and, through his mother (the princess Dawlatgeld^, titled Navva@b-e mota¿a@l^a), a grandson of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah. When Z®ah^r-al-dawla, governor of Kerma@n since 1218/1803, went to Tehran in 1240/1824, he appointed ¿Abba@s-qol^ M^rza@ as his deputy in Kerma@n. The latter took precedence over governor's own twenty-one sons, thanks to his high-born mother. Z®ah^r-al-dawla died in Tehran in 1240/1824 or 1241/1825; and ¿Abba@s-qol^ M^rza@ was made governor of Kerma@n, as was customary in the early Qajar period and also because of his close family ties with the shah. ... W. Kleiss flourishing caravan station of the Safavid period. It was located 92 km southeast of Vara@m^n in the S^a@h-ku@h, and it lay on the Safavid royal highway which led from Isfahan to the Safavid fortresses in Ma@zandara@n. The itinerary was: Isfahan - Domb^ - Ùaha@ra@ba@d - Sardaha@n - Qal¿a-ye Sang^ -K¨a@leda@ba@d - AÚb-e Garm - Saf^da@b - ¿Abba@sa@ba@d - Ra@h-e SangfarÞ (a causeway across the salt desert) - Rasma - Am^na@ba@d - F^ru@zku@h (Gado@k) - Pol-e Saf^d - Sa@r^ - the fortresses of Faraháa@ba@d and AÞraf. ... P. Avery, B. G. Fragner, J. B. Simmons a name first applied to the principal gold and silver coins issued by the Safavid king ¿Abba@s I (1581-1629); it continued in use until the beginning of the 20th century. R. Skelton a Safavid miniature painter, whose known works include seventeen signed and dated examples executed between the years 1060/1650 and 1095/1683-84. Throughout his career it was his normal practice to sign his paintings with an obsequious formula which was written in minute characters, usually in a small rectangular panel of uncolored paper placed within the foreground vegetation. This reads: baha@ gereft ±o gard^d Þaykò ¿abba@s^, “It (or he) achieved worth because he became ˆaykò ¿Abba@s^,” i. ... Y. Richard ¿ABD-AL-LAT®ÈF B. ¿ABDALLAÚH KABÈR (d. 1048/1638), Indian literary figure. He was first attached to the retinue of LaÞkar Khan MaÞhad^ in Kabul and then to the court of Shah Ôaha@n (1628-58), where he exercised the functions of d^va@n-e tan and was given the title ¿Aq^da Khan. He added a preface and supplement to the Botkòa@na (q.v.) of Moháammad Sáu@f^ Ma@zandara@n^, as well as a collection of biographical notices of poets entitled K¨ola@sáa-ye aháva@l-e Þo¿ara@÷ (1021/1612-13). Apart from his function as court chronicler, his literary activity was devoted to his work as an editor of, and commentator on, two of the literary classics of Persian poetry, Sana@¿^'s H®ad^qa and Ru@m^'s Mat¯nav^. ... Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh ABU÷L-¿ABBAÚS (or ABUÚ ¿ABDALLAÚH), a Samanid poet from Rabenèa@n, a city near Samarqand, south of the Sog@d river. He flourished in the first half of the 4th/10th century; a one-line fragment of his poetry praises the ruler Nasár b. Ahámad (r. 301-31/914-42) at the beginning of the year 331/914, and another fragment laments his passing and congratulates Nu@há I on his accession (Lazard, Premiers poeàtes II, lines 1, 18-22). This five-line piece is the longest sample of ¿Abba@s^'s verse among the eighty lines which have been preserved in lexicons, and it is one which found favor with later writers. ... in Iran. The aim of the present article is not to give a chronological history of Persia under ¿Abbasid rule but to examine some of the main trends affecting the political, religious, and cultural development of Persia during the period when ¿Abbasid rule was effective there—essentially from the middle of the 2nd/8th century to the opening decades of the 4th/10th century. F. Robinson AL-¿ALÈ MOH®AMMAD BAH®R-AL-¿OLUÚM, a leading 18th century Indian theologian of the H®anaf^ school. Born in Lucknow in 1144/1731, he was the son of Molla@ Nezáa@m-al-d^n (q.v.), a member of the Ferang^ Maháal family and founder of the Dars-e Nezáa@m^ya. ¿Abd-al-¿Al^ studied under his father and, sometime after the latter's death, succeeded him. But he was not destined to stay in Lucknow. From time to time quarrels flared between the prominent Sunni families of Lucknow and the Shi¿ia court of Awadh established by Borha@n-al-molk N^Þa@pu@r^ in the early 18th century. ... D. Pingree AL-¿ALÈ B. MOH®AMMAD B. H®OSAYN BÈRÔANDÈ (or BARÔANDÈ), NEZ®AÚM-AL-DÈN, productive Islamic astronomer, said to have died in 934/1527-28 (although the authority for this date is unclear). His surviving works are as follows: 1. Ab¿ad o aèra@m (“Distances and sizes of celestial bodies”); Persian, completed 930/1523-24. The title is not original. 2. B^st ba@b dar taqv^m (“Twenty chapters on the calendar”); Persian, completed 883/1478. There is a commentary by Mozáaffar b. ... Hameed ud-Din AL-¿ALÈM NASáRALLAÚH® KHAN “QAMAR,” government official, historian, biographer, translator, and grammarian in British India. He was born at K¨orèa near BolandÞahr in the early 19th century. His father, H®ak^m ¿Omar Khan Ahámad^ K¨eÞg^, died when ¿Abd-al-¿Al^m was only ten years old. After his father's death, ¿Abd-al-¿Al^m moved to Nizamabad in Azamgarh district, where his uncle, Fathá Khan, was tahás^lda@r (revenue officer). There he had an opportunity to study with the well-known scholar, Mawlav^ Ahámad-¿Al^ Ùeryakot^. ... W. Madelung AL-¿AZ®ÈM AL-H®ASANÈ, ABU÷L-QAÚSEM B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. ¿ALÈ B. AL-H®ASAN B. ZAYD B. AL-H®ASAN B. ¿ALÈ B. ABUÚ T®AÚLEB, Shi¿ite ascetic and transmitter buried in the main sanctuary of Ray. Little is known about his life. He must have been born before the year 200/815, probably in Median. There he was a companion of Imams Moháammad al-Ôava@d (203-20/818-35) and ¿Al^ al-Ha@d^ (220-54/835-68). When the latter, on the order of the caliph al-Motavakkel, moved to Sa@marra@÷ in 233/848, ¿Abd-al-¿Azá^m evidently followed him there. ... D. Duda AL-¿AZÈZ B. ¿ABD-AL-VAHHAÚB, painter of the Safavid period. According to the historian Qa@zá^ Ahámad, both father and son were excellent painters from Ka@Þa@n. The son owed his artistic training to Shah T®ahma@sp (930-84/1524-76) and was employed in the royal workshops at Tabr^z, but he was severely punished by the king for counterfeiting a seal, and had his ears and nose cut off. On the other hand, the historian Mosátáafa@-¿Al^ tells us that he was born in Isfahan, that Shah T®ahma@sp was his pupil, and that he lost his nose for attempting to flee to India with another painter and a page. ... M. H. Siddiqi AL-¿AZÈZ B. NADòR MOH®AMMAD, Toghay-Timurid (Janid) dynast of the Uzbeks, r. 1057-91/1647-80 in Bokhara. His father held Balkò and BadakòÞa@n, while Nadòr's elder brother, Ema@m-qol^, was khan at Bokhara (1020-51/1611-41). Together they maintained Uzbek independence against the advance of Safavid power in Khorasan under Shah ¿Abba@s I. Ema@m-qol^'s diplomacy, and perhaps Nadòr's claim to descent from Imam ¿Al^ al-Rezµa (through his mother), helped alleviate Safavid-Uzbek hostility. The Persians were able to advance to the south, expelling the Mughals from Kandaha@r (1031/1622), and the Uzbeks also advanced to make an attempt on Kabul (1037/1628). ... AL-AZÈZ BOK¨AÚRÈ, SHAH. See MEDICINE: MUSLIM INDIA. Azduddin Khan AL-¿AZÈZ MOH®ADDETò DEHLAVÈ, SHAH, celebrated Sunni theologian and mystic. Born in Delhi on 25 Ramazµa@n 1159/11 October 1746, he claimed Arab ancestry traceable to the second caliph ¿Omar (Shah Val^alla@h, al-Emda@d f^ ma¿a@tòer al-aèda@d, Delhi, n.d., p. 1). Fifteen generations of his family had lived in India, holding respectable military and academic positions throughout the Mughal period. His paternal grandfather, Shah ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m, had been among the important theologians and mystics of his time. ... T. Yazici AL-¿AZÈZ H®EKÈMBAÚˆÈ (d. 1197/1782-83), an Ottoman physician, son of the Ottoman historian Sáobhá^. He served as chief physician at the palace and, knowing French and Latin in addition to Persian, translated into Turkish the Persian works AÞèa@r o atòma@r of ¿Ala@÷-al-d^n ¿Al^Þa@h K¨úa@razm^ al-Bokòa@r^ (d. 1291?) dealing with astronomy and Borha@n al-kefa@ya by ¿Al^ b. Moháammad al-ˆar^f al-Bakr^. In addition he has two works on medicine which he translated from French and Latin. Incurring the anger of the ruling sultan, he was banished to the island of Istanköy, where he died in 1197/1782-83. ... T. Yazici AL-¿AZÈZ QARA ÙELEBIZAÚDA (1591-1658), an Ottoman historian and the translator of some Persian works, born in Istanbul in 1000/1591. He was the son of H®osa@m-al-d^n H®osayn, a judge (kadi) of Rumeli. After finishing his studies he served as modarres in various madrasas, and at one point became kadi of Istanbul. Afterwards he was banished to Cyprus; but after returning from exile, he became the military judge (kadéasker) of Rumeli. He was Þaykò-al-esla@m in 1061/1651 and died on 6 Rab^¿ II 1068/11 January 1658. ... Yu. Bregel AL-¿AZÈZ SOLT®AÚN B. ¿OBAYDALLAÚH KHAN, Shaibanid ruler of Bokhara. He was born in Bokhara in 917/1511-12 or in 918/1512-13, according to Ta@r^kò-e Ra@qem^ (see Abu÷l-GÚa@z^, II, p. 239, n. 2), or in 920/1514. In this last year news of his birth was received in S®abra@n on the S^r Darya, and Zayn-al-d^n Va@sáef^ dedicated to the new-born prince his Bada@÷e¿ al-waqa@÷e¿ (ed. A. N. Boldyrev, Moscow, 1961, I, pp. 346-47). A. Bausani, D. MacEoin AL-BAHAÚ÷, epithet assumed by ¿Abba@s Effendi, the eldest son of Baha@÷alla@h (q.v.), founder of the Baha÷i movement. The epithet means “servant of the glory of God” or “servant of Baha@÷alla@h.” T. Yazici AL-BAÚQÈ LA¿LÈZAÚDA (d. 1746 A.D.), Ottoman scholar, son of Shaikh La¿l^ Mehámed, the grandson of Saré ¿Abdalla@h (q.v.), a commentator on the Mat¯nav^. After receiving a good education he became the teacher of the grand vizier ¿Al^ Pasha; and after the latter's defeat in the Morea, he was banished to the island of Lemnos. He was eventually pardoned and appointed successively kadi of Istanbul, then kadiasker (judge of the army, q.v.) of Anatolia. ¿Abd-al-Ba@q^ kept to his house during the last years of his life; he died on 19 ˆavva@l 1159/4 November 1746. ... Hameed ud-Din AL-BAÚQÈ NAHAÚVANDÈ, Mughal noble and biographer. He was born in 978/1570 at Julak near Naha@vand, which his ancestors had held in rent-free tenure from the Safavid king Shah Esma@¿^l. ¿Abd-al-Ba@q^'s father, K¨úa@èa AÚqa@@ Ba@ba@, a Kurdish poet who had adopted the pen name of Modrek^, was appointed by Shah ¿Abba@s I as the vizier and na@záer of Hamada@n. AÚqa@ K¨ezµr, another son of the poet, also enjoyed the patronage of Shah ¿Abba@s, having been appointed vizier at La@h^èa@n and later d^va@n and vizier at Hamada@n, where he seems to have succeeded his father. ... ¿Abd-al-¿Al^ Ka@rang AL-BAÚQÈ TABRÈZÈ, MÈR, called DAÚNEˆMAND, religious scholar and notable of Azerbaijan (d. 1039/1629-30). He was learned in philosophy and mathematics and skilled in Arabic poetry. He also wrote good Persian poetry, using the pen name (takòallosá) Ba@q^, and was expert in the calligraphic styles called t¯olt¯, naskò, and nasta¿l^q. His youth was passed in Tabr^z, where he benefited from the presence of the famous calligrapher ¿Ala@ Beg Tabr^z^. Then he set out for Baghdad and undertook to perfect his artistry under Dede Mosátáafa@, the chief calligrapher of Baghdad. ... P. P. Soucek AL-BAÚQÈ YAZDÈ, Safavid official and poet skilled in calligraphy, killed at the battle of Ùa@ldera@n in Raèab, 920/August, 1514. He was a descendant of the founder of the Ne¿matalla@h^ order, Nu@r-al-d^n Ne¿matalla@h (q.v.; 730-834/1330-1431). He has been called the son of Na¿^m-al-d^n Ne¿matalla@h T¨a@n^, but a different line of descent from Nu@r-al-d^n was suggested by È. AfÞa@r (Ya@dga@rha@-ye Yazd, Tehran, 1348 ˆ./1969, I, pp. 412-15; cf. J. Aubin, “Etudes Safavides I. ˆa@h Isma@¿^l et les notables de l'Iraq persan,” JESHO 2, 1959, pp. ... F. Robinson AL-BARÈ, QÈAÚM-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD, early 20th century Indian scholar and p^r of the Ferang^ Maháal family (q.v.). Born in Lucknow in 1295/1878, he was descended on his father's side from a distinguished line of p^rs and on his mother's side from Molla@ H®aydar, who had established the Hyderabad branch of the Ferang^ Maháal family. ¿Abd-al-Ba@r^ was brought up in Lucknow, where he studied under many teachers, notably his uncle ¿Abd-al-Ba@q^ and ¿Ayn-al-Qozµzµa@t, the prominent pupil of ¿Abd-al-H®ayy (q. ... H. Algar AL-FATTAÚH® GARMRUÚDÈ (ca. 1200-64/1786-1848), a scribe and minor author of the mid-Qajar period. He was born into a clerical family in Kasala@n, a village in the Garmru@d area near Tabr^z. Against his father's wishes, he entered government service early in his youth as an accountant in M^a@na. After a time he was transferred to Tabr^z, where he enjoyed the patronage first of M^rza@ Mas¿u@d Ansáa@r^ and then of ¿Abba@s M^rza@, the crown prince. It was as a member of ¿Abba@s M^rza@'s staff that he was sent to negotiate with the Russian general Paskievich after the capture of Tabr^z at the end of the second Russo-Persian War. ... M. B. Badakhshani AL-FATTAÚH H®OSAYNÈ ¿ASKARÈ, Indian scholar of Persian and Arabic. He left two works. 1. Mefta@há al-ma¿a@n^, a commentary in six daftars on the Matònav^ of Ru@m^, was collected by the author's pupil, Heda@yatalla@h, in 1049/1639-40. (See A. Sprenger, A Catalogue of the ... Manuscripts of the Libraries of the King of Oudh I, Calcutta, 1854, no. 365; Ethe‚, Cat. Ind. Off., no. 1103; for other MSS of the Mefta@há, see Marshall, Mughals in India, p. 4) 2. Dorr-e maknu@n consists of selections from the Matònav^. ... M. Baqir AL-GÚANÈ KHAN MEO, MAWLAVÈ MOH®AMMAD (poetical name, GÚANÈ), Indian literary scholar. He was born and raised in Farrukhabad, but the exact date of his birth is not known. He joined the education service in Hyderabad (Deccan) as a teacher of Arabic and Persian, eventually becoming chairman of the Arabic department in the Madrasa-ye Fawqa@n^ya in Hyderabad. He died in retirement on 15 October 1916. H. Algar AL-HAÚDÈ ˆÈRAÚZÈ, AÚYATALLAÚH H®AÚÔÔ SAYYED (1305-82/1888-1962), a ˆ^¿^ scholar of Naèaf, highly regarded for his learning and piety. His father, M^rza@ Esma@¿^l ˆ^ra@z^, also a faq^h, was a cousin of the celebrated M^rza@ H®asan ˆ^ra@z^ (q.v.) the moèadded, and had worked with him in establishing a new center of ˆ^¿^ learning and guidance at Sa@marra@. M^rza@ Esma@¿^l died shortly after ¿Abd-al-Ha@d^'s birth, and the responsibility for his upbringing was assumed first by M^rza@ H®asan himself, and then by one of his sons, M^rza@ ¿Al^, who taught ¿Abd-al-Ha@d^ the rudiments of feqh and osáu@l. ... W. Madelung AL-H®AMÈD B. ABU÷L-H®ADÈD, ¿EZZ-AL-DÈN ABUÚ H®AÚMED B. HEBATALLAÚH B. MOH®AMMAD B. MOH®AMMAD B. AL-H®OSAYN AL-MADAÚ÷ENÈ, Mu¿tazilite scholar and man of letters. He was born in Mada@÷en on 1 Dòu÷l-háeèèa 586/30 December 1190; his family was Shafe¿ite, his father a judge. ¿Abd-al-H®am^d came to Baghdad at an early age, for he mentions his presence as a boy (g@ola@m) at a social gathering in the house of the librarian of the Nezáa@m^ya college there. This probably occurred while his elder brother , Abu÷l-Baraka@t Moháammad (d. ... AL-H®AMÈD B. AH®MAD B. MOH®AMMAD B. ¿ABD-AL-SAMAD ˆÈRAÚZÈ, vizier of the Ghaznavids in the late 5th/11th to early 6th/12th century. He is described as serving Sultan Ebra@h^m b. Mas¿u@d (451-92/1059-99) for twenty-two years and then his son Mas¿u@d III (492-508/1099-1115) for all sixteen years of his reign, which would mean that he first became Ebra@h^m's vizier in 470/1077-78. He came, as did many of the Ghaznavids' servants, from a family deeply imbued with the traditions of secretarial and official service, with origins as far back as the Samanids; his father, Ah®mad, had been the skillful vizier of Mas¿u@d b. ... G. C. Anawati AL-H®AMÈD B. ¿ÈSAÚ B. ¿AMMOÚYA B. YUÚNOS (or YUÚSOF) B. KòALÈL TABRÈZÈ KòOSROWˆAÚHÈ, ˆAMS-AL-DÈN ABUÚ MOH®AMMAD (580-652/1184-1254), physician, theologian, philosopher, and jurist. He was born in the village of KòosrowÞa@h near Tabr^z. He studied tradition (Hadith) with Mo÷ayyad b. Moháammad b. ¿Al^ T®u@s^ (d. 617/1220); among his own disciples were the well-known traditionist Abu@ Moháammad ¿Abd-al-Mo÷men b. Kòalaf Demya@t^ (d. 705/1306) and Zayn-al-d^n b. al-Moraháháel (i. ... D. Pingree AL-H®AMÈD B. VAÚSE¿ B. TORK, ABU÷L-FAZ˜L MOH®AMMAD, mathematician, often referred to as Ebn Tork. A native of Kòottal (north of the Oxus and west of BadakòÞa@n) or G^la@n, he apparently flourished at the beginning of the 2nd/9th century. His apparent grandson, Abu@ Barza Fazµl b. Moháammad b. ¿Abd-al-H®am^d b. Tork (d. in Baghdad, 27 S®afar 298/4 November 910; see Ebn al-Qeftá^, Ta@r^kò al-háokama@÷, ed. J. Lippert, Leipzig, 1903, p. 406) asserted ¿Abd-al-H®am^d's priority over his contemporaries in the field of algebra. ... W. N. Brinner AL-H®AMÈD B. YAH®YAÚ B. SA¿D (d. 132/750), an important figure in the development of Arabic epistolary style, especially in the stablishment of chancery style during the Omayyad period. The details of both his birth and death are in dispute; he was probably a native of Anba@r on the Euphrates and may have been a descendant of a Persian captive at the battle of Qa@des^ya who became a mawla@ of the QoraÞ^ clan of the Banu@ ¿AÚmer b. Lo÷ayy. Some accounts, however, make the less likely claim that he was of this clan, hence of pure Arab descent. ... R. M. Eaton AL-H®AMÈD LAÚHUÚRÈ, 17th-century Indo-Persian historian and author of the Pa@dÞa@hna@ma, the official account of the reign of the Mughal emperor Shah Ôaha@n (1037-67/1628-57). Little is known of ¿Abd-al-H®am^d's early life, as he did not come into prominence until an advanced age, after he had already retired to the city of Patna in Bihar. Looking for an historian to highlight the major events of his reign, Shah Ôaha@n summoned ¿Abd-al-H®am^d to the Mughal court on the recommendation of his vizier, Sa¿dalla@h Khan. ... AL-H®AMÈD B. ¿ABD-AL-MAÔÈD B. ˆOKRALLAÚH MALEK-AL-KALAÚMÈ, calligrapher, poet, and government official. Born in Sanandaè in 1302/1884-85, he died in Tehran on 4 Mehr 1328 ˆ./26 September 1949 (Ba@mba@d, Reèa@l V, p. 142; Baya@n^, K¨oÞnev^sa@n, pp. 371, 376). His earliest education stressed the Koran and Islamic traditions, and he made the pilgrimage to Mecca with his father while still a boy. Sometime before 1315/1896-97 he entered the administration of Abu÷l-Qa@sem Khan Qaragu@zlu@ Na@sáer-al-molk, the latter being then resident in Hamadan as governor. ... P. P. Soucek N. H. Zaidi AL-H®AQQ MOH®ADDET¨ DEHLAVÈ H®AQQÈ, noted Mughal traditionist, historian, essayist, and biographer of saints. Born at Delhi in 958/1551, he was the son of Sayf-al-d^n b. Sa¿dalla@h and traced his ancestry back to AÚga@ Moháammad Tork, who migrated to India from Bokhara and enjoyed the rank of amir under late K¨alè^ and early Tog@loq rulers. His father's instruction gave him a taste for mysticism, and he also studied at Fathápu@r S^kr^ (q.v.), where his classmates included M^rza@ Nezáa@m-al-d^n Ahámad and Fayzµ^ (q. ... F. Robinson AL-H®AYY, ABUÚ÷L-H®ASANAÚT MOH®AMMAD, 1264-1304/1848-86, Indian theologian from the distinguished Farang^ Maháall family (q.v.). His father, Mawlav^ ¿Abd-al-H®al^m (1239-85/1822-68), was a noted teacher, writer, and judge in Hyderabad (Deccan). His mother was a granddaughter of Malek-al-¿olama@÷ Molla@ H®aydar, who established the Hyderabad branch of the Farang^ Maháall family. Born in Banda, Uttar Pradesh, ¿Abd-al-H®ayy studied under his father, Mawlav^ K¨a@dem H®osayn, and Mawla@na@ Ne¿matalla@h. ... AL-H®AYY, K¨úAÚÔAÚ, miniaturist of the late 8th/14th century and the beginning of the 9th/15th century. M. Baqir AL-H®AYY B. ¿ABD-AL-RAZZAÚQ, “SáAÚREM” AWRANGAÚBAÚDÈ (1142-96/1729-82), administrator, poet, and biographer. In 1162/1749 the Nezáa@m of Hyderabad, Na@sáer Ôang (1161-64/1748-50), appointed him d^va@n (civil governor) of Berar, and under Sáala@bat Ôang he served as governor of Awrangabad and commandant of the fort of Dawlatabad. He fell from power after his father's dismissal in 1170/1757 but later was restored to favor, becoming d^va@n of the Deccan under Nezáa@m ¿Al^ Khan (1175-1217). ... D. Duda AL-ÔABBAÚR, a calligrapher at the Safavid court in Isfahan in the time of Shah ¿Abba@s I. He was the pupil of the famous calligrapher M^r ¿Ema@d. M^r ¿Ema@d had settled in Isfahan in 1008/1599-1600, where he died in 1024/1615 or 1027/1618. ¿Abd-al-Ôabba@r died in Isfahan in the year 1065/1655. Among his oeuvre are a K¨amsa of Nezáa@m^ in the National Library in Paris (Suppl. pers. 1029) dated 1033/1624, which includes thirty-five miniatures of H®aydar-qol^, and a Golesta@n of Sa¿d^ from the year 1043/1633-34 in the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, both apparently written in Isfahan. ... W. Madelung B. AH®MAD B. ¿ABD-AL-ÔABBAÚR B. AH®MAD B. K¨ALÈL B. ¿ABDALLAÚH AL-HAMADAÚNÈ AL-ASADAÚBAÚDÈ, ¿EMAÚD-AL-DÈN ABU÷L-H®ASAN, qa@zµ^ al-qozµa@t (chief judge) of Ray and the most prominent theologian of the late Mu¿tazilite school. He was born in Asada@ba@d, southwest of Hamada@n, probably between 320/932 and 325/937. His father was, according to Tawhá^d^, a peasant (falla@há; variant: háalla@è, “cotton carder”). He heard Hadith in his home town from Zobayr b. ... D. Duda AL-ÔABBAÚR B. H®AÚÔÔÈ ¿ALÈ MONˆÈ ASTARAÚBAÚDÈ, calligrapher of the ta¿l^q script and bookpainter. He worked at the court of Khan Ahámad II of G^la@n (943-75/1536 to 1567-68) in the latter's first period of government. After Khan Ahámad rebelled against Shah T®ahma@sp and was arrested, ¿Abd-al-Ôabba@r went to Qazv^n, the Safavid capital, where he established an atelier for painters. The apparently sole account of him indicates that he was much favored by the amirs and nobles, and his enjoyment of court life left him little time to work (Eskandar Beg, tr. ... D. M. Dunlop AL-ÔABBAÚR B. ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN AL-AZDÈ, governor of Khorasan, executed in 142/759. An ¿Abbasid partisan, he was in command at T®u@s in 130/748. Under the caliphs Saffa@há and Mansáu@r, he served as chief of police (sáa@háeb al-ÞortÂa); he vacated that office in favor of his brother ¿Omar when Mansáu@r appointed him governor of Khorasan in 140/758. Soon after his arrival there (Rab^¿ I, 141/July, 758), ¿Abd-al-Ôabba@r reported ¿Alid activity in Khorasan and obtained some kind of commission from Mansáu@r to deal with it (Bal¿am^, Chronique IV, p. ... M. Siddiqi -AL-ÔALÈL BELGRAÚMÈ, major 17th/18th century Indo-Muslim litterateur. He was born at Belgram in 1071/1661. His father, M^r Ahámad, was a noted calligrapher and philologist belonging to the Va@setÂ^ Sayyeds who had emigrated to Belgram in 614/1217-18 (AÚza@d Belgra@m^, Sarv-e a@za@d, Hyderabad, n.d., p. 256). After receiving his basic education at home, ¿Abd-al-Ôal^l traveled to various cities in Uttar Pradesh. He stayed in Lucknow for five years, joining the circle of those devoted to the famous NaqÞband^ Shaikh GÚola@m, though he subsequently became the disciple of Sayyed Ya@s^n H®amav^ (Belgra@m^, Ma÷a@t¯er al-kera@m, Agra, 1910, p. ... W. Madelung QAZVÈNÈ RAÚZÈ, NASÂÈR-AL-DÈN ABUÚ RAˆÈD B. ABU÷L-H®OSAYN B. ABU÷L-FAZ˜L, Ema@m^ Shi¿ite scholar, preacher, and author, b. probably early in the 6th/12th century. He or his family originated from Qazv^n, but he lived most of his life in Ray. A few facts about his life can be gleaned from biographical sources and from his own Keta@b al-naqzµ. Among his teachers was his elder brother Awháad-al-d^n Abu@ ¿Abdalla@h H®osayn, whom he describes as the p^r and moft^ of the Ema@m^ya in Ray and on whose authority he related Hadith. ... K. A. Nizami AL-K¨AÚLEQ GÚOÔDOVAÚNÈ, teacher and distinguished saint of the Selsela-ye K¨úa@èaga@n (NaqÞband^ order), d. 617/1220. His birthplace, the modern Gizhduvan in Uzbekistan, was an important commercial center, according to Sam¿a@n^ [Leiden], fol. 406b). His father, ¿Abd-al-Ôam^l, had originally lived at Malatya (Melitene). At the age of 22, ¿Abd-al-K¨a@leq became the disciple of K¨úa@èa Abu@ Ya¿qu@b Yu@sof Hamada@n^ (d. 535/1140) and turned to the cultivation of his soul. He died and was buried in GÚoèdova@n. ... P. Oberling -AL-K¨AÚN, an Arab tribe of K¨u@zesta@n. It was originally affiliated with the N. H. Zaidi AL-KARÈM ¿ALAVÈ, MONˆÈ MOH®AMMAD, early 19th century Indo-Persian historian (d. ca. 1851). At a time when ornate literary conventions still prevailed, he was notable for his simplicity of narration. In recording events, he relied on oral and written accounts of participants and eyewitnesses. He was, however, somewhat credulous and occasionally recorded nonexistent persons and events (see, e.g., Ta@r^kò-e Ahámad, p. 15; Moháa@raba, p. 84). In general, his approach was unbiased, unsentimental, and impartial. ... M. Zand -AL-KARÈM B. MÈR ESMAÚ¿ÈL BOK¨AÚRÈ, MÈR[ZAÚ] (d. after 1246/1830-31), Bokharan traveler and memorialist. Data regarding him are found in his one known work, which was left untitled (Histoire, ed. C. Schefer; see bibliog.). As his nesba shows, he was apparently born in or near Bokhara. H. Algar AL-KARÈM GAZÈ (or ÔAZÈ, 1272-1339/1856-1921), a respected religious leader of Isfahan. Born to one Molla@ Mand^ in the village of Gaz (or Ôaz) to the north of Isfahan, he studied the religious sciences, first in Isfahan under Moháammad Sáa@deq Keta@bforu@Þ and M^rza@ Moháammad H®asan Naèaf^, then under a succession of teachers in the ¿ataba@t (the shrines of Iraq), the most important of whom was M^rza@ H®ab^balla@h RaÞt^. After a prolonged residence in Iraq, he returned to Isfahan and began teaching feqh and osáu@l (religious law and its principles) at the Madrasa-ye N^ma@vard in Isfahan. ... AL-KARÈM ÔÈLÈ. See ÔÈLÈ, ¿ABD-AL-KARÈM. P. P. Soucek AL-KARÈM B. ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN K¨úAÚRAZMÈ, a poet and calligrapher living in western Iran during the late 9th/15th century (Plate III). He is usually mentioned in relation to his brother, ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m, or his father, ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n. Various authors, including Sa@m M^rza@, Qa@zµ^ Ahámad, and H®ak^m Shah Moháammad Qazv^n^, speak of the great similarity between the handwriting of the two brothers. M. Baya@n^ has suggested that the calligraphic style of the brothers derives from that of their father and presumed teacher. ... S. Marble Ahmad AL-KARÈM B. K¨úAÚÔA ¿AÚQEBAT MAH®MUÚD B. K¨úAÚÔA BOLAÚQÈ KAˆMÈRÈ, a noted chronicler of Na@der Shah's military campaigns. Little is known of his birth or early life. A Kashmiri by origin, ¿Abd-al-Kar^m was living in Shahjahanabad (old Delhi) when Na@der Shah entered the city in 1151/1739. Being keen to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca and to visit the tombs of Muslim saints, he joined the service of Na@der Shah as a clerk (motasáadd^) and accompanied him on his return journey to Persia. ... M. Baqir -AL-LAT®ÈF BHETAÚ÷È, SHAH, Sufi poet of Sind. Born in the village of Haveli, near Hala, in the district of Hyderabad, in 1101/1689, he eventually established a small settlement near his native town and named it Bhit (“sandhill”). Details of his life are lacking. After his death in 1165/1752, GÚola@m ˆa@h Kalho@ro@ (amir of Sind, 1172-85/158-71) had a mausoleum built in his honor at Bhit. It became a shrine for his followers and later devotees, who congregated there to recite and sing his poetry. ... C. P. Haase -AL-LAT®ÈF MÈRZAÚ, SULTAN, Timurid ruler in Samarqand from Ramazµa@n, 853/October, 1449 to 26 Rab^¿ I 854/8 May 1450. He was the son of Ulug@ Beg (q.v.) and Roqya@ K¨a@tu@n Arolat (Mo¿ezz al-ansa@b, fol. 140b.) but was raised at his grandfather ˆa@hrok¨'s court in Herat according to Timurid custom. Rivalries with his cousin ¿Ala@÷-al-dawla forced him to return to his father's court in Samarqand in 1442-42, but he was brought back to Herat by his grandmother Go@har ˆa@d AÚg@a@ (q.v.). He accompanied ˆa@hrok¨ on his last campaign in western Iran, and after the latter's death in Ray (850/1447) he was asked by Go@har ˆa@d to lead the army (^l o olu@s) back to Khorasan. ... P. P. Soucek AL-MAÔÈD T®AÚLAQAÚNÈ, revered as the calligrapher who gave Þekasta script its definitive form. Born in the T®a@laqa@n district of Qazv^n about 1150/1737-38, he was educated in Isfahan where he died (1185/1771-72). Of an ascetic disposition, he is also known as Darv^Þ ¿Abd-al-Maè^d (Fazµa@÷el^, AtÂlas, pp. 618-19; Ba@mda@d, Reèa@l II, p. 301). He composed poetry using as tak¨allosá both Maè^d and K¨a@mu@Þ (Fazµa@÷el^, AtÂlas, p. 618). AL-MALEK B. NUÚH® B. MANSáUÚR, ABU÷L-FAVAÚRES, the penultimate ruler of the Samanid dynasty in Khorasan and Transoxania, r. 389/999. In the decade of the 380s/990s, the Samanid amirate was being subverted internally by the rivalries of ambitious Turkish military commanders and was attacked externally after 382/992 by the Qarakhanid Turkish ruler from beyond the Syr Darya, Bog@ra Khan Ha@ru@n, and his successors. ¿Abd-al-Malek's predecessor Abu÷l-H®a@ret¯ Mansáu@r is praised by the Ghaznavid historian Bayhaq^ for his good qualities, but during his two years' reign he was unable to break out from under the control of the Turkish general Fa@÷eq K¨a@sásáa and the vizier Abu÷l-Mozáaffar Moháammad Barg@aÞ^. ... -AL-MALEK B. NUÚH® B. NASáR, ABU÷L-FAVAÚRES, ruler of the Samanid dynasty in Transoxania and Khorasan, 343-350/954-61. The historian of Bokhara, NarÞak¨^, and the Ghaznavid historian Gard^z^ accord him the designation of al-Am^r al-RaÞ^d, but it appears from his coins that he was called al-Malek al-Movaffaq during his lifetime, and it seems that he was referred to after his death as al-Malek al-Mo÷ayyad. D. Pingree -AL-MALEK B. MOH®AMMAD ˆÈRAÚZÈ, ABU÷L-H®OSAYN, astronomer, fl. ca. 600/1203-04; there is a manuscript dated in that year of his revision of Hela@l b. Abu@ Hela@l and T¨a@bet b. Qorra's translation of the Conica of Appolonius. ¿Abd-al-Malek also wrote a Mok¨tasáar keta@b al-maèestÂ^ (“Epitome of the Almagest” [of Ptolemy]); this was translated into Persian by QotÂb-al-d^n ˆ^ra@z^ (d. 710/1310-11) as fann two of èomla four in the latter's Dorrat al-ta@è (“Pearl of the crown”). ... P. Oberling -AL-MALEKÈ, a Lek tribe of Ma@zandara@n. Long ago (possibly during the reign of Shah ¿Abba@s I, when many tribes were transplanted from western Iran to the northeastern marches), the ¿Abd-al-Malek^s were moved from Kurdistan to the Darragaz (Moháammada@ba@d) area of Khorasan. There they were absorbed by the QaÞqa@÷^ tribal confederacy when it was moved from Fa@rs to the Darragaz, Kala@t-e Na@der^, and Sarak¨s regions by Na@der Shah. Undoubtedly, they accompanied the QaÞqa@÷^s when Kar^m Khan Zand granted Esma@¿^l Khan QaÞqa@÷^'s request to allow his tribesmen to return to Fa@rs, for we next find them in that province. ... R. D. McChesney -AL-MO÷MEN B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. ESKANDAR B. ÔAÚNÈ BEG B. K¨úAÚÔAÚ MOH®AMMAD B. ABU÷L-K¨AYR, ABU÷L-FATH®, generally reckoned as the eleventh khan of the Shaibanid (Abu÷l-K¨ayr^) dynasty of Ma@vara@÷ al-Nahr and Balk¨. He was born on 16 Raèab 975/16 January 1568. Little is known of his early life; he was circumcised at age ten and is mentioned as having taken part in the Olog@ Ta@g@ campaign conducted by his father in the spring of 1582. After ¿Abdalla@h Khan succeeded Eskandar as ruler, ¿Abd-al-Mo÷men was designated qa¿a@lk¨a@n (“heir apparent”) and given Balk¨ to govern. ... D. Pingree -AL-MON¿EM ¿AÚMELÈ, 10th/16th century astronomer. He apparently was commissioned to build an observatory at Isfahan by the Safavid Shah T®ahma@sp I (1524-76). The king would have been pursuing the aborted design of his predecessor, Shah Esma@¿^l I (1502-24), to restore the observatory at Mara@g@a. ¿Abd-al-Mon¿em in any case planned an observatory. About 1560 he wrote a Persian work whose title is lost in the unique manuscript; it is usually called by modern scholars the Keta@b ta¿l^m a@la@t-e z^è (“Book of instruction on astronomical instruments”). ... K. A. Nizami -AL-NABÈ, SHAIKH, Mughal traditionist, for a time much esteemed by the emperor Akbar. He was a grandson of the noted ÙeÞt^ saint, Shaikh ¿Abd-al-Qoddu@s Gango@h^ (q.v., d. 944/1537). He visited the Hejaz several times and pursued Hadith studies there. He spurned his family's tradition of mysticism, adopting the ways of externalist scholars (¿olama@÷-e záa@her) even to the extent of criticizing his father, who had written a resala in support of Sufi musical gatherings (maèa@les-e sama@¿). Akbar appointed him head of religious endowments and charities (sáadr al-sáodu@r) in 973/1564-65, a position which allowed him to exercise supreme control over religious affairs in the Mughal empire. ... M. Baqir -AL-NABÈ B. QAÚZ˜È ¿ABD-AL-RASUÚL ¿OT¨MAÚNÈ AH®MADNAGARÈ, 12th/18th century Gujerati scholar. Little is known about his life history, although he was allegedly affiliated with the discipline of the famous ˆatÂtÂa@r^ saint and scholar, Shah Vaè^h-al-d^n ¿Alav^. A number of books have been ascribed to him. Among those extant are: 1. Ôa@me¿ al-gomu@zµ manba¿ al-foyu@zµ, a Persian commentary, written in 1144/1731-32, on Ebn al-H®a@èeb's Ka@f^a. Several editions of it were published (2nd ed. ... M. Baqir -AL-NABÈ QAZVÈNÈ, storyteller and poet (pen name FAK¨R-AL-ZAMAÚNÈ), b. about 998/1590 at Qazv^n. His father, K¨alaf Beg, was a merchant who, after performing the pilgrimage, became a dervish and died in 1001/1593-94 from the plague. ¿Abd-al-Nab^'s maternal grandfather, Fak¨r-al-zama@n, of whom he was very fond, was qa@zµ^ (judge) of Qazv^n and a direct descendant of K¨úa@èa ¿Abdalla@h Ansáa@r^. T. Yazici AL-QAÚDER BALK¨È (1839-1923), an Ottoman Sufi and poet who came originally from Balk¨¨. He was born at K¨a@nqa@h, one of the villages of the city of Qondoz. His father was Sayyed Solayma@n H®osayn^, an important personage of the sa@da@t-e H®osayn^ya (sayyeds descending from H®osayn). In 1272/1855-56 ¿Abd-al-Qa@der went to Konya together with his father. After staying there for a time he went first to Bursa and then to Istanbul upon the invitation of the Ottoman sultan, ¿Abd-al-¿Az^z. In Istanbul he was given the position of shaikh in a tekye. ... M. Baqir AL-QAÚDER B. SAYYED MOH®AMMAD HAÚˆEM B. SAYYED MOH®AMMAD H®OSAYNÈ, Persian-language poet, biographer, and commentator of Sind (fl. late 10th to early 11th cent. A.H.). Of his poetry, the only extant specimens are verses in praise of K¨osrow Khan, a noble at the court of the Arghunid ruler at Thatta, M^rza@ Ôa@n^ Beg (993-1008/1584-99). These are found in ¿Abd-al-Qa@der's biographical work on the saints of Sind, H®ad^qat al-awl^a@÷ (Storey, I, p. 983). Completed in 1016/1607-08, this work contains forty-one notices, beginning with Shaikh Baha@÷-al-d^n Zakar^ya@÷ (q. ... B. Lawrence AL-QAÚDER ÔÈLAÚNÈ, MOHáYÈ-AL-DÈN ABUÚ MOH®AMMAD B. ABUÚ SáAÚLEH® ÔANGÈDOÚST, noted Hanbalite preacher, Sufi shaikh and the eponymous founder of the Qa@der^ order (selsela). He was born in 470/1077-78 in the Persian province of G^la@n (Ô^la@n), south of the Caspian Sea. Though his family lineage has been traced by overzealous hagiographers to H®asan, the grandson of the Prophet, his father's nickname (Ôang^do@st) suggests Persian descent. In his own lifetime, ¿Abd-al-Qa@der was called an ¿aèam^ (non-Arab) in Baghdad, but this may have been due to the fact that he spoke Persian as well as Arabic (see ¿Abd-al-H®aqq, Ak¨ba@r, p. ... M. Aslam AL-QAÚDER KHAN, MÈRZAÚ (better known as MÈRZAÚ MOH®AMMAD AÚGÚAÚ ÔAÚN), author of Av^ma@q-e Mog@ol. His ancestors had served Na@der Shah and Ahámad Shah Dorra@n^; his grandfather, M^rza@ Shah Moháammad Khan Birlas, entered the service of the British after the fall of Shah ˆoèa@¿. Eventually, after the Indian Revolt of 1857, he settled at Sonkhara in Gwailor. His son, M^rza@ Ahámad Ôa@n, spent most of his life in the same town, marrying the daughter of a Mughal noble of Ôawara, where M^rza@ Shah had a revenue assignment (èa@g^r). ... M. Baqir AL-QAÚDER KHAN ÔAÚ÷ESÈ, late Mughal biographer, commonly called GÚOLAÚM QAÚDER KHAN. He was the son of Mawlav^ Va@sáel ¿Al^ Khan, chief justice (qa@zµ^ al-qozµa@t) of Bengal. In is youth he enjoyed the company of two renowned historians ¿Al^ Ebra@h^m Khan K¨al^l (q.v.) and Sayyed GÚola@m H®osayn Khan T®aba@tÂaba@÷^ (q.v.). Jonathan Duncan, who was Resident at Benares from 1788 to 1795, sent him on political deputations to Nepal, and, according to ¿Abd-al-Qa@der's own testimony in H®eÞmat-e KaÞm^r, his reports from Nepal were submitted to Col. ... D. Pingree -AL-QAÚDER H®ASAN RUÚYAÚNÈ, 10th/16th century astronomer. Apparently from T®abaresta@n, he seems to have served the rulers of G^la@n; he dedicated his Z^è-e molak¨k¨asá-e M^rza@÷^ (“Compendious astronomical tables for M^rza@,” composed in 891/1486) to Sultan M^rza@ ¿Al^ (1478-1505) and his al-Toháfat al-nezáa@m^ya (“The Nezáa@m's gift”) to Sultan Yah®ya@ K^a@. In the latter work, the first thirty sections (fasál) out of a total of forty are a commentary of Nasá^r-al-d^n T®u@s^'s S^ fasál. ... E. Baer AL-QAÚDER B. ¿ABD-AL-K¨AÚLEQ ˆÈRAÚZÈ, metalworker of the late 7th/13th century and early 8th/14th century. His one attested signed work is a silver and gold-inlaid brass bowl (Galleria Estense, Modena, no. 8082). It is dated Moháarram, 705/July-August, 1305 and is the first dated specimen of a series of similarly shaped west Persian bowls with walls which strongly project up to about half their height and retract in a sharp curve toward the lip. Other characteristics are: (1) a densely spaced surface decoration of eight polylobed medallions with princely scenes which are intersected by oblong, shield-shaped inscription compartments, which are set against a background of flowering scrolls; (2) a fishpond design in the base of the bowl; fish and imaginary creatures circulate around a central sun ornament; (3) blessings on the owner, expressed in rhyme (the same verses, sometmes somewhat shortened, appear on several other objects of the period). ... AL-QAÚHER B. T®AÚHER. See BAGÚDAÚDÈ, ¿ABD-AL-QAÚHER. K. Abu Deeb AL-QAÚHER ÔORÔAÚNÈ, ABUÚ BAKR B. ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN, celebrated grammarian, rhetorician, and literary theorist, born in Gorga@n (date unknown), where he died in 471/1078. Despite his fame and the fact that one of his earliest biographers, Ba@k¨arz^, was a neighbor of his, little is known about his life and education. The richness of cultural life in Gorga@n in his time is evident from the range and depths of his interests and vast knowledge, particularly as he is reported to have received his education in Gorga@n itself, not traveling “in search of knowledge” as was customary. ... P. Oberling AL-QAYS, an eastern Arabian tribe. In ancient times, it moved from what is today the province of al-¿AÚrezµ to the island of Bahárayn and the nearby coastal areas. The ¿Abd-al-Qays and other tribes of the Persian Gulf littoral frequently raided southern Iran. When he became of age, ˆa@pu@r II (q.v.; r. A.D. 309-79) made it his first order of business to punish these predators. He led an army across the Persian Gulf and devastated large parts of Arabia and Syria, slaughtering most of the ¿Abd-al-Qays on the way. ... R. D. McChesney AL-QODDUÚS B. SOLT®AÚN MOH®AMMAD B. SOLT®AÚN PAÚYANDA MOH®AMMADZAÚY SARDAÚR, called ˆAGASÈ, prominent Afghan military and political figure of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He was born around 1840, a nephew of the Am^r Du@st Moháammad Khan, and was associated early with ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n b. Moháammad Afzµal b. Du@st Moháammad. In the late 1860s he was governor of Ta@Þqorg@a@n while Afghan Turkestan was under ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n's control. He appears to have been with ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n during the latter's exile in Russian Central Asia (1869-80). ... B. B. Lawrence AL-QODDUÚS GANGOÚHÈ, Indo-Muslim saint and litterateur, pivotal member in the Sáa@ber^ya ÙeÞt^ya, a branch limited to present-day Uttar Pradesh and Pakistan but enormously influential among the e‚migre‚ elite of that large region. Z˜^a@-al-d^n Sajja@d^ -AL-RAÚFE¿ HERAVÈ, Z˜ÈAÚ-AL-DÈN B. ABU÷L-FATH®, poet, grammarian, and physician, first attached to the court of K¨osrow Malek (555-82/1160-76), the last Ghaznavid sultan. After the Ghurids seized power, he served them, and they respected him for his skill. The major portion of his poetry apparently has been lost. ¿Awf^ (Loba@b [Tehran], p. 474) quotes seventy-five lines of his poetry, among which is a qasá^da in praise of GÚ^a@t¯-al-d^n Moháammad b. Salm GÚu@r^ (558-99/1163-1202). ¿Awf^ also attributes to him a commentary on the Nowru@z^ya, known as the Ôala@l^ya, which he says was dedicated to K¨osrow Malek. ... D. Pingree AL-RAH®ÈM B. ¿ABD-AL-KARÈM AL-QAZVÈNÈ AL-¿AÔAMÈ, astronomer, d. 1026/1617. Nothing further seems to be known of his life. Two of his works survive: al-Z^è fi÷l-falak (“Astronomical tables on the sphere”), and Resa@la fi÷l-kawa@keb al-t¯a@beta (“Epistle on the fixed star”). M. A. Chaghatai AL-RAH®ÈM ¿ANBARÈN-QALAM, calligrapher of India (fl. late 10th-11th cent.). He was a native of Herat but, as a young man, went to India and entered the service of ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m K¨a@n K¨a@na@n. According to the Ma÷a@t¯er-e Rahá^m^, he gained a wide reputation for his nasta¿l^q hand while writing manuscripts for the K¨a@n K¨a@na@n's library. After some years the K¨a@n K¨a@na@n presented him at the court of Akbar, where ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m received an appointment. A number of examples of his work are extant. ... Fazlur Rahman AL-RAH®ÈM DEHLAVÈ, late Mughal scholar and the father of Shah Val^alla@h (q.v.; d. 1138/1726). Born about 1053-54/1643-44, ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m was the second of three sons of Vaè^h-al-d^n, a military officer of remarkable courage and integrity in the army of the Mughal emperors Shah Ôaha@n and Awrangze@b. ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m first studied law (feqh) and tradition (Hadith) with his father (H®aya@t-e Val^, pp. 174-75). He also studied with his older brother, Abu÷l-Rezµa@, but his most prominent teacher in theology and philosophy was M^rza@ Za@hed Herav^, who taught him when ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m was only eleven. ... N. H. Zaidi AL-RAH®ÈM K¨AÚN(-E) K¨AÚNAÚN B. MOH®AMMAD BAYRAM BEG K¨AÚN K¨AÚNAÚN, distinguished general and statesman, patron of artists and poets. He was born at Lahore in 964/1556 (Ma÷a@t¯er-e Rahá^m^ II, p. 234) and was of the Baha@rlu@ clan of the Qara Qoyonlu@. In 1562, the year following his father's assassination, he was brought to Akbar's court, where he was raised. His teachers were GÚa@z^ Khan Badak¨Þ^ and Moháammad Am^n Andeèa@n^. In 981/1573 he accompanied Akbar in the campaign against H®osayn M^rza@ at Ahmadabad. ... P. P. Soucek AL-RAH®ÈM B. ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN K¨úAÚRAZMÈ, calligrapher and poet active in western Iran during the second half of the 9th/15th century. Apparently born and trained in Shiraz, where his father worked as a calligrapher, ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m's style of calligraphy was influential there until the late 9th/15th century. The exact date of ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m's birth is unknown; but a piece of calligraphy now in Istanbul states that it was copied during his 11th year, suggesting that he began his training at an early age. ... W. Madelung -AL-RAH®ÈM B. MOH®AMMAD B. ¿OTòMAÚN AL-K¨AYYAÚT®, ABU÷L-H®OSAYN, Mu¿tazilite theologian of Baghdad. He must have been born before 220/835, since he began his theological studies still under the Mu¿tazilite Ôa¿far b. MobaÞÞer (d. 234/848-49). His chief teacher of kala@m (theology) seems to have been ¿Èsa@ b. Hayt¯am Sáu@f^. He was also noted for his learning in Hadith and the law of inheritance (fara@÷ezµ) and is known to have transmitted traditions from the renowned Kufan traditionist Yu@sof b. ... AMIR. See BAÚRAKZAY DYNASTY. AL-RAH®MAÚN B. HORMOZ MADÈNÈ. See AL-A¿RAÔ. M. G. Morony AL-RAH®MAÚN B. SAMORA, ABUÚ SA¿ÈD, Arab general who campaigned in S^sta@n; d. 50/670. He was a Meccan of the clan of ¿Abd ˆams and a maternal cousin of ¿Ot¯ma@n b. ¿Affa@n. Originally called ¿Abd-al-Ka¿ba, he was renamed ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n by Moháammad when he converted to Islam. His public career began in the caliphate of ¿Ot¯ma@n, who relied on solidarity among his own kinsmen in governing the state; and it was tied to the career of ¿Abdalla@h b. ¿AÚmer b. Korayz, who was also a cousin of ¿Ot¯ma@n. ... R. D. MacChesney AL-RAH®MAÚN B. SOYUÚNÔ, an Uzbek amir of the UÚÞu@n (or OyÞu@n) tribe (olu@s) and a major military-administrative figure in Balk¨ in the first half of the 11th/17th century. The record of his career, which spans more than three decades, begins with his participation in a campaign in Badak¨Þa@n. The Toghay-timurid (Janid) ruler of Bokhara, Val^-Moháammad Khan, had sent his nephew, Nadòr-Moháammad b. D^n-Moháammad, to suppress the “Chag@ata@y m^rza,” M^rza@ H®asan, apparently in 1014/1605. ... Hameed ud-Din -AL-RAH®MAÚN ÙEˆTÈ, 17th century Mughal saint and biographer. He belonged to the Sáa@ber^ branch of the ÙeÞt^ order (selsela), which had been founded at Kalyar (Saharanpur district, U.P., India) by ¿Ala@÷-al-d^n ¿Al^ b. Ahámad Sáa@ber (d. 690/1291), a disciple of the illustrious Far^d-al-d^n Ganè-e ˆakar of Pakpattan (d. 663/1265). One of ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n's ancestors had been Ahámad ¿Abd-al-H®aqq of Rudawli (d. 837-38/1434) under whose leadership, continued by his able disciple, ¿Abd-al-Qoddu@s Gango@h^ (d. ... P. P. Soucek AL-RAH®MAÚN KúAÚRAZMÈ, calligrapher specializing in nasta¿l^q, active during the middle decades of the 9th/15th century. His earliest known work is dated to 839/1436 and his latest to 866/1462. During this period he resided first in Shiraz and then in Baghdad. The Turkish historian MosátÂafa@-¿Al^ claims that ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n lived until 886/1481 and was in the employ of Ya¿qu@b b. H®asan AÚq Qoyonlu@, but this statement does not appear to be supported by other evidence and may derive from a confusion of ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n with his son ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m, who was a close associate of Ya¿qu@b AÚq Qoyonlu@. ... AL-RAH®MAÚN ˆAÚHNAVAÚZ DEHLAVÈ. See ˆAÚHNAVAÚZ KHAN. Y. Bregel AL-RAH®MAÚN B. MOH®AMMAD LAT®ÈF MOSTAÔERR SAMARQANDÈ, MÈRZAÚ MOLLAÚ, late 19th century secretary (m^rza@). A Tajik, he was a native of Samarqand. For some years he was interpreter and secretary for the Russian orientalist, A. L. Kuhn, with whom he traveled in Central Asia. In 1870 they took part in a Russian military expedition to the lake Iskandar Kul in the upper ZarafÞa@n valley (in the regions of Mas±a and Fa@lg@ar). ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n kept a diary of the journey in Tajik. It contains valuable material of the area's antiquities and especially on local Tajik folklore, and also texts of Persian inscriptions on rocks and buildings (mss. ... I. Abbas AL-RAH®MAÚN B. MOH®AMMAD AL-SARAK¨SÈ, ABUÚ BAKR, a Hanafite jurist (d. 439/1047). Though originally from Sarakòs, he grew up in Baghdad, where his shaikh was the well-known Hanafite scholar Qodu@r^ (428/1037). He left Baghdad for K¨u@zesta@n, where Ebn al-MoÞtar^ (436/1044), judge under the Buyid sultan Abu@ Ka@l^èa@r, appointed him as the judge of Basára. A lean and not an outspoken person, Sarakòs^ did not impress the Buyid vizier, D¨u÷l-sa¿a@da@t b. Fesa@nèes; the latter wrote to Ebn al-MoÞtar^, blaming him for his bad choice. ... H. H. Biesterfeldt AL-RAH®MAÚN B. NASáR B. ¿ABDALLAÚH AL-ˆAYZARÈ, Syrian author, a contemporary of Saladin (d. 589/1193). Although his nesba is also given as ˆ^ra@z^, Tabr^z^, etc., his Syrian origin is attested by Ebn Qa@zµ^ ˆohba (d. 874/1470; see his al-Kawa@keb al-dorr^ya fi÷ l-s^rat al-Nu@r^ya, ed. M. Za@yed, Beirut, 1971, pp. 70f.); and he shows a familiarity with north Syrian local units of weight, drugs, and trade conditions. The sparse biographical data in the sources is not beyond doubt. ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n is mentioned as qa@zµ^ in T®abar^ya (KaÞf al-záonu@n [Leipzig] III, p. ... P. Kunitzsch AL-RAH®MAÚN B. ¿OMAR SáUÚFÈ, ABU÷L-H®OSAYN, astronomer, especially well versed in knowledge of the fixed stars, b. 291/903 in Ray, d. 376/986. He seems to have spent his life in close relationship to the rulers of the Buyid dynasty in Iran and Mesopotamia, especially ¿Azµod-al-dawla (d. 372/983). By his own statement, he visited D^navar in 335/946-47, and Isfahan in 337/948-49 with the master (osta@dò) and chief (ra÷^s) Abu÷l-Fazµl Moháammad b. H®osayn, who obviously is identical with Ebn al-¿Am^d (d. ... AL-RAˆÈD, ABUÚ MANSáUÚR ¿EZZ-AL-DAWLA B. MAH®MUÚD B. SEBÜKTIGÈN, Ghaznavid sultan, r. 441-44/1050-53. He succeeded to the amirate after the death of Mawdu@d b. Mas¿u@d in Raèab, 441/December, 1049 and the brief reigns of the child Mas¿u@d b. Mawdu@d and of Baha@÷-al-dawla ¿Al^ b. Mas¿u@d. The actual date of ¿Abd-al-RaÞ^d's accession is given by Ebn Ba@ba@ Qa@Þa@n^ in his Keta@b ra÷s ma@l al-nad^m (Istanbul MS Turhan Valide 234, fol. 208b.) as 27 ˆa¿ba@n 441/24 January 1050; he states that the vizier ¿Abd-al-Razza@q b. ... P. P. Soucek AL-RAˆÈD DAYLAMÈ, a calligrapher and poet who served the Mughal ruler Shah Ôaha@n (1037-58/1628-58). Born in Qazv^n to a family of H®asan^ sayyeds, he studied calligraphy with his maternal uncle, M^r ¿Ema@d H®asan^ (q.v.), probably during the latter's residence in Isfahan (ca. 1008-24/1599-1615; Baya@n^, K¨oÞnev^sa@n II, pp. 393, 521-26). After the assassination of M^r ¿Ema@d in 1024/1615, his associates went into hiding and then fled Iran. In a petition addressed to Shah Ôaha@n, ¿Abd-al-RaÞ^d states that, when most of M^r ¿Ema@d's followers moved to Ottoman Turkey, he traveled to India. ... W. M. Thackston AL-RAˆÈD B. ¿ABD-AL-GÚAFUÚR TATTAVÈ, SHAIKH, noted lexicographer attached to the court of the Mughal ruler Shah Ôaha@n. He was born in Thatta, Sind, but little else is known of his life. Of his two dictionaries, the Arabic-Persian Montakòab al-log@at-e ˆa@h Ôaha@n^, known as RaÞ^d^-e ¿arab^, was compiled from al-Qa@mu@s al-mohá^t of Maèd-al-d^n F^ru@za@ba@d^ (d. 817/1414) and al-Sáora@há men al-sáeháa@há (681/1282) of Ôama@l QoraÞ^. It was completed in 1046/1636 and dedicated to Shah Ôaha@n. ... D. Duda AL-RAZZAÚQ, name of two artists of the Safavid period. Hameed ud-Din AL-RAZZAÚQ AWRANGAÚBAÚDÈ (full name, MÈR ¿ABD-AL-RAZZAÚQ B. MÈR H®ASAN-¿ALÈ H®OSAYNÈ K¨úAÚFÈ AWRANGAÚBAÚDÈ), titled NAVVAÚB SáAMSáAÚM-AL-DAWLA ˆAÚHNAVAÚZ KHAN SáAMSáAÚM ÔANG, Mughal official and biographer, chiefly famous as the author of Ma÷a@t¯er al-omara@÷. He was descended from the Sayyeds of K¨úa@f, and one of his ancestors, M^r Kama@l-al-d^n, had migrated to India in the reign of Akbar (1556-1605). His great-grandfather, M^rak Mo¿^n-al-d^n, titled Ama@nat Khan, had been appointed to high offices by the emperors Shah Ôaha@n (1628-1657) and Awrangze@b (1658-1707); for a long time he was prime minister (d^va@n) of the Deccan, an office later held by several of his descendants. ... J. Aubin AL-RAZZAÚQ BAÚˆTÈNÈ, first leader of the Sarbada@r uprising of Bayhaq. His career, like the entire history of the Sarbada@r's, is related in a contradictory fashion by the Timurid period chroniclers. With appropriate details, he is pictured as violent and dissolute. Büchner (“Serbeda@rs,” EI1 IV, pp. 231-33) is astonished at this depiction, and Petrushevski¥¡ sees in it the desire of “feudal” historiography to blacken the instigator of a popular uprising. In fact, this gallows-bird (sar ba-da@r) was no revolutionary at all, much less a social reformer. ... J. R. Perry AL-RAZZAÚQ BEG B. NAÔAF-QOLÈ KHAN DONBOLÈ (1176-1243/1762-63 to 1827-28), literary biographer, poet, and historian of the early Qajar period. ¿Abd-al-Razza@q came of a family of turkicized Kurds, the Donbol^, who had long been dominant in the region of K¨oy and Salma@s in western Azerbaijan. His father Naèaf-qol^ served in Na@der Shah's army and was appointed governor general (beglerbeg^) of Tabr^z on his return to Azerbaijan in 1155/1742. During his campaign of 1176/1763 Kar^m Khan Zand reappointed Naèaf-qol^ to Tabr^z, and two years later returned to ˆ^ra@z with Naèaf-qol^'s nephew ˆahba@z Khan and other hostages. ... AL-RAZZAÚQ KAÚˆAÚNÈ. See KAÚˆAÚNÈ. W. Madelung AL-RAZZAÚQ B. ¿ALÈ B. AL-H®OSAYN LAÚHÈÔÈ, 11th/17th-century theologian and philosopher (and poet under the pen name FAYYAÚZ˜). Little is known about his life; he came from La@h^èa@n but lived most of his later life in Qom. His teacher in philosophy was Molla@ Sáadra@ ˆ^ra@z^ (d. 1050/1641). In his works La@h^è^ frequently refers to him in laudatory terms as our teacher (osta@dòona@), and his d^va@n contains several eulogies of him. He does not mention any other teacher. In one poem he praises M^r Da@ma@d (d. ... AL-RAZZAÚQ ABU÷L-FATH® B. AH®MAD B. H®ASAN MAYMANDÈ, Ghaznavid vizier of the middle years of the 5th/11th century. He was the son of the famous minister of sultans Mahámu@d and Mas¿u@d I, ˆams-al-kofa@t Ahámad b. H®asan Maymand^ (q.v., d. 424/1032). The Maymand^ family served the Ghaznavids for at least three generations, since a nephew of ¿Abd-al-Razza@q, Abu@ Nasár (or Abu÷l-Mo÷ayyed) Mansáu@r b. Sa¿^d b. Ahámad b. H®asan, was ¿a@rezµ or war minister under sultan Ebra@h^m b. Mas¿u@d I. ... E. Baer AL-RAZZAÚQ B. MAS¿UÚD NAYSABUÚRÈ, metalworker of the second half of the 6th/12th century. Two bronze objects are known which bear his signature, and these indicate (in agreement with his nesba) a Khorasanian workshop. These are a perfume sprinkler (Berlin, no. I 3565) and an inkwell (MMA, no. 48.108). Both objects are cast. The fluted body of the sprinkler and the cylindrical shape of the inkwell and its cover with a fluted dome are typical products of Khorasan in this period. (The sprinkler's funnel-shaped neck, a feature characteristic of these flasks, is not preserved. ... C. P. Haase AL-RAZZAÚQ SAMARQANDÈ, KAMAÚL-AL-DÈN B. ÔALAÚL-AL-DÈN ESH®AÚQ, historian and scholar, b. 12 ˆa¿ba@n 816/7 November 1413 in Herat, a son of the qa@zµ^ and imam of the Timurid ruler ˆahrokò's court, d. Ôoma@da@ II, 887/July-August, 1482. He dedicated a commentary on the grammar of ¿Azµod-al-d^n Èè^ (q.v.) to ˆa@hrok¨ and was appointed qa@zµ^ of the court and royal camp after his father's death in 841/1437 (MatÂla¿ II, p. 704). From that time on he was a witness of political and military events at the capitals of Herat and Samarqand, as well as on diplomatic and military missions; thus his chronicle, MatÂla¿-e sa¿dayn va maèma¿-e bahárayn, provides a semi-official view of the events of that period. ... M. Bayat AL-REZ˜AÚ KHAN AMÈR MO÷AYYAD (d. 1249/1833), deputy-governor and powerful noble of Yazd. His father, Moháammad-T®aq^ Khan Ba@fq^, had for forty years (in the Zand and early Qajar periods) dominated the political scene in Yazd and Kerma@n, either through direct rule or through his numerous sons and sons-in-law whom he had appointed to various local government posts. D. MacEoin EBRAÚHÈMÈ, H®AÚÔÔ, SARKAÚR AÚQAÚ, fifth head of the Kerma@n^ branch of the ˆaykò^ school of Shi¿ism. Eldest son of the fourth head, H®a@èè Abu÷l-Qa@sem Khan, he was a great-grandson of the founder of the Kerma@n school, H®a@èè Moháammad Kar^m Khan. Born in Kerma@n on 7 Rab^¿ II 1340/8 December 1921, he studied there before spending a year at agricultural college in Tehran. On returning to Kerma@n, he engaged in theological and Arabic studies under his father and Ahámad Bahmanya@r, while himself teaching at the Ebra@h^m^ya madrasa. ... M. Baqir AL-SáAMAD B. AFZ˜AL MOH®AMMAD B. YUÚSOF ANSáAÚRÈ, Mughal editor and author. He was a nephew of Akbar's prime minister, Shaikh Abu÷l-Fazµl ¿Alla@m^ (q.v.). Soon after his uncle's assassination in 1602, ¿Abd-al-Sáamad began to collect his official letters. He completed this collection in 1015/1606-07 M. Bayat AL-SáAMAD H®AMADAÚNÈ, FAK¨R-AL-DÈN, (d. 1216/1801), faq^h, author, and well-known Sufi master of the Ne¿matalla@h^ order. Sources do not give the date of his birth; they only mention that he was over sixty years of age when he died. In the holy cities of Naèaf and Karbala@ he studied the traditional religious sciences with the leading moètaheds of the time, Moháammad-Ba@qer Behbaha@n^, Sayyed Mahd^ Bahár-al-¿olu@m, and Sayyed ¿Al^ Sáa@háeb, and received the license of eèteha@d. However, dissatisfied with what he and fellow Sufis in general termed exoteric knowledge of the religious law (Þar^¿a), as taught and practiced by the moètaheds, he sought the spiritual guidance of the Ne¿matalla@h^ masters Nu@r-¿Al^Þa@h and Sayyed Ma¿sáu@m-¿Al^Þa@h. ... S. Maqbul Ahmad -AL-SáAMAD KHAN DELÈR ÔANG, SAYF-AL-DAWLA, 17th-18th century north Indian politician, administrator, and patron of the arts. His real name was K¨úa@èa ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m b. ¿Abd-al-Kar^m. He belonged to a family from Samarqand which claimed descent from the illustrious 15th century NaqÞband^ saint K¨úa@èa Ahára@r (q.v.). Born in Agra during a short visit by his parents to India, he was taken back to Samarqand where he was educated and brought up. After joining the service of the Janid governor Sobháa@n-qol^ Khan, he rose to the position of ˆaykò-al-esla@m. ... P. P. Soucek AL-SáAMAD ˆÈRAÚZÈ, painter, calligrapher, and courtier; he entered the service of Homa@yu@n at Kabul in 956/1549 and remained an important artistic and governmental figure under Akbar (963-1014/1556-1605). Still active in 1008/1600, he appears to have died before the accession of Ôaha@ng^r in 1014/1605. A painting recently in the art market bears an inscription stating it was painted by ¿Abd-al-Sáamad during his 85th year, despite failing health, as a keepsake for his son (Moháammad) ˆar^f. This would place ¿Abd-al-Sáamad's birthdate sometime before 923/1517. ... A. Camps AL-SATTAÚR B. QAÚSEM LAHUÚRÈ, author and translator in the reigns of Akbar and Ôaha@ng^r. He was a pupil of the Jesuit missionary at the Mughal court, Father Jerome Xavier (q.v.; 1549-1617), and collaborated in the latter's Mer÷a@t al-qods ya¿n^ da@sta@n-e háazµrat-e ¿Èsa@, a life of Christ. The work's preface gives a date of completion in 1602, and the translation may have been done during Akbar's Deccan campaign of 1598-1601. O. Watson AL-VAÚH®ED, a potter whose signature is found on a blue and black underglaze painted dish dated 971/1563. The center of the dish is decorated with a formal arabesque mesh, surrounded by a series of roundels containing the signs of the zodiac. The dish is important not only for its signature, but for the fact that it is one of the few pieces of pottery that can be securely dated to the 16th century. It is now preserved in the Islamic Museum, East Berlin. D. Pingree AL-VAÚH®ED B. MOH®AMMAD, 8th/14th century author. There is no positive proof that this individual was a Persian, though his association with Persians makes that conclusion plausible. His extant commentary on Nasá^r-al-d^n T®u@s^'s S^ fasál dar taqw^m or Resa@la f^ ma¿refat al-taqw^m (“Epistle on knowing the calendar”) was composed in 797/1394-95, while H®a@èè^ K¨al^fa ascribes to him a commentary on the Molakòkòasá fi÷ l- hay÷a (“Compendium of astronomy”) written by Ôag@m^n^ in the early 14th century, as well as a Manzáu@ma fi÷ l-astÂorla@b (“Didactic poem on the astrolabe”), which he composed for his pupil, Moháammad ˆa@h Fena@r^. ... P. Nwyia B. ZAYD, d. 177/793, Sufi, the leading personality among the ascetics trained in the school of H®asan Basár^ (Lesa@n al-m^za@n IV, p. 80). He established at ¿Abba@da@n (modern AÚba@da@n) a Sufi house (reba@tÂ) which Abu÷l-¿Ata@h^a praised as a “beneficent innovation” (D^va@n, Beirut, 1909, p. 218). There Sufis gathered in a more or less stable community dedicated to prayer “in renunciation of the world” and, no doubt, in assemblies for recollection of God's name (maèa@les al-dòekr, Abu@ No¿aym Esáfaha@n^, H®elyat al-awl^a@÷, Cairo, 1932-38, VI, p. ... D. Pingree AL-VAÚH®ED B. MOH®AMMAD ÔUÚZÔAÚNÈ, ABUÚ ¿OBAYD, pupil of Ebn S^na@ (980-1037), whose Resa@la dar handasa (“Epistle on geometry”) he published after his master's death (Storey, II/1, p. 3, no. 4). ¿Abd-al-Va@háed wrote a Kayf^yat tart^b al-afla@k (“Manner of the arrangement of the celestial spheres”) and a treatise on times and eclipses. F. Cag¡man and P. P. Soucek AL-VAÚH®ED MAˆHADÈ, calligrapher active during the first half of the 10th/16th century. He is said to have been a disciple of SoltÂa@n-¿Al^ MaÞhad^; however, the only known manuscripts by him appear to have been copied in Turkey. Copies of the Persian D^va@n of Sultan Sal^m I written by him are preserved in Istanbul (Topkapi Saray Library, Revan 737 and 738; Plate VII) and Tehran (the former Imperial Library). Another manuscript now in Tehran bears the notation that it was made on the order of Sultan Solayma@n (Baya@n^, K¨oÞnev^sa@n II, p. ... P. Saran AL-VAHHAÚB BOHRAÚ, chief judge (qa@zµ^) in the reign of the Mughal emperor Awrangze@b. He was a native of Patan in Gujerat. The Bohra@s (Vyoha@ra), a community of Hindu merchants, had converted to Shi¿ite Islam in the 11th century but became Sunnites in the reign of Mahámu@d Begra@ (1459-1511 A.D.). ¿Abd-al-Vahha@b's learned grandfather, Sayyed Moháammad T®a@her Bohra@, was ruthless in persecuting the non-orthodox. ¿Abd-al-Vahha@b was likewise reputed as a master of theology and religious law. ... T. Yazici AL-VAÚH®ED B. ÔALAÚL-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD AL-HAMADAÚNÈ, the son of a shaikh of the NaqÞband^ order. Originally from Hamada@n, he migrated to Egypt; after staying in a Mawlav^ hospice in Cairo, he went to Medina, where he died in 954/1547. ¿Abd-al-Vahha@b reviewed and re-wrote Afla@k^'s (q.v.) Mana@qeb al-¿a@ref^n, correcting some errors, removing some stories and tales, and inserting others with special attention to the histories and genealogies, and gave his work the title T¨awa@qeb al-mana@qeb-e awl^a@÷ Alla@h. ... P. P. Soucek AL-VAHHAÚB MAˆHADÈ, a calligrapher of the 10th/16th century who lived most of his life in MaÞhad. His fame derives largely from his association with his uncle, SoltÂa@n-¿Al^ MaÞhad^ (q.v.), who treated ¿Abd-al-Vahha@b as a son. Neither his birth nor his death dates are known, but Qa@zµ^ Ahámad remarks that during his residence in MaÞhad (ca. 965-74/1557-67) ¿Abd-al-Vahha@b was a man of eighty. At that time he wandered about the city dressed as a dervish carrying with him samples of his calligraphy which he showed to those he met, praising his own work (p. ... H. Javadi AL-VAHHAÚB MO¿TAMAD-AL-DAWLA, “NAˆAÚT®,” Qajar official and poet, born in 1759 into a family of well-known sayyeds in Isfahan, who were originally from Ôahrom in Fa@rs. His grandfather ¿Abd-al-Vahha@b, being the governor of Isfahan, had left considerable wealth to his children. The young ¿Abd-al-Vahha@b was given a thorough traditional education, which included studies in Persian and Arabic literatures as well as theology, mathematics, and logic. He became an accomplished calligrapher, his specialty being Þekasta style. ... A. Schimmel SARMAST AÚˆKAÚR, late 18th-early 19th century Sindhi mystical poet. Sa±al is one of the numerous poets in the Indus valley who composed mystical poetry not only in their native tongue, Sindhi, and its northern dialect, Siraiki, but also in Urdu and Persian. The grandson of a noted faqir, ¿Abd-al-Vahha@b was born in 1739 in Daraz (Drazan) near Ranipur in the Khaipur district of Upper Sind. He was educated in the local madrasa (traditional school), where he acquired knowledge of both Arabic and Persian; his uncle, ¿Abd-al-H®aqq, instructed him in the mystical path and is praised by him as his true p^r. ... Z¨. S®afa@ AL-VAÚSE¿ ÔABALÈ, full name EMAÚM BADÈ¿-AL-ZAMAÚN ¿ABD-AL-VAÚSE¿ B. ¿ABD-AL-ÔAÚME¿ GÚARÔESTAÚNÈ ÔABALÈ, Persian poet, d. 555/1160. He was born to an ¿Alid family of GÚarèesta@n; to judge from his writing, he was well educated, especially in literature. He wrote panegyrics for Tog¡rel Tak^n b. Moháammad, who in 490/1097 gained control of K¨úa@razm, and Bahra@mÞa@h b. Mas¿u@d GÚaznav^ (512-47/1118-52) in whose court ¿Abd-al-Va@se¿ spent four years in the beginning of his career. ... M. Dandamayev region in western Media, mentioned in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions and annals (for references see S. Parpola, Neo-Assyrian Toponyms, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1970, p. 2). The Assyrians received horses and other tribute from it. In the inscription of Shalmaneser III, it is placed southeast of Parsua and northeast of B^t-Hamban (q.v.; see D. Schroeder, Keilschrifttexte aus Assur historischen Inhalts, Heft 2, Leipzig, 1922, no. 113, col. IV, line 14). The Assyrian king Adad-nirari III (810-783 B.C.) claims that he conquered it; according to his inscription Abdada@na was situated between Allabria (q. ... C. J. Brunner (Pkt. Avadagasáa), “great king” of the Pahlava dynasty in Drangiana, Arachosia, Gandha@ra, and perhaps loosely over the Indus region. He was a “nephew of Gondophares” (Pkt. gadaphara-bhrataputra), whom he succeeded, ruling ca. 50-60 A.D. Abdagases' existence is attested solely by his coinage in copper and billon; it imitates Gondophares' principal coin types and also bears that king's tamga (perhaps a clan device). Part of his coinage bearing the obverse image of the king on horseback describes him as “ruling over kings” (Gr. ... B. Reinert AL-SáUÚFÈ, an eccentric religious devotee of Ku@fa, who also lived for periods at Baghdad, late 2nd/8th to early 3rd/9th centuries. He and the “¿Abdakites” who were named after him advanced the teaching that the acquisition and possession of worldly goods was permissible only under a righteous leader of the Muslim theocracy. Thus such activities were unlawful in their own time, and a person should acquire only what was absolutely necessary for survival (qu@t). The manner of acquisition apparently was not dealt with by the ¿Abdakites. ... J. Chabbi (sing. badal/bad^l, pl. abda@l/bodala@÷), an Arabic technical term designating one of the categories of awl^a@÷ (“friends of God,” Muslim saints). According to classical Sufi theory, as formulated in the 4th/10th century, a fixed number of abda@l/awl^a@÷ are chosen by God and, by their presence, preserve universal equilibrium, especially during periods between prophets. They transmit baraka “blessing” and are considered able to perform kara@ma@t “charismata” but not mo¿èeza@t “miracles,” which are the prerogatives of anb^a@÷ “prophets. ... T. Yazici (1244-1303/1828-86), a Turkish poet who also wrote poetry in Persian. He was born in Konya. As his family was poor, he did not receive a systematic education. He entered the convent of Mawla@na@ Ôala@l-al-d^n Ru@m^ and became the disciple of Emir ‡ah Kaygusuz, the keeper of the mausoleum (türbedar). After completing his studies with the Emir ‡ah, he took the pen name Abda@l; previously he had used ˆem¿^, Nu@r^, ˆems^ and N^a@z^ as pen-names. He went to Crete and became the shaikh of the Mawlav^ convent in Hanya. ... E. Glassen DEDE D¨U÷L-QADAR or T®AÚLEˆ (other forms of his name in Safavid sources are DEDE BEG QUÚRÙÈBAÚˆÈ, ABDAÚL ¿ALÈ BEG, ¿ABDAÚL BEG), one of the seven trusted Qezelba@Þ amirs (ahl-e ekòtesáa@sá) who, after the death of SoltÂa@n ¿Al^ (898/1493), accompanied the latter's young brother and designated master of the Safavid order, Esma@¿^l, to La@h^èa@n, where he found refuge from the persecution of the AÚq Qoyonlu@ rulers. Abda@l Beg participated in the thirteen year old Esma@¿^l's rising (kòoru@è) based in La@h^èa@n and in his battles in ˆ^rva@n and against Alvand AÚq Qoyonlu@. ... M. Imam K¨úAÚÔA ABUÚ AH®MAD, described by Ôa@m^ as the foremost among the shaikhs of ÙeÞt. He was born in 260/874 (on 3 Ôoma@da@ II, according to Sawa@tÂe¿ al-anwa@r and Mer÷a@t al-asra@r, but on 6 Ramazµa@n, according to K¨az^nat al-asáf^a@÷). His father, SoltÂa@n Farasna@fa, belonged to the local nobility. Abu@ Ahámad was a spiritual disciple of K¨úa@èa Abu@ Esháa@q ˆa@m^ (q.v.). In Nafaháa@t al-ons, Ôa@m^ relates an anecdote about their meeting. Abu@ Ahámad, when he was twenty, became lost while on a hunting excursion. ... C. M. Kieffer ancient name of a large tribe, or more particularly of a group of Afghan tribes, better known by the name of Dorra@n^ since the reign of Ahámad ˆa@h Dorra@n^ (1747-72). This tribal confederation groups the Pashtun clans of the west, which are to be distinguished from the GÚilz^ (sing. GÚilzay), comprising those of the east. The eponymous ancestor of the Abda@l^ is said to be Abda@l, son of Tar^n, son of K¨arÞbu@n. Tradition claims that Abda@l bore this surname (laqab) because he had been in the service of one of the abda@l (q. ... L. Mackie name appearing on four diverse, high-quality silks of the first half of the 17th century. While ¿Abdalla@h could refer to a designer or weaver, it is more likely that he was a workshop entrepreneur who ordered a variety of silks inscribed with his name (the equivalent of 20th century labels). This is suggested by the structural and stylistic diversity of the four silks, three of which have motifs prominent in European and Mughal drawing. The patterns, drawing, and scale appear to parallel and be adapted from contemporary artistic styles. ... I. H. Siddiqi author of Ta@r^kò-e Da@÷u@d^, fl. early 17th century. Little is known of him personally. His history covers the Afghan rulers of the Delhi sultanate from the childhood of Sultan Bahlu@l Lo@d^ (1451-89) to the fall of Sultan Moháammad ¿AÚdel ˆa@h Su@r (killed in 1555-56); the work is named after Da@÷u@d ˆa@h Karran^ (killed in 1576), the last Afghan ruler of eastern Hindustan. An approximate date of composition is furnished by the mention of Ôaha@ng^r as the reigning monarch (¿Abd-al-RaÞ^d, ed. ... T. Kuroyanagi MAWLAÚNAÚ QAVAÚM-AL-DÈN ABU÷L-BAQAÚ÷ B. MAH®MUÚD B. H®ASAN ˆÈRAÚZÈ, 14th century theologian and faq^h of Shiraz (d. 772/1370). He received his elementary education from his father Mawla@na@ Naèm-al-d^n, a famous scholar and Sufi of his time, and later learned the seven readings of the Koran from Moháebb-al-d^n Mawsáel^, whose daughter he took as wife (Mo¿^n-al-d^n Ôonayd ˆ^ra@z^, ˆadd al-eza@r, ed. M. Qazv^n^ and ¿A. Eqba@l, Tehran, 1328 ˆ./1949, pp. 84-87). Besides delivering sermons at the ¿At^q Mosque of Shiraz, he also held classes which were attended by scholars as well as the famous poet H®a@fezá, according to the compiler of H®a@fezá' D^va@n (ed. ... M. Caton MÈRZAÚ (ca. 1259-1337/1843-1918), a well-known court musician and master of the seta@r and ta@r (plucked long-necked lutes). His musical repertoire (rad^f) is considered to be the main source of contemporary Persian classical music as taught in conservatories and universities in Iran. K. A. Nizami ˆAÚH (d. 890/1485), Persian Sufi who introduced the ˆatÂtÂa@r^ order into India. His family claimed descent from Shaikh ˆeha@b-al-d^n Sohravard^, while he traced his spiritual genealogy to Shaikh Abu@ Yaz^d T®ayfu@r BestÂa@m^. His selsela was known as ¿EÞq^ya in Iran and BestÂa@m^ya in Asia Minor (Golza@r-e abra@r, fol. 101a), but in India as ˆatÂtÂa@r^; and ¿Abdalla@h is the first saint with whose name the term ˆatÂtÂa@r^ appears (Ma¿a@ref al-wela@ya, ms.; K¨az^nat al-asáf^a@÷, p. ... T. Yazici (922-1071/1584-1660), Ottoman scholar, mystic, poet, and commentator of Ru@m^'s Mat¯nav^. He was one of the sons of a shaikh who was originally from the Mag@reb. After completing his education with his relative, the grand vizier K¨al^l Pasha, he became connected with ¿Az^z Mahámu@d Hoda@÷^ of the shaikhs of the Ôelvat^ya. ¿Abdalla@h subsequently entered government service, set out for war against Iran together with K¨al^l Pasha, and returned to Istanbul upon the vizier's dismissal. After a retirement of ten years he took part in the Baghdad campaign as ra÷^s al-reka@b in the service of Mora@d IV. ... B. AH®MAD. See EBN AL-BAYT®AÚR. J. Lassner B. ¿AÚMER B. KORAYZ, ABUÚ ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN, Arab general and governor active in Iran, b. in Mecca in 4/626. He belonged to the clan of ¿Abd ˆams and was related to the future caliph ¿Ot¯ma@n b. ¿Affa@n. The latter, upon assuming the caliphate as a compromise candidate, found himself increasingly isolated from the old Muslims politically arrayed against him. ... C. P. Haase B. EBRAÚHÈM, called M^rza@ SoltÂa@n ¿Abdalla@h ˆ^ra@z^, grandson of T^mu@r's son ˆa@hrok¨, born 27 Raèab 836/19 March 1433 in Shiraz of Mehr SoltÂa@n K¨a@tu@n, daughter of Alu@±ehra. By ˆa@hrok¨'s command he succeeded his father in the government of Fa@rs at the latter's death (4 B. FAZ˜LALLAÚH ˆÈRAÚZÈ. See WASáSáAÚF. L. Richter-Bernburg B. ¿ÈSAÚ B. BAK¨TAVAYH, ABU÷L-H®OSAYN, medical author of the early 5th/11th century, of Va@setÂ^ background. His own name as well as his father's name suggest that he may have been a convert to Islam, for ¿Abdalla@h is a name typical of a neophyte. His father and grandfather, to judge from their Syro-Persian names, appear to have belonged to the indigenous Christian—probably Nestorian—Aramaic speaking population of Mesopotamia. D. M. Dunlop B. K¨AÚZEM B. Z®ABYAÚN B. AL-S®ALT AL-SOLAMÈ, ABUÚ S®AÚLEH®, Arab military leader, governor of Khorasan, partisan of ¿Abdalla@h b. al-Zobayr, d. 72/691-92. His adventurous life illustrates the possibilities open during the Arab conquests to men with the requisite qualities, irrespective of birth. Ebn K¨a@zem was apparently the son of a black mother whose name is variously given: ¿Aèla (Ebn Qotayba, Keta@b al-ma¿a@ref, ed. F. Wüstenfeld, Göttingen, 1850, p. 418) or Asma@÷ (Bala@dòor^, Fotu@há, p. ... H. Halm B. MAYMUÚN AL-QADDAÚH®, legendary founder of the Qarmatian-Isma¿ili doctrine and alleged forefather of the Fatimid dynasty. He is featured in an account dating back to an early 4th/10th century author, Ebn Reza@m, which was disseminated by opponents of the Isma¿ilis. This account was the source upon which Akòu@ Mohásen, a Þar^f of Damascus, drew for his widely circulated polemic against the Isma¿ilis (mid-4th/10th century); parts of it survive as lengthy quotations in Maqr^z^, Ebn al-Dava@da@r^, Ebn ˆadda@d (in Ebn al-At¯^r) and Nowayr^ (see bibliog. ... D. M. Dunlop B. MO¿AÚVÈA B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. ÔA¿FAR AL-T®AYYAÚR B. ABUÚ T®AÚLEB, a Talebid rebel in western Iran in 127-29/944-47. Of his birth and early life the sources tell us only that he was of noble H P. Nwyia B. MOBAÚRAK, ABUÚ ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN, 118-81/736-97, traditionist. The earliest notices of him date from the 4th/10th century, and their vivid depiction of his personality indicate how alive his memory remained in the Muslim community. ¿A. N. Monzav^ ABUÚ BOH®AYR B. GÚANIM B. SAM¿AÚN ASADÈ NAS®RÈ, Shi¿ite governor of Ahva@z under the caliph Mansáu@r (136-58/754-75), remembered as the transmitter of a short text, Resa@la Ahwa@z^ya, addressed to him by Imam Ôa¿far al-Sáa@deq. According to a story related by ¿Amma@r Seèesta@n^, ¿Abdalla@h was a Zayd^ Shi¿ite before he met the Imam on a trip to Medina (Qohpa@÷^, Maèma¿ al-reèa@l IV, n.p., n.d., pp. 57-58). The governor's grandson Ahámad b. ¿Al^ Naèa@Þ^ refers to him and to the resa@la (Reèa@l, Bombay, 1317/1899, p. ... ¿A. H®ab^b^ B. ¿OMAR B. DAÚVUÚD VAÚ¿EZ® BALK¨È, ABUÚ BAKR, also known as S®AFÈ AL-DÈN VAÚ¿EZ®, the author of an Arabic monograph on the city of Balk¨ (d. after 610/1213). Little is known of his life except for a few references found in his work. He flourished in the 6th-7th/12th-13th century. He traveled in Khorasan, was in Bokhara in 582/1192 (Fazµa@÷el, pp. 166, 213; Solam^, T®abaqa@t al-sáu@f^ya, p. 91). He was still active in 610/1213 when he finished his monograph. This exists only in a Persian translation, Fazµa@÷el-e Balk¨¨, of the late 7th/13th century by ¿Abdalla@h Moháammad H®osayn^ Balkò^. ... D. Pingree B. ˆAÚKER B. ABU÷L-MOT®AHHAR AL-MA¿ADAÚNÈ, ˆAMS-AL-DÈN, an expert in geometry and the science of the stars, d. at Isfahan in late 570/1174-75. He apparently wrote works in both Persian and Arabic; none survives, and even the titles are unknown. B. T®AÚHER D¨U÷L-YAMÈNAYN, governor of Khorasan for the ¿Abbasid caliphs (213-30/828-45) and most outstanding of the line of Taherid governors there. His tenure of power lasted for seventeen years, compared with the short ones of his father (less than two years) and of his brother and predecessor T®alháa (six years), and so it was primarily he who established the fame and splendor of the Taherids and acquired a permanent place in later Arabic literature and culture. S. de Laugier de Beaureceuil AL-ANS®AÚRÈ AL-HERAVÈ, ABUÚ ESMAÚ¿ÈL, in Persian commonly called K¨úAÚÔA ¿ABDALLAÚH ANS®AÚRÈ, one of the outstanding figures in Khorasan in the 5th/11th century: commentator of the Koran, traditionist, polemicist, and spiritual master, known for his oratory and poetic talents in Arabic and Persian. See ¿ABDALLAÚH MORVAÚRÈD H. Algar (1256-1328/1840-1910), theologian (moètahed) and a prominent leader of the constitutional movement. Born in Naèaf in 1256/1840, he was descended from a prominent Shi¿ite scholar of Bahárayn, ¿Abdalla@h al-Bela@d^ from the village of al-GÚorayfa, whose numerous offspring migrated to various centers of learning in Iraq and Iran. The task of ¿Abdalla@h Behbaha@n^'s education was at first assumed by his father, Sayyed Esma@¿^l; but he later studied under more prominent scholars in Naèaf, such as H®osayn Ku@hkamara÷^, M^rza@ H®asan ˆ^ra@z^, and Shaikh Ra@zµ^ Naèaf^. ... P. P. Soucek a painter active in Bokhara during the middle decades of the 16th century. His paintings are very similar in theme and execution to those of his contemporary Mahámu@d Modòahheb, who may have been trained in Herat. Both painters appear to have been in the employ of the Shaibanid Abu÷l-GÚa@z^ ¿Abd-al-¿Az^z (q.v.; 947-57/1540-49). Paintings signed by ¿Abdalla@h are of two types: compositions showing strong influence from Herat painting of the late 15th and early 16th centuries and studies of couples, often in a garden setting, a theme which appears to have been especially popular in Bokhara. ... P. P. Soucek ˆEHAÚB-AL-DÈN (“T®abba@kò” or “AÚÞpaz”), mid-8th/15th century calligrapher active in Herat, Samarqand, and MaÞhad. His major contribution appears to have been in designing monumental inscriptions for the Timurids, but he seems also to have worked as a gilder in the manuscript ateliers. A native of Herat, he apparently became a member of the Timurid court workshop during the reign of ˆa@hrok¨. ... P. P. Soucek a scribe and poet in the service of the Mughal emperors Akbar and Ôaha@ng^r. While in their employ he signed calligraphy as MoÞk^n-qalam and composed poetry under takòallosá Vasáf^ (Bada@÷u@n^, ed. Fa@ru@q^, p. 759; tr., III, p. 518; Baya@n^, K¨oÞnev^sa@n II, pp. 353-54). ¿Abdalla@h may be the Vasáf^ Ka@bol^ mentioned by Bada@÷u@n^ (p. 659) or the poet and scribe Vasáf^ listed by Net¯a@r^ (Mod¨akker-e a D. Pingree B. EBRAÚHÈM AL-KABRÈ ABUÚ H®AKÈM, mathematician, d. 476/1083-84. He was the pupil of H®osayn b. Moháammad al-Vann^ (killed in Baghdad in D¨u÷l-háeèèa, 451/January-February, 1060). According to Ebn K¨alleka@n (tr. de Slane, I, p. 421), K¨abr^ wrote a Talkò^sá fi÷l-háesa@b (“ B. W. Robinson court painter, b. ca. 1770; d. ca. 1850. Very little is known of him personally. R. Murdoch Smith, who had access to reliable oral sources, wrote that he “died at a great age in the beginning of the present Shah's reign” (sc. Na@sáer-al-d^n, acc. 1848; Persian Art, London, 1876, p. 78). William Price, who accompanied Sir Gore Ousely's embassy in 1812, notes under May 13th of that year: “Called upon Akabdool (sc. AÚqa@ ¿Abdalla@h [Khan], Nakoshbashee [naqqa@Þba@Þ^] head painter to the shah; he shewed several portraits of the royal family, khans, etc. ... Yu. Bregel B. ESKANDAR, a ruler of Transoxania of the ˆayba@n^d (q.v.) dynasty, born in the year of the Dragon (thus ˆarafna@ma-ye Þa@h^; = 1532-33 A.D., 938-39 A.H., cf. W. Barthold in EI1 I, p. 26). In 918/1512-13, when the ˆayba@n^ state was divided into appanages between the members of the ruling clan, ¿Abdalla@h's grandfather Ôa@n^bek SoltÂa@n received the region of Karm^na and M^a@nka@l. His son Eskandar (see W. Barthold, in EI1 II, p. 576) was half-witted, and it was ¿Abdalla@h who had to defend his family possessions against other branches of the ˆayba@n^s, which from 959/1552 were led by Nowru@z Ahámad (Baraq), the khan of all Uzbeks and the ruler of Tashkent. ... M. H. Siddiqi 10th/16th century Mughal noble and general and also briefly an autonomous ruler. His mother, ¿AÚyeÞa SoltÂa@n Be H. Algar SHAIKH (1256-1330/1840-1912), a theologian (moètahed) who, through his fatva@s and proclamations, lent powerful support to the constitutional movement. He was born in Ba@rforu@Þ (present-day AÚmol); in his early youth, after preliminary studies in Iran, he proceeded to the ¿ataba@t (q.v.) to study under the leading scholars of the day. He settled first in Karbala@, where his chief teachers were Zayn-al-¿a@bed^n Ma@zandara@n^ and Shaikh H®asan Ardaka@n^, and then moved to Naèaf, where he was to spend almost all the rest of his life. ... H®. Mah®bu@b^ Ardaka@n^ (1211-62/1796-1846), eleventh son of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah and governor of K¨amsa (q.v.) province. His mother Kolt¯u@m K¨a@nom came from a family of sayyeds of Pa@zva@r (Maka@rem I, p. 398), and he himself was the son-in-law of Solayma@n Khan Qa@èa@r E¿tezµa@d-al-dawla (Ta@r^kò-e ¿Azµod^, p. 126; Montazáem III, p. 97). In 1224/1809-10 he was appointed governor of K¨amsa, residing at Zanèa@n; M^rza@ Táa@q^ ¿Al^a@ba@d^, the Sáa@háeb D^va@n, was his vizier (Montazáem III, p. 93). In the second Russo-Persian war, he was sent to Ardab^l with the army of K¨amsa; there he raided the Russian forces under Madatov and captured horses, guns, and supplies. ... P. P. Soucek B. ˆAMS-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD MORVAÚRÈD KERMAÚNÈ, ˆEHAÚB-AL-DÈN (d. Raèab, 922/August, 1516), Timurid court official, poet, scribe, and musician. His father, Moháammad Morva@r^d, had moved to Herat from Kerma@n during the reign of Abu@ Sa¿^d (855-73/1451-69) and later became that ruler's vizier. Subsequently he performed the same function for H®osayn Ba@yqara@ until retiring to become custodian (motavall^) at the shrine of ¿Abdalla@h Ansáa@r^ (K¨úa@ndam^r, Dastu@r al-wozara@÷, pp. 394-98; H®ab^b al-s^ar [Tehran] IV, pp. ... M. Kohbach KÖPRÜLÜZAÚDE, Ottoman statesman and commander-in-chief, d. 1148/1735, who campaigned in Azerbaijan. His father was the grand vizier Mosátáafa@ PaÞa Köprülüza@de; on 2 ˆa¿ba@n 1112/23 January 1700 he married the daughter of Fayzµalla@h Efendi, the Þaykò-al-esla@m. Patronized by his father-in-law, he became vizier (12 ˆa¿ba@n 1113/22 January 1701) and gained later the dignified rank of the military commander of Constantinople, the so-called Istanbul qa@÷im-maqa@mé. During the revolt of 9 Rab^¿ II 1115/22 August 1703 (the so-called Edirne vaq¿asé) ¿Abdalla@h restrained the persecution directed against Fayzµalla@h Efendi and his family. ... See QOT®BˆAÚHÈ DYNASTY. P. P. Soucek influential calligrapher of the 8th/14th century in Iran (d. after 746/1345-46). He was the son of K¨úa@èa Mahámu@d Sáarra@f of Tabr^z and appears to have remained in that city all of his life. It is said that he was buried in the cemetery of Ùaranda@b southwest of Tabr^z. Trained in the six scripts used by calligraphers of the Iraqi school such as Ya@qu@t al-Mosta¿sáem^, ¿Abdalla@h appears to have copied manuscripts and designed inscriptions for buildings. Surviving samples of his calligraphy include a Koran in moháaqqaq script now in the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (Plate IX); one in naskò (dated 720/1324) in the library of the shrine of Imam Rezµa@, MaÞhad; and a page of calligraphy (724/1324) in the Iraq Museum, Baghdad, executed in t¯olt¯, naskò, and reqa@¿^. ... P. P. Soucek painter and illuminator of the late 10th/16th century. According to Qa@zµ^ Ahámad (p. 146; tr., pp. 189-90) he was a member of the manuscript atelier of Abu÷l-Fathá Ebra@h^m b. Bahra@m b. Esma@¿^l for twenty years. This would suggest that ¿Abdalla@h was connected with Ebra@h^m from the time of the latter's appointment as háa@kem of MaÞhad and na@záer of the shrine of Ema@m Rezµa@ in 964/1556-57 until his assassination at Qazv^n on 6 D¨u÷l-háeèèa 984/24 February 1577. Eskandar Beg MonÞ^ describes ¿Abdalla@h as a witty conversationalist and an intimate companion of Ebra@h^m M^rza@, adding that after the latter's death he joined the atelier of Esma@¿^l II (Eskandar Beg, I, p. ... W. Madelung B. AL-RABÈT®, early Isma¿ili missionary (da@¿^) and author active in the rural district (sava@d) of Ku@fa. According to the account of Abu÷l-Qa@sem Ka@Þa@n^ (Zobdat al-tawa@r^kò, chapter on Esma@¿^l^ya, ed. M. T. Da@neÞpa`u@h, Tabr^z, 1343 ˆ./1964, p. 19), he came from a village called D-v-r-va@ in the sava@d. However, in a passage of Maqr^z^'s al-Moqaffa@, based on the account of Akòu@ Mohásen, he is called Ahva@z^ (Sohayl Zakka@r, Ta÷r^kò akòba@r al-Qu T. Yazici pen name of ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN PASHA, Ottoman official and historian, d. Raèab, 1103/March, 1692. He was educated at the palace school and held various positions. Promoted to the post of kubbe veziri, he served as governor of several Ottoman provinces (lastly of Kandiya). At the request of Mehmet IV, he wrote an account of events in the period 1054-93/1648-82, Ta@r^kò-e NeÞa@nè^ ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n Pa@Þa@. He also wrote poetry and commentaries on ¿AtÂtÂa@r's Pandna@ma and on the poems of ¿Orf^ ˆ^ra@z^. ... M. Zand ¿ABDALLAÚH K¨úAÚÔA, (d. 1340/1921-22), Tajik tadòkeranev^s (biographer) and poet. He was born in Bokhara to the family of a modarres (madrasa instructor) in the late 1270s/early 1860s. In one of his qasá^das he claims to descend from the Samanids (Afzµal Makòdu@m P^rmast^, Afzµal al-tedòka@r f^ dòekr al-Þo¿ara@÷ wa÷l-aÞ¿a@r, Tashkent, 1336/1917-18, p. 98), a claim neither confirmed nor refuted in contemporary sources. According to the data given in his Tadòkerat al-Þo¿ara@÷-ye mota÷akòkòer^n-e Bokòa@ra@ (MS no. ... P. P. Soucek also known as ¿ABDÈ QALANDAR and ¿ABDÈ ˆAÚHÈ, calligrapher and poet active in the first half of the 10th/16th century. Writing ca. 957/1550 Sa@m M^rza@ Sáafav^ mentions that ¿Abd^ had died within the last two years (Toháfa-ye Sa@m^, Tehran, 1314 ˆ./1935, p. 18). Baya@n^ has disputed this statement, noting that ¿Abd^ b. H®asan Qalandar copied a page in 996/1588 (K¨oÞnev^sa@n, pp. 424-25). However, it seems that ¿Abd^ b. H®asan is not to be identified with ¿Abd^ N^Þa@pu@r^. Said to be “from N^Þa@pu@r,” ¿Abd^ was trained in Herat, where he studied calligraphy with SoltÂa@n ¿Al^ MaÞhad^ (Sa@m M^rza@, loc. ... M. Dab^rs^a@q^ and B. Fragner K¨úAÚÔAÚ ZAYN-AL-¿AÚBEDÈN ¿ALÈ B. ¿ABD-AL-MO÷MEN (921-88/1513-80), also known by his takòallosá Nov^d^, a poet from a notable family of Shiraz (not Isfahan as is reported in Ru@z-e rowÞan). He was probably born and raised in Tabr^z, his mother's hometown, where his father had settled. He worked as a secretary-accountant in the royal chancellery of the Safavid king Shah T®ahma@sp. As a young poet he wrote only g@azals and roba@¿^s, but following the king's instruction and encouraged by Qa@sem^ Gona@ba@d^, he turned to the writing of mat¯nav^s, which constitute the bulk of his poetry. ... A. Tafazµzµol^ (“The wonder and remarkability of Sagasta@n”), a short (about 300 words) Pahlavi treatise. Its authorship and period of composition are unknown, but it seems to be one of the few Pahlavi works written outside Fa@rs. The author, presumably a native of S^sta@n, briefly mentions various features of the region and its history significant for Zoroastrianism. These are: 1. the Helmand river, the lake Frazda@n, the sea Kaya@nsih, and the mountain UÞda@Þta@r. 2. Birth and upbringing here of the three future saviors, OÚÞe@dar, OÚÞe@darma@h, and So@Þya@ns. ... ABU÷L-RAÔAÚ÷ AH®MAD B. ¿ABD-AL-S®AMAD, a landowner (dehqa@n) of Transoxania. At Samarqand in 504/1110-11 (during the reign of the Qarakhanid Arsla@n Khan Moháammad b. Solayma@n, son-in-law of the Saljuq Sultan Sanèar), he related to Nezáa@m^ ¿Aru@zµ^ how the poet Ru@dak^ had been rewarded by the Samanid Nasár b. Ahámad (250-79/864-92) for a poem praising the amir and Bokhara, his capital. ¿AÚbed^ had transmitted the story from his grandfather (of the same name). See SMALLPOX. YE FARANG. See SYPHILIS. W. W. Malandra B. Spuler Salghurid ruler of Fa@rs (663-85/1263-84), daughter of Ata@beg Sa¿d II. While still a child (in Rab^¿ I, 663/December, 1264), she succeeded her cousin SalèuqÞa@h b. Salg@u@r, whom the Mongols had driven away. Ca. 671/1272 she married the Mongol prince Möngke Temu@r (Mangu@ T^mu@r; d. Moháarram, 681/April, 1282), fourth son of the Il-khan Hülegu (Hu@la@gu@), who ruled Fa@rs in her name from then on. AÚbeÞ K¨a@tu@n's name, however, was mentioned in the kòotÂba and on coins; she also had the right to a court chapel. ... J. B. Segal dynasty of Edessa, 2nd century B.C. to 3rd century A.D. (or Awhar in local pronunciation, see H®odu@d al-¿a@lam, tr. Minorsky, pp. 132, 383), a small town in the Qazv^n district, on the highway connecting Ray and later Tehran with Tabr^z and Azerbaijan. The geographers state that it lay 12 farsakòs west of Qazv^n and that Zanèa@n (the town with which it is often coupled in the geographical and historical sources) was 20 farsakòs farther (thus Ebn H®awqal, tr. Kramers, p. 351; but Ebn Rosta, tr. Wiet, p. 196, makes this last journey 15 farsakòs). The town had a plenteous water supply from the landlocked stream of the Abhar Ru@d, which rises in the Ku@h-e Sara@hand south of Tabr^z and flows southwest until it loses itself in the desert; H®amdalla@h Mostawf^ compares it, in its utility for towns like Zanèa@n, Abhar, and Qazv^n, to the Za@yanda Ru@d's value for Isfahan. ... H. Corbin AL-¿AÚˆEQÈN, one of the most characteristic works of the great Persian mystic Ru@zbeha@n Baql^ ˆ^ra@z^ (522-606/1128-1209). The word ¿abhar is generally considered to be the Arabic equivalent of Persian narges, itself a loanword from Greek narkissos (“narcissus”). Without enumerating the difficulties of comparative floral nomenclature, one may say that ¿abhar designates a variety of narcissus corresponding to what we call jasmine. The term ¿a@Þeq^n “lovers,” bears mystical implications, in contrast to the Western term. ... B. Reinert ¿ABDALLAÚH B. T®AÚHER B. H®AÚTEM, Sufi of Persian ¿Era@q (Solam^, T®abaqa@t, p. 391.3) where he lived and apparently had received his Sufi training. He was born in Abhar and died in 330/941-42 (ibid., p. 391.9; QoÞayr^, Resa@la, p. 29.6). He is reckoned a disciple of Yu@sof b. H®osayn of Ray and was a companion of Mozáaffar Qerm^s^n^, a leading shaikh of Persian ¿Era@q (Solam^, p. 396.2). Solam^ also counts him among the aqra@n (colleagues) of ˆebl^; hence Abhar^ must have had close contacts with the Baghdadis at times. ... D. Pingree AL-DÈN, mathematician, said to have died in 733/1332-33. He is the author of an extant text, Fosáu@l ka@f^a f^ háesa@b al-takòt wa÷l-m^l (“Sufficient chapters concerning computation with a pegboard”). G. C. Anawati SAMARQANDÈ, AT¨ÈR-AL-DÈN AL-MOFAZ˜Z˜AL B. ¿OMAR B. AL-MOFAZ˜Z˜AL (d. 663/1264), logician, mathematician, and astronomer. The only facts known about his life are that he was born and educated in Mosul but moved to Erbel (Arbela) in 625/1228. He was the disciple of Kama@l-al-d^n b. Yu@nos and the teacher of Ebn K¨alleka@n. C. E. Bosworth K¨úAÚÔA KAMAÚL-AL-DÈN ABUÚ ¿Amr, vizier of the last two Great Saljuq sultans in western Persia, Arslan b. T®og@ Hameed ud-Din ¿ABD-AL-¿AZÈZ MOH®ADDET¨, traditionist. A native of Herat, he migrated to Sind ca. 918/1512 to escape Safavid persecution of Sunnite scholars. He and his sons, Mawla@na@ At¯^r-al-d^n and Mawla@na@ Ya@r Moháammad (both reputable scholars), settled at Ka@ha@n/Ga@ha@n (Ga@ha@), about 21 miles northwest of Sehva@n. This place had become a center of learning after the vizier of Sind, Darya@ Khan, had been compelled to retire to his estate there by Ôa@m F^ru@z, the last ruler of the Jamid dynasty. Makòdu@m Abhar^ was noted for his skill in the rational sciences and wrote a wide variety of works. ... AL-DÈN. See RAFÈ¿-AL-DÈN. E. Ehlers Persian term for those agricultural lands which are irrigated; unirrigated (i.e., rain-fed) fields are called daym^ (see discussion s.v. Agriculture). Cf. also the more specialized term fa@yra@b/pa@yra@b, applied to lands irrigated by diversion of river water. The two traditional forms of irrigation are diversion of stream water and use of the qana@t (q.v.); both can be traced to pre-Achaemenid times and may be seen as causes of the early development of strong political institutions and state formation in the Middle East (See K. ... ÔARÈR B. ¿ABD-AL-H®AMÈD B. QORT® Z®ABÈ RAÚZÈ, traditionist. His nesba, or surname, refers to AÚba (or AÚva), one of the villages dependent on Sa@va (Ya@qu@t [Beirut] I, p. 50; Zab^d^, Ta@è al-¿aru@s, Cairo, 1306/1888-89, s.v. ÷wb). He was born in 107/725-26 or 110/728-29 and settled in Ray, and is styled as the traditionist of Ray (moháaddet¯-e Ray). Ebn Sa¿d, however, gives Ku@fa as his residence and place of birth (Beirut, 1377/1957-58, VII, p. 371). The wide range of his information and his reliability attracted many students and collectors of tradition. ... M. M. Mazzaoui (so T¨a¿a@leb^, Tatemmat al-yat^ma, ed. ¿A. Eqba@l, Tehran, 1353/1934, p. 100; the konya is given as ABUÚ SA¿ÈD in Brockelmann, GAL I, p. 429; S. I., p. 593) MANSáUÚR B. H®OSAYN (cf. B. AL-H®ASAN in Ba@kòarz^, Domyat al-qasár, ed. ¿Abd-al-Fatta@há Moháammad al-H®olv, Cairo, 1968, pp. 467-69), vizier and man of letters of the late Buyid period. He served in Ray under Maèd-al-dawla Rostam b. Fakòr-al-dawla b. Rokn-al-dawla, ruler of Ray, Hamada@n, and Isfahan, 387-420/997-1029. He died in 421/1030 (see several variant dates in Zekerl^, A¿la@m2 VIII, p. ... -AL-DÈN H®ASAN B. ABUÚ T®AÚLEB YUÚSOFÈ, Imami faq^h (jurist) of the 7th/13th century, well-known under the nicknames of Fa@zµel-e AÚb^ and Ebn al-Zaynab. He was a pupil of Moháaqqeq H®ell^, with whom he held disputations on topics of Shi¿ite law. He wrote a commentary on his master's Mokòtasáar-e na@fe¿ entitled KaÞf al-romu@z; its colophon bears the date 672/1273-74. He is credited with a certain individuality in his interpretation of canon law (feqh). Among the positions ascribed to him is a condemnation of the practice of having more than canonical four wives, even if this was done by recourse to mot¿a (i. ... M. Dandamayev a village in Elam. According to the inscriptions DSf and DSz of Darius I, the stone pillars used on the building of his palace in Susa were brought from there. In the Elamite versions of the same inscriptions the village is called HapiraduÞ. M. Mayrhofer a proper name said to be of (Indo-) Aryan origin, by comparison with Vedic ratha, Avestan raƒa. This analysis, however, remains uncertain. The name was borne by the following (Kammenhuber, Arier, pp. 54-55): 1. the fifth king of the third (“Kassite”) dynasty in Babylon; 2. a Kassite nobleman (a-bi-ra-taÞ, a-bi-rat-taÞ, a-bi-r [u-ut-taÞ?], AD-rat-taÞ); 3. a prince of Pa‚r-ga in northern Syria (a-pi-rat!-ta, a-pi-rad!-da, a-pi-rat!-ta-aÞ); 4. a person in the Alalakh tablets (a-bi-ra-at-ta). ... a town in medieval Iran situated in northern Khorasan, in the northern foothills of the Haza@r Masèed range where these mountains slope down in the Qara Qum desert. It is important historically as part of the protective chain of frontier defense posts established by the ancient Iranian kings against the irruption of barbarians from the steppes of Inner Asia. Its site (now called Kohna Ab^vard) lies within the Turkmenistan SSR; its extensive ruins, marked by various kurgans or settlement mounds, is some 8 km west of Kahka station on the Ashkhabad-Merv section of the Trans-Caspian railway. ... L. A. Giffen ÷L-MOZ®AFFAR MOH®AMMAD B. ABU÷L-¿ABBAÚS AH®MAD B. MOH®AMMAD AL-MO¿AÚWÈ AL-KUÚFANÈ, poet, historian, and writer on genealogy, died from poison at Isfahan, 507/1113. Ab^vard^, as he was usually known, was born into a distinguished family of Ku@fan, a small town near Ab^vard in Khorasan (not “Kawfan” as in EI2 I, s.v. Ab^ward^; see Ya@qu@t (Beirut) IV, pp. 321-22, s.v. Ku@fan, where the vowels are spelled). Ab^vard^ was a descendant of ¿Anbasa b. Abu@ Sofya@n through the line of Mo¿a@v^a II. ... L. A. Giffen ABUÚ MOH®AMMAD H®OSAÚM-AL-DÈN H®ASAN B. ¿ALÈ B. H®ASAN, much traveled Shafe¿ite jurisconsult, mathematician and logician, born 761/1360, died 816/1413. G. Krotkoff “alphabet,” a word formed from the first four letters of the Semitic alphabet. In particular, it refers to the use of letters as numbers (háesa@b-e abèad), the numerical values of the letters following the original letter sequence found in the older Semitic alphabets. This sequence, with minor variations, is remarkably stable from the earliest known listings in Ugaritic and Phoenician to Hebrew and Aramaic. Arabic script was developed from the Nabatean variety of Aramaic script; but, due to the coincidence in shape of several letters and their subsequent differentiation by means of diacritical points, the traditional order was replaced by a new one, in which letters with the same basic design were grouped together. ... M. Baqir poetical name of MÈR MOH®AMMAD ESMAÚ¿ÈL KHAN, 18th century south-Indian poet of Persian and Urdu. His was born in Chingleput in Carnatic Payanghat. His father was a resident of Bijapur and the brother-in-law of the famous historian FereÞta (q.v.; d. ca. 1033/1624). In Chingleput Abèad^ received a traditional education in Arabic and Persian. The French had gained a degree of power in south India, and the British also ventured to encroach upon the emperor Awrangze@b's territories. Abèad^ was employed by Navva@b Va@la@èa@h (¿Omdat-al-molk Moháammad ¿Al^), governor of Arcot (1163-1210/1749-95), as tutor to his son, Navva@b ¿Omdat-al-omara@÷ (1210-16/1795-1801). ... Dzh. Giunashvili (also APSUA, APSNI), ethnic group of the Caucasus. The Abkhazian Autonomous Soviet Republic is federated with the Georgian SSR. It comprises 86,000 square km and has a population of 486,900. Its capital city is Sukhumi, the former Sxumi. Abkhazia lies in the western Caucasus by the coast of the Black Sea. Magnificent beaches, subtropical vegetation, tea plantations, tobacco, citrus groves, deep forests, and the peaks of the great Caucasian range serve to give this land great picturesqueness. Development is energetically pursued; there is both mining and a food processing industry. ... (vozµu@÷), ISLAMIC, the minor ritual purification performed before prayers, circumambulation of the Ka¿ba, recitation of the Koran, and the prostration expressing gratitude after reciting the Koran. According to the Koranic injunction which states “O you who believe! When you stand up for prayer, wash your faces and your hands up to the elbows, and wipe your heads and your feet up to the ankles. And if you are unclean, purify yourselves” (Koran 5:6), ablution is a prerequisite to performing the prayers. ... I. K. Poonawala , Corrected. See PadyaÚb. “sons” in Arabic, used as a term for the offspring of Persian soldiers and officials in the Yemen and of Arab mothers. These people were known thus in the lifetime of the Prophet (ca. 580-632 A.D.) and survived as a distinct ethnic and social group in the first century or so of Islam. C. J. Brunner satrap of Susiana under Darius III, at the time of the Achaemenid collapse. He was perhaps an Elamite, although his son bears an Iranian name—one that seems distinctly Zoroastrian (Oxathres: GAv. HuxÞathra). After the battle of Arbela (1 October 331 B.C.), Mesopotamia rapidly fell to Alexander's forces. Thus Aboulites had little choice but to arrange an orderly surrender of Susa. (Cf. the implausible speculation in Diodorus Siculus 17.65.5) He signified this intention to an advance force under Philoxenus (Arrian 3. ... C. J. Brunner a fictional king of Susa in Xenophon's fictional, didactic life of Cyrus (Cyropaedia, books 5-7). He and his wife, Panthea, provide a running romantic theme in the work. Originally a subject of the Assyrians, Abradatas was separated from his wife when Cyrus captured her in one of his raids. The Persian prince was then still a vassal to his (fictional) uncle, Cyaxares II. Cyrus treated Panthea nobly, and she persuaded her husband to enter the Persian's service. He apparently became a tributary king in Susa. ... See EBRAÚHÈM. C. J. Brunner Middle Persian “high, superior, height,” old Iranian *uparya@nk- “above, high.” For the literal sense of the word, cf. BundahiÞn, p. 188.11-12; pad abra@z payda@g, “visible on high” (i.e., in the heavens). The figurative sense, familiar in New Persian afra@z and the military title sar-afra@z, was already common in Old Iranian (Avestan uparata@t- “superiority;” see AirWb., col. 393). In Sasanian usage, abra@z apparently came to serve as an honorific title, although it has not yet been attested as such on stamp seals. ... W. Eilers, M. Bazin and C. Bromberger, D. Thompson silk. M. Boyce “the pouring of water,” name for a Zoroastrian feast; the term could be used for T^raga@n (q.v.) and probably also for the name-day festival of Horda@d (q.v.), both of which were celebrated by people sprinkling one another joyfully with water (see B^ru@n^, Chronology, pp. 218, 221). More specifically it was, according to B^ru@n^ (p. 228), the name of a feast instituted in Sasanian times to commemorate the end of a devastating drought which afflicted Iran for successive years during the reign of Pe@ro@z (A. ... See TÈRAGAÚN. M. Dandamayev Persian satrap of Syria and commander under Artaxerxes II. In 401 B.C. he prepared an army to reconquer Egypt, which was in revolt against the Persian domination. But the same year Cyrus the Younger rebelled against Artaxerxes II, and Abrocomas went to Babylonia to the aid of the Persian king. He arrived after the decisive battle at Cunaxa had already been fought (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.12; see also 1.3.20; 4.3, 5, 18). Ca. 389-387 B.C. Abrocomas and the Persian commanders Pharnabazus and Tithraustes continued without success the attempt at reconquest of Egypt (see Isocrates, Panegyricus 140). ... M. Dandamayev a son of Darius I by Phrataguna, daughter of his brother Artanes. He perished at the battle of Thermopylae (Herodotus 7.224). E. Ehlers name of a drainage system that covers several streams and small rivers along the eastern flank of the Alvand Ku@h (q.v.); it flows north into the kav^r of Qom. The annual discharge of this river system varies between approx. 100 million cu m and 500 million cu m, depending on the amount of winter precipitation and the consequent snow melt. The annual peak of discharge is reached in March and April, but sometimes (e.g., 1968) as late as May or June. During this period the river reaches its maximum instantaneous flow, which may be as high as 90 cu m. ... E. Ehlers “salt river.” The name a@bÞu@r is very common in Iran for those rivers with a high salt content. Salt may generally arrive from two sources: firstly, from minerals of the soil which are transported to the surface by the upward direction of groundwater and by soil-water evaporation due to the arid climate of most of Iran (see Kav^r); secondly, from soluble salts washed out of geological salt-bearing structures (salt plugs), which are common for many parts of Iran. Most of the rivers derive their high salt content from this source. ... A. Tafazµzµol^ on this. There has been no consistent handling of it in the text University of Pennsylvania to this point. L-¿ABBAÚS ¿ANBARÈ. See ¿ANBARÈ. Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh ÷L-¿ABBAÚS B. H®ANUÚD MARVAZÈ, Sufi, jurist, and traditionist, one of the first poets to write in New Persian. Soyu@tÂ^ (d. 911/1505) and, following him, ¿Ala@÷-al-d^n Dede (d. 1007/1598) date his death to 300/912 (Sáafa@, Adab^ya@t I, p. 178); while according to ¿Awf^ (Loba@b, pp. 21f.) and Maèma¿ al-fosáaháa@÷ (I, pp. vii, 131-32), he flourished towards the end of the 2nd/8th-9th century. ¿Awf^, who calls him simply ¿Abba@s, quotes a fragment of a poem and comments that it was composed in praise of Caliph Ma÷mu@n on the occasion of the latter's arrival at Marv, allegedly in 193/809. ... L-¿ABBAÚS AH®MAD NAS®AVÈ. See NAS®AVÈ. S. Sh. Kh. Hussaini -AL-RAH®MAÚN SOLAMÈ, MOH®AMMAD B. H®OSAYN B. MUÚSAÚ AZDÈ NÈSAÚBUÚRÈ (325-412/937-1021), Sufi, traditionist, and hagiographer. His nesba Solam^ derives from the Arab tribe of Solaym (Sam¿a@n^, Ansa@b [Leiden], fols. 303b-304a) through his maternal grandfather (Solam^, T®abaqa@t al-sáu@f^ya [Cairo], p. 454). The above derivation has to be maintained against the one offered by R. Hartmann, who would rather derive it from sollam (“klimax, scala perfectionis”). Hartmann also implies the possibility of Solam^ being the Arabian nesba given in adoption to a Persian family, as often happened in Iran (“Sulam^ oder Sullam^?”, OLZ 15, 1912, cols. ... R. W. Bulliet B. AL-BAYYE¿ (EBN AL-BAYYE¿), a noted traditionist and local historian, b. 321/933, d. 405/1014; full name: ABUÚ ¿ABDALLAÚH MOH®AMMAD B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. MOH®AMMAD B. MOH®AMMAD B. H®AMDUÚYA B. NO¿AYM B. AL-H®AKAM AL-Z˜ABBÈ AL-T®AHMAÚNÈ; he was commonly known as AL-H®AÚKEM AL-NÈSAÚBUÚRÈ because of his once having held a post as judge (qa@zµ^). Ebn al-Bayye¿ was an immensely learned Hadith scholar and one of the first to write systematic treatments of the science of Hadith study. ... D. Sourdel B. DAÚ÷UÚD, vizier of the ¿Abbasid caliph Mahd^ (r. 158-69/775-85). He professed pro-¿Alid sentiments and participated in the revolt of the Hasanids Ebra@h^m and Moháammad b. ¿Abdalla@h against the caliph Mansáu@r in 145/762-63. Imprisoned, he was set free in 159/775-76 by Mahd^, who sought, by means of a general amnesty, to reconcile the opposing moderate Shi¿ites with each other. He soon became the advisor of the caliph, who in 163/779-80 gave him the title “brother in God and vizier” and conferred on him the direction of matters with which Abu@ ¿Obaydalla@h had formerly dealt. ... B. ABÈ BAKR B. H®AÚMED AL-KAÚTEB, poet and official of the Samanids, fl. first half of the 4th/10th century; his exact dates are unknown. His father, Abu@ Bakr, had been secretary to Amir Esma@¿^l b. Ahámad (279-95/892-907) and vizier to Ahámad Esma@¿^l (295-301/907-14) before the vizierate of Abu@ ¿Abdalla@h Ôayha@n^. Abu@ Ahámad thought that the family traditions of official service plus his own accomplishments as a poet and stylist gave him a claim to the vizierate superior to Ôayha@n^'s and Bal¿am^'s. ... A. E. Khairallah YAH®YAÚ B. ¿ALÈ B. YAH®YAÚ B. ABÈ MANSáUÚR ABAÚN AL-MONAÔÔEM (241/855-56 to 13 Rab^¿ I 300/29 October 912), literary historian, music theorist, poet, and Mu¿tazilite, boon companion to caliphs Mowaffaq, Mo¿tazµed, and Moktaf^. He was one of the Banu÷l-Monaèèem, a family of Iranian descent associated with the ¿Abbasid court for more than two centuries. His great-grandfather, Aba@n, while still a Zoroastrian, established himself as Mansáu@r's astronomer (sc. astrologer). His grandfather, Yaháya@ b. ... ÷L-¿ALAÚ÷ ¿AT®AÚ÷, called NAÚKUÚK, secretary and poet of the Ghaznavid period, d. 491/1098. Little is known of his life, but ¿Awf^, in a biographical notice in his Loba@b al-alba@b, gives him the title of ¿am^d and ka@teb. It seems that he filled high office under the Ghaznavid sultan Ebra@h^m b. Mas¿u@d (450-92/1059-99). It is probable that he had some connection with the chief secretary, Abu@ Sahl Zu@zan^ (q.v., a contemporary of the historian Abu÷l-Fazµl Bayhaq^ and successor in office of Bayhaq^'s master, Abu@ Nasár MoÞka@n); the literary biographer Ba@kòarz^ quotes from a poem of Na@ku@k written in answer to one by Abu@ Sahl Zu@zan^. ... ÷L-¿ALAÚ÷ GANÔAVÈ, NEZ®AÚM-AL-DÈN MAH®MUÚD, 6th/12th century poet at the court of K¨a@qa@n Fakòr-al-d^n Manu@±ehr ˆerva@nÞa@h. He is also referred to as Osta@dò-al-Þo¿ara@÷, an allusion to the fact that two more illustrious poets, Falak^ and K¨a@qa@n^ ˆerva@n^, were among his pupils. L. A. Giffen ÷L-¿ALAÚ÷ HAMADAÚNÈ, H®ASAN B. AHáMAD B. H®ASAN B. MOH®AMMAD B. SAHL B. SALAMA AL-¿AT®T®AÚR, saintly specialist in the science of Koran readings (qera@÷a@t) and Tradition, born in Hamada@n in 488/1090 and died in 569/1173. Abu÷l-¿Ala@÷ pursued his education in Hamada@n, Isfahan, Khorasan, Baghdad, and Wa@setÂ, hearing eminent traditionists of his time and mastering grammar, Koranic sciences, literature, genealogy, and history. He was regarded as the leading scholar of Hamada@n, and was famed not only for his learning but for his ascetic life and piety. ... M. Zand ÷L-¿ALAÚ÷ ˆOˆTARÈ (referred to also as BU÷L-¿ALAÚ÷, in both forms either with or without the nesba), early Persian poet and prosodist (the earliest known from the ˆoÞtar area). The identity of the poet referred to simply as (A)bu÷l-¿Ala@÷ with (A)bu÷l-¿Ala@÷ ˆoÞtar^ is indicated by remains of his poetry: A bayt attributed to Abu÷l-¿Ala@÷ in Ra@du@ya@n^'s Tarèoma@n al-bala@g@a (ed. A. Ate¶, Istanbul, 1949, p. 49) is assigned to ˆoÞtar^ by VatÂva@t (H®ada@÷eq al-sehár, ed. ... B. ˆAÚD¨AÚN, governor (¿am^d) of Balkò and northern Afghanistan under the Saljuq ruler of Khorasan, Ùag@r^ Beg Da@÷u@d, and then under his son, Alp Arslan. One of the main events of his tenure of power was the final capture from the Ghaznavids of the important bridgepoint over the Oxus of Termedò; after this event, the Ghaznavid castellan there, Am^rak Bayhaq^, made over his estates and house at Bayhaq to Abu@ ¿Al^ and then retired to GÚazna. This must have taken place in the mid-430s/mid-1040s. ... Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh MOH®AMMAD B. AH®MAD BALK¨È, author of a ˆa@h-na@ma, according to B^ru@n^ (AÚtòa@r al-ba@q^a, pp. 99f.). Abu@ ¿Al^ is said to have selected traditions regarding the beginning of the world from S^ar al-molu@k by Ebn Moqaffa¿ and books by Moháammad b. Ôahm Barmak^, HeÞa@m b. Qa@sem, Bahra@m b. Marda@nÞa@h (mobad of the city of ˆa@pu@r), and Bahra@m b. Mehra@n Esáfaha@n^, and to have compared these versions with the book of Bahra@m Herav^ Ma@èu@s^. B^ru@n^ also mentions the ˆa@h-na@ma of Abu@ Mansáu@r (q. ... MOH®AMMAD B. ¿ÈSAÚ DAÚMGÚAÚNÈ, vizier of the Samanids in the last years of their power. The reign of Am^r Nu@há II b. Mansáu@r (365-87/976-97) was rent by internal strife among the great military leaders of the state, with the viziers tending to become the creatures of one or other opposing faction in the state. Da@mg@a@n^'s predecessor ¿Abdalla@h b. Moháammad b. ¿Ozayr (¿Az^z?) had been the prote‚ge‚ of the powerful S^mèu@r^s, Abu÷l-H®asan and his son Abu@ ¿Al^, and of Fa@÷eq, and he was hostile to the ¿Otb^ family, the influential previous occupants of the vizierate. ... J. Chabbi H®ASAN B. ¿ALÈ B. MOH®AMMAD B. ESH®AÚQ, ascetic of N^Þa@pu@r (d. 405/1015). He was the teacher of the famous Abu÷l-Qa@sem QoÞayr^, who married Fa@tÂema, his daughter, some time before 414/1023, which is the birth date of their first son (R. Bulliet, The Patricians of Nishapur, Cambridge, Mass., 1972, p. 152). Following this marriage QoÞayr^ directed the madrasa of Abu@ ¿Al^, which from the mid-5th/11th century was called Madrasat al-QoÞayr^ (ibid., p. 250). I. Abbas H®ASAN B. AH®MAD B. ¿ABD-AL-GÚAFFAÚR (288-377/900-87), grammarian at the court of the Buyid ¿Azµod-al-dawla (d. 366/977). He was born in Fasa@, a small town in the district of Shiraz, to a Persian father and an Arab mother from the tribe of Sadu@s. H®asan's family facilitated his mastery of Arabic and Persian and provided reasonable financial resources. In his twenties, he moved to Baghdad to study grammar and philology. He sat at the feet of many shaikhs, among whom were the prominent philologists and grammarians of the time: al-Zaèèa@è, Ebn Dorayd, Ebn al-Sarra@è, Ebn Moèa@hed, and Mabrama@n. ... See MARVAZÈ. See EBN MESKAWAYH. Kh. A. Nizami ˆARAF-AL-DÈN PAÚNÈPATÈ (also known as SHAH BUÚ ¿ALÈ QALANDAR), Indian poet and saint, d. 725/1324. His mausoleum at Panipat remains a popular center for pilgrimage. Unfortunately no authentic records of his life or teachings are available. Since he was a qalandar, we should not expect to find such records; none of his disciples had the time or inclination to make a collection of his sayings, and later writers have attenuated his personality with myth and miracle (see, e.g., H®am^d-al-d^n, ˆaraf al-mana@qeb, Delhi, 1937). ... I. Abbas ÷L-¿AMAYT¨AL ¿ABDALLAÚH B. K¨OLAYD (or K¨AÚLED or K¨OWAYLED) B. SA¿D, Tahirid court poet. Abu÷l-¿Amayt¯al boasted of being a client of the Hashimites; raised as a true Beduin in the tribe of Banu÷l-Qayn b. Ôasr, he fully mastered Arabic. He moved to Khorasan, probably about 193-202/808-17, when Ma÷mu@n was still there. The excellence of his poetry must have attracted the attention of that ¿Abbasid prince and of his vizier, Fazµl b. Sahl. Ma÷mu@n suggested to ¿Abdalla@h b. T®a@her (himself a poet) that he take Abu÷l-¿Amayt¯al into his retinue. ... J. van Ess AL-MAÚZOLÈ, Karra@m^ theologian, fl. mid-4th/mid-10th century. Most of the later branches of the Karra@m^ya traced themselves back to Ebn Karra@m through him; he was the last important representative of the school before the expansion and diversification which occurred under the early Ghaznavids. Nothing is known about Abu@ ¿Amr's life or doctrine. D. Pingree ÷L-¿ANBAS AL-SáAYMARÈ, MOH®AMMAD B. ESH®AÚQ B. ABI÷L-¿ANBAS B. AL-MAGÚÈRA B. MAÚHAÚN, astrologer and author, born at Ku@fa, 213/828; died 275/889. That he was an Iranian is indicated by his knowledge of the Sasanian astrologers Zaradu@Þt and Bozorèmehr as well as by his great-great-grandfather's name. He served as qa@zµ^ of Sáaymara, the chief town of Mehrèa@nqadòaq district in Ôeba@l. His fame among his contemporaries rested upon his ability as a poet and author of scurrilously humorous pieces (many are catalogued in Fehrest, pp. ... G. Tsuge (¿AT®AÚ÷), one of the twelve modes in the dastga@h system of classical Iranian music; more precisely, it should be called a@va@z-e Abu@ ¿AtÂa@ or nag@ma-ye Abu@ ¿AtÂa@. The reason for this name is not known; it is alternatively called dasta@n-e ¿arab (“Arabian song;” M. BarkeÞl^ and M. Ma¿ru@f^, Rad^f-e mu@s^q^-e Èra@n, Tehran, 1963; M. Heda@yat, Maèma¿ al-adwa@r, Tehran, 1317 ˆ./1938, III, p. 94). “Abu@ ¿AtÂa@” is a comparatively recent designation; this mode was formerly called Sa@ranè/Sa@rang (N. ... J. A. Wakin YA¿QUÚB B. ESH®AÚQ B. EBRAÚHÈM NȈAÚBUÚRÈ ESFARAÚYÈNÈ, a Shafe¿ite legal scholar and traditionist. He is credited with introducing the Shafe¿ite school in Esfara@y^n, which remained a leading center of Shafe¿ism even after the Hanafite madòhab made serious inroads in Khorasan. Abu@ ¿Awa@na traveled widely throughout the major centers of learning in Iran, Syria, the Yemen, and Egypt, collecting traditions from a number of illustrious scholars. These included the Egyptian scholar, Mozan^ (d. ... R. W. Bulliet ¿ABD-AL-MALEK B. YAZÈD K¨ORAÚSAÚNÈ AZDÈ, a distinguished ¿Abbasid general, twice governor of Egypt and once of Khorasan. Although Abu@ ¿Awn's career can be followed for a period of forty years, little is known beyond its bare outline. He first is mentioned raising money for the ¿Abbasid cause in Gorga@n, his native city, in 129/747 along with K¨a@led b. Barmak. He was a mawla@ of the Hona@÷a branch of the Azd tribe; but, judging from an insult once given him (Kend^, Wola@t Mesár, ed. H. ... B. ABÈ SáAÚLEH®, vizier of the Ghaznavids in the 5th/11th century. He is first heard of as the second vizier to serve Sultan Farrokòza@d b. Mas¿u@d (443-51/1052-59). He was called to this office, probably at the end of 445 or beginning of 446/spring-summer, 1055, in succession to H®osayn b. Mehra@n. He had already had a long career as official and soldier and for thirty years had been a governor in India, where he had been active in public and charitable works. He remained vizier for the rest of the sultan's reign; on Ebra@h^m b. ... B. PAHLAVAÚN. See ËLDIGÜZID DYNASTY. B. Spuler B. SA¿D B. ZANGÈ B. MAWDUÚD, also known as MOZ®AFFAR-AL-DÈN QUTLUGÚ KHAN, 623-58/1226-60, member of the Salghurid dynasty, atabeg of Fa@rs. He rebelled against his father, Sa¿d I, during the latter's disputes with two princes of the Khwarazmian royal house and was cast into prison. Shortly before his father's death, however, he was set free and thereafter took up the reigns of government. His father had finally acknowledged the suzerainty of the K¨úa@razmÞa@h Ôala@l-al-d^n Mängübird^, who was fleeing from the Mongols. ... GÚ. H®. Yu@sof^ (K¨úAÚÔA ABUÚ BAKR ¿ABDALLAÚH B. YUÚSOF SÈSTAÚNÈ), Shafe¿ite faq^h (jurist) and Ghaznavid official, d. 424/1033. According to the poet Farrokò^ he came from a well-reputed family in S^sta@n, and his father was a man of learning. Abu@ Bakr strove to implement the religious policy of Sultan Mahámu@d, persecuting heretics, QarmatÂ^s, and the impious. Perhaps because of his religiosity, he was employed by Mahámu@d to deliver messages to the vizier Ahámad b. H®asan Maymand^ concerning the latter's accumulation of wealth. ... W. Madelung BOK¨AÚRÈ MOH®AMMAD B. ABÈ ESH®AÚQ EBRAÚHÈM B. YA¿QUÚB, author of the well-known compendium of Sufism al-Ta¿arrof le-madòhab ahl al-tasáawwof. Little is known about his life. He originated from Kala@ba@dò, a quarter of Bokhara, and was born probably not later than 320/932, since he heard Hadith from Abu÷l-Na@sáer RaÞa@d^ of Samarqand (d. 339/950-51). Ebn Abi÷l-Wafa@÷ describes him as a Hanafite theologian (osáu@l^) on account of the Hanafite tenor of the theological doctrine presented in his Keta@b al-ta¿arrof. ... A. A. Ivanov B. AH®MAD MARVAZÈ, 7th/13th century metalworker. His work is known through a series of cast bronze cauldrons which bear the signature ¿amal-e Abu@ Bakr b. Ahámad Marvaz^. Six such cauldrons are known to exist. Two were known to L. A. Mayer (Islamic Metalworkers, p. 24), and four more have been discovered in the Soviet Union. Two are in Daghestan, one in a private collection in Kubachi and the other in the Museum of the Faculty of History, Daghestan State University, Makhachkala; the remaining two are in the Fine Art Museum of the Georgian SSR, Tiflis, and the State Ethnographical Museum of the Peoples of the USSR, Leningrad. ... M. J. McDermott MOH®AMMAD B. EBRAÚHÈM B. MOND¨ER NAYSAÚBUÚRÈ, a jurist loosely belonging to the Shafe¿ite school. The date of his birth is unknown. He studied in Egypt under two immediate disciples of ˆa@fe¿^ (Moháammad b. ¿Abdalla@h b. ¿Abd-al-H®akam and Rab^¿ b. Solayma@n Ô^z^) and then lived in Mecca, where he died in 318/930 (D¨ahab^, H®offa@zá [Hyderabad] III, p. 4; Sáafad^, al-Wa@f^ be÷l-wafaya@t, Istanbul, 1931, I, p. 336). Other sources give less probable death dates—309, 310, or 324. ... GÚ. H®. Yu@sof^ ¿AMÈD-AL-MOLK ¿ALÈ B. H®ASAN, fl. 5th/11th century, a courtier and man of letters under the Ghaznavids and Saljuqs; himself a poet, he patronized poetry generously. He is said to have been originally from Rokòkòaè. He was still a young man when he gained the attention of Sultan Mahámu@d by explaining a vague, threatening allusion in the caliph's letter which all secretaries had failed to understand. Thereupon he was granted the honor of sitting in the royal presence. Later he became the paymaster (¿a@rez-e laÞkar) of Mahámu@d's army, but the story of his missions to Byzantium, related by Sana@÷^, is probably unfounded. ... I. Abbas MOH®AMMAD B. AL-YAMAÚN AL-SAMARQANDÈ (d. 268/881), a Hanafite jurist about whose life the available sources furnish no information. It seems that he combined both feqh and kala@m and that he paved the way for his famous compatriot Abu@ Mansáu@r Ma@tor^d^ (q.v., d. 333/1041). The sources mention the titles of four of his works: 1. al-E¿tesáa@m (on Hadith), 2. al-Radd ¿ala@ al-Karra@m^ya, 3. al-Anwa@r, and 4. Ma¿a@lem al-d^n. Of the last, there is a copy in MaÞhad. J. W. Clinton B. MOH®AMMAD B. AH®MAD WAÚ¿EZ® SARAK¨SÈ, IMAM, a follower (but apparently not a contemporary) of Shaikh Abu@ Sa¿^d b. Abi÷l-K¨ayr (q.v., d. 440/1049). Abu@ Bakr appears in two narratives of the Asra@r al-tawhá^d, relating stories he heard from those who had known the shaikh directly. In one, he simply recounts a brief anecdote which introduces a longer narrative, the whole being related by K¨úa@èa Ahámad Moháammad Sáu@f^. In the other, he quotes two bayts from a qasá^da he recited over the shaikh's tomb in the presence of the saint's family and followers; and he goes on to tell an anecdote from the shaikh's life which, in response to the poem, was recited by ¿Abd-al-Sáamad b. ... B. Lawrence H®AYDARÈ, 7th/13th century Indo-Muslim saint. Nothing is known of his pre-Indian background, but reliable tadòkera writers describe him as a contemporary of Shaikh Nezáa@m-al-d^n Awl^a@÷ (636-725/1238-39 to 1325) who was on the best of terms with him and with other ÙeÞt^ saints (Ôama@l^, p. 67; ¿Abd-al-H®aqq, p. 73). His kòa@naqa@h, situated on the bank of the Jumna river, was frequented by Sufis from Delhi and elsewhere, especially for musical gatherings (maèa@les-e sama@¿). Ôama@l-al-d^n Ha@nsav^, the note poet and ÙeÞt^ saint of Panjab, would stay with Abu@ Bakr whenever he visited Delhi. ... B. Reinert AL-WARRAÚQ, MOH®AMMAD B. ¿OMAR AL-H®AKÈM, Sufi shaikh, born in Termedò, lived and worked in Balkò, d. 280/893. The oldest sources (Solam^, T®abaqa@t2, p. 221.4ff.; Ansáa@r^, T®abaqa@t al-sáu@f^ya, ed. Qandaha@r^, Kabul, 1340 ˆ./1960, p. 262) mention as his teachers the following: Ahámad b. K¨ezµro@ya of Balkò (d. 240/854-55; see QoÞayr^, Resa@la, Cairo, 1359/1940, p. 24.8; Hoèv^r^, KaÞf al-maháèu@b, Tehran, 1336 ˆ./1957, p. 179); Moháammad b. Sa¿d b. Ebra@h^m al-Za@hed (unidentified) and Moháammad b. ... H. Algar ÷L-BAQAÚ B. K¨úAÚÔA BAHAÚ÷-AL-DÈN B. K¨úAÚÔA AH®MAD, author of Ôa@me¿ al-maqa@ma@t on the life of the NaqÞband^ saint, Mawla@@na@ K¨úa@èag^ Ka@sa@n^ (d. 949/1542), written in 1028/1618. Known as Makòdu@m-e A¿záam, Ka@sa@n^ was the progenitor of the important Ôu@yba@r^ branch of the NaqÞband^ order. The Ôa@me¿ al-maqa@ma@t, which has the express intention of supplementing the other accounts of Ka@sa@n^, comprises two chapters: one on the life of the saint and his physical and spiritual characteristics, and the other on his dicta. ... W. Madelung ÷L-BARAKAÚT AL-BAGÚDAÚDÈ, AWH®AD-AL-ZAMAÚN HEBATALLAÚH B. ¿ALÈ B. MALKAÚ BALADÈ, 5th-6th/11th-12th century physician and philosopher of Jewish origin, born in Balad, a town on the Tigris above Mosul. If Z®ah^r-al-d^n Bayhaq^'s information that he died in 547/1152 at the age of ninety solar years is approximately correct, he was born ca. 454/1062. According to another report, he died at the age of about eighty. In any case he can not have been born later than ca. 470/1077, since in 489/1096 he read the Keta@b al-talkò^sá al-Nezáa@m^ with the author, Abu÷l-H®asan Sa¿^d b. ... M. U. Memon 'L-BARAKAÚT MONÈR LAÚHUÚRÈ, Indo-Persian poet (commonly known as MOLLAÚ MONÈR LAÚHUÚRÈ), b. at Lahore, 12 Ramazµa@n 1019/28 November 1610. He is generally regarded as one of the three major poets of Lahore during the reign of the Mughal emperor Shah Ôaha@n (Yam^n Khan, Ta@r^kò-e Þe¿r, p. 310). Mon^r came from a family noted for its fine poetic taste, cultural refinement and piety. His father, about whom some confusion exists in the biographical sources (see Mahámu@d ˆ^ra@n^, “Mawla@@na@ Abu÷l-Baraka@t,” p. ... M. N. Osmanov a Persian poet and Sufi shaikh contemporary with Sebüktigin (d. 387/997). Abu@ D¨arr lived in the madrasa at Bu@zèa@n. According to Ôa@m^ (Nafaháa@t, pp. 356-57) he worked wonders, and died in 366-67/977. He is not discussed in other sources. Two Persian and one Arabic bayt are the only quotations from his works remaining. J. A. Wakin (full name: ABUÚ D¨ARR ¿ABDALLAÚH B. AH®MAD B. MOH®AMMAD HERAVÈ ANSáAÚRÈ MAÚLEKÈ), a traditionist known primarily for his role in the transmission of Bokòa@r^'s Ôa@me¿ al-sáahá^há. Born in Herat about 355/966, he traveled to several centers of learning to study with well-known traditionists. In Baghdad he acquired a reputation in Malikite legal circles for his knowledge of both feqh and osáu@l al-feqh. At the same time, Abu@ D¨arr studied dogmatic theology with Ba@qella@n^ (d. ... See BUÚ DOLAF. F. M. Donner AL-QAÚSEM B. ¿ÈSAÚ B. EDRÈS B. MA¿QEL AL-¿EÔLÈ, Arab military chieftain, author, poet, governor, and boon companion for several ¿Abbasid caliphs, and most important member of the ¿Eèl^ dynasty of western Iran, flourished in the early 3rd/9th century. Though genealogists disagree over his exact pedigree, he was a member of the Arab tribe of Banu@ ¿Eèl, whose original home was in the vicinity of H®^ra on the desert fringes of southern Iraq. He was born into a family that already had close connections with the ¿Abbasid regime; some say that his great-uncle, ¿Èsa@ b. ... R. W. Bulliet AL-YANBUÚ¿È, MES¿AR B. MOHALHEL AL-K¨AZRAÔÈ, Arab traveler, poet, and frequenter of the Buyid court (ca. mid-4th/10th century). Reliable details concerning Abu@ Dolaf's life are few because of the questionable truthfulness of his two travel accounts. In these works he implies acquaintance with the Samanid court of Nasár b. Ahámad (d. 331/943) and mentions Abu@ Ôa¿far Moháammad b. Ahámad b. Layt¯ as the ruler of S^sta@n. A Saffarid amir with a similar name, Abu@ Ôa¿far Ahámad b. Moháammad b. ... D. M. Dunlop ZÈAÚD B. DERHAM AL-SARRAÚÔ, otherwise known as ABUÚ MOH®AMMAD AL-SáAÚDEQ, a freedman of Banu@ H®amda@n, regarded as the first ¿Abbasid propagandist in Khorasan (Mada@÷en^ quoted by T®abar^, II, p. 1501). His activity there in the ¿Abbasid cause began shortly after 100/718-19. Earlier Abu@ ¿Ekrema had been a supporter of Abu@ Ha@Þem ¿Abdalla@h b. Moháammad b. al-H®anaf^ya, whose organization already extended to Khorasan, and he was one of those whose names are said to have been given to Moháammad b. ... See BOSH®AÚQ. B. ALPTIGIN (named in some sources, e.g., Ebn Ba@ba@, as Esháa@q b. Alptigin), governor of GÚazna in eastern Afghanistan on behalf of the Samanids, ˆa¿ba@n, 352 to D¨u÷l-qa¿da, 355/September, 963 to November, 966. Abu@ Esháa@q Ebra@h^m's father Alptigin had been commander-in-chief of the Samanid army in Bokhara; compelled in 350/961 to withdraw from the capital after the failure of an attempt to place his favored candidate, Nasár b. ¿Abd-al-Malek b. Nu@há, on the Samanid throne, he had established himself in GÚazna on the remote fringes of the Samanid empire. ... J. W. Limbert ÔAMAÚL-AL-DÈN SHAH SHAIKH ABUÚ ESH®AÚQ B. MAH®MUÚD SHAH ÈNÔUÚ (721-58/1321-59), ruler of Fa@rs, ¿Era@q ¿Aèam (Isfahan), and parts of southern Iran, 743-55/1343-54. Abu@ Esháa@q was the youngest of four sons of ˆaraf-al-d^n Mahámu@d Shah b. Moháammad Ènèu@, governor of Fa@rs under the last Mongol Il-khan, Sultan Abu@ Sa¿^d Baha@dor. Following the Il-khan's death in 736/1335, Abu@ Esháa@q's father and three older brothers were killed during a complex, seven-year struggle for power in southern Iran—a struggle involving the four sons of Mahámu@d Shah, the Chupanids, the Jalayerid Shaikh H®asan-e Bozorg Èlkòa@n^, and the Mozaffarid Am^r Moba@rez-al-d^n Moháammad, ruler of Yazd. ... B. Lawrence EBRAÚHÈM B. ˆAHRÈAÚR KAÚZARUÚNÈ, Sufi and eponymous founder of the Ka@zaru@n^ya/Esháa@q^ya selsela. Abu@ Esháa@q was born in 352/963 in Ka@zaru@n, the environs of which were still only thinly islamized as late as the mid-4th/10th century. Though the future shaikh's parents were converted to Islam, his paternal grandfather remained a Zoroastrian and was opposed to the young boy's tutelage in Koranic studies. Abu@ Esháa@q persisted, becoming proficient in the traditional sciences and increasingly drawn toward the pursuit of tasáavvof. ... J. van Ess EBRAÚHÈM B. SAYYAÚR B. HAÚNE÷ AL-NAZ®Z®AÚM (ca. 165-221/782-836), famous ad^b and Mu¿tazilite theologian. He was of lowly birth; one of his ancestors had been a slave. He was by the most reliable accounts (e.g., Ebn H®azm, Keta@b al-fesáal fi÷l-melal wa÷l-ahwa@÷ wa÷l-neháal, Cairo, 1317/1899-1900, IV, p. 193.13f.) a mawla@ of the Banu@ Boèayr b. al-H®a@ret¯, i.e., the descendants of Boèayr b. H®a@ret¯ b. ¿Oba@d al-Z˜oba@¿^, who was killed during the war of Basu@s between Bakr b. ... Mutiul Imam K¨úAÚÔA, founder and eminent early saint of the ÙeÞt^ selsela (3rd-4th/9th-10th century). He was a spiritual disciple of Shaikh MamÞa@d ¿Olu@ D^navar^ in Baghdad, where he had migrated from Syria in search of a Sufi master. After seven years with his shaikh, he was directed to proceed to ÙeÞt (a medieval town near Herat) and to provide its inhabitants with spiritual assistance. He was also advised to change his nesba from ˆa@m^ to ÙeÞt^. One of the K¨úa@èa's most important achievements in ÙeÞt was the conversion of Abda@l ÙeÞt^ (q. ... W. Madelung AL-ˆÈRAÚZÈ, EBRAÚHÈM B. ¿ALÈ B. YUÚSOF B. ¿ABDALLAÚH AL-FÈRUÚZAÚBAÚDÈ, Shafe¿ite jurist, b. 393/1003 (395 and 396 are also mentioned) in F^ru@za@ba@d in Fa@rs. He began studying Shafe¿ite law in his hometown under Moháammad b. ¿Omar ˆ^ra@z^. Leaving F^ru@za@ba@d, he studied with ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n b. al-H®osayn GÚondeèa@n^ in GÚondeèa@n and ˆ^ra@z, where he arrived in 410/1019-20. In ˆ^ra@z he also studied with Abu@ ¿Abdalla@h Ôalla@b and engaged in disputations on legal problems with Qa@zµ^ Abu÷l-Faraè Fa@m^, the leading Z®a@her^ scholar of his time, thus giving early evidence of his brilliant talent for disputation. ... B. ¿EBRÈ. See BAR HEBRAEUS. a potter known through a single signed piece reputedly found in Sa@va. It consists of a dome-shaped candlestick decorated with a broad frieze of figures alternately seated and standing against a foliate scroll. Around the base runs an inscription in Persian, including the signature. It is decorated in the silhouette technique with a thick black slip carved and incised under a transparent blue glaze. The technique allows the piece to be dated to the last quarter of the 6th/12th century. K. Abu@ Deeb ÷L-FARAÔ ESáFAHAÚNÈ, ¿ALÈ B. AL-H®OSAYN B. MOH®AMMAD B. AH®MAD, author of the Keta@b al-ag@a@n^. He was a Quraishite and the descendant of the Omayyad house, and received his konya, Esáfaha@n^, from his birthplace. He was brought up and educated in Baghdad, traveled in various regions in search of knowledge and livelihood, and returned to Baghdad, where he died. M. Siddiqi ÷L-FARAÔ B. MAS¿UÚD RUÚNÈ, an early Persian poet. Nothing is known about his birth and early life, except that he was born in Ru@na, the exact location of which is uncertain. According to ¿Awf^, Ru@n^'s birthplace was Lahore (Loba@b II, p. 241). Rezµa@-qol^ Heda@yat states that Abu÷l-Faraè was born in Ru@na, a hamlet of N^Þa@pu@r, while LotÂf-¿Al^ Beg AÚdòar places Ru@na in the region of DaÞt-e K¨a@vara@n, Khorasan (Maèma¿ al-fosáaháa@÷ I, p. 151; AÚtaÞkada, p. 134). Molla@@ ¿Abd-al-RaÞ^d Tattav^ calls Ru@n “a village in India, the birthplace of Abu÷l-Faraè” (Farhang-e RaÞ^d^ II, p. ... M. Dab^rs^a@q^ ÷L-FARAÔ SEÔZÈ, 4th/10th century poet of S^sta@n, author of several lost works on the art of poetry. Only three couplets have been preserved from his compositions. Abu÷l-Faraè was an adherent of Abu@ ¿Al^ S^mèu@r^ (d. 387/997) on whose behest he wrote invectives against the Ghaznavids. When Sultan Mahámu@d defeated Abu@ ¿Al^, he imprisoned the poet but spared his life upon ¿Onsáor^'s intercession. Mahámu@d is said to have given Abu÷l-Faraè's confiscated property to ¿Onsáor^; the latter returned half of it to Abu÷l-Faraè and so earned his gratitude (DawlatÞa@h, Tadòkerat al-Þo¿ara@÷, Tehran, 1338 ˆ. ... D. Pingree ÷L-FATH® B. MAH®MUÚD (or MOH®AMMAD) B. AL-QAÚSEM B. AL-FAZ˜L AL-ESáFAHAÚNÈ, an early 6th/12th century astronomer. His best known work is his revision of books V-VII of the Arabic translation, completed by Hela@l b. Ab^ Hela@l and T¨a@bet b. Qorra, of the Cronica of Apollonius of Perge. This section of that great work was first made known in western Europe through the Latin translation of Abu÷l-Fathá's version by the Maronite orientalist Abrahamus Echallensis and the Italian mathematician Johannes Alfonsus Borellus (see bibliography). ... E. Glassen ÷L-FATH® ˆARAFÈ ˆARÈFÈ H®OSAYNÈ ¿ARABˆAÚHÈ B. MOH®AMMAD B. MAK¨DUÚM B. SAYYED ˆARÈF ÔORÔAÚNÈ, MÈR, Shi¿ite jurist, d. 976/1568-69. He was descended from a famous family of erudite sayyeds whose most celebrated ancestor, Sayyed ˆar^f ¿Al^ b. Moháammad Ôorèa@n^ (d. 816/1413), was taken away by T^mu@r from Shiraz to Transoxania. Other members of this family also served under Safavids: M^r Sayyed ˆar^f ˆ^ra@z^ (d. 920/1514) functioned as sáadr under Shah Esma@¿^l and fell in the battle of Ùa@ldera@n. ... J. R. Perry ÷L-FATH® KHAN BAK¨TÈAÚRÈ, a chieftain of the Haft Lang branch of the Bakòt^a@r^ and paramount chief (^lkòa@n^) of the tribe. Abu÷l-Fathá was governor of Isfahan at the time of Na@der Shah's death in 1160/1747; he was confirmed in this post by Na@der's immediate successors, ¿AÚdel Shah, Ebra@h^m, and ˆa@hrokò. When ¿Al^ Marda@n (q.v.) of the Ùaha@r Lang Bakòt^a@r^ and Kar^m Khan Zand captured the city in spring 1163/1750, he was obliged to put at their disposal his prestige and influence in the former Safavid capital. ... H. Busse ÷L-FATH® KHAN ÔAVAÚNˆÈR, son of the ruler of Qara@ba@g@, Ebra@h^m K¨al^l Khan Ôava@nÞ^r, and through his sister brother-in-law of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah. In the First Russo-Persian War Abu÷l-Fathá Khan supported the Persians and fought on the side of the crown prince ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.); his father placed himself under the protection of the Russians (in 1804) and died two years later near his capital, Shusha, in somewhat mysterious circumstances. In the treaty of Golesta@n (1813), Qara@ba@g@ was ceded to Russia; even before it was signed, Abu÷l-Fathá Khan withdrew from Qara@ba@g@ along with his fellow tribesmen, and ¿Abba@s M^rza@ made him governor of Dezma@r. ... H. Busse ÷L-FATH® KHAN ZAND, eldest son of Kar^m Khan (Wak^l) of the Èna@q lineage of the Zand, b. 1169/1755-56. His mother was a sister of Esma@¿^l SoltÂa@n Kord-e Qu@±a@n^. In the dispute over the succession following the death of Kar^m Khan (13 Sáafar 1193/2 March 1779), one party backed Abu÷l-Fathá Khan; the other supported the third son, Moháammad ¿Al^ Khan (b. 1174/1760-61); the second son had predeceased his father. As a compromise, both princes were installed as joint rulers. Zak^ Khan of the Bu@da@q lineage, who had originally opposed Abu÷l-Fathá, took over the state administration. ... H. Algar ÷L-FATH® MÈRZAÚ, MO÷AYYED-AL-DAWLA (d. 1330/1912), Qajar prince who held a number of governorships. His father was SoltÂa@n Mora@d M^rza@ H®osáa@m-al-saltÂana, who likewise occupied a succession of government posts. He was married to Afsar-al-dawla, daughter of Na@sáer-al-d^n Shah by his first marriage, and was thus a brother-in-law of Ka@mra@n M^rza@ Na@÷eb-al-saltÂana, who was for many years governor of Tehran. His first appointment was to the governorship of Yazd in 1287/1870, followed by that of Isfahan a few years later; he held both these posts on behalf of his father. ... ÷L-FATH® YUÚSOF B. YA¿QUÚB, ˆAMS-AL-WOZARAÚ÷ QOT®B-AL-DÈN NEZ®AÚM-AL-MOLK, Ghaznavid vizier of the early 6th/12th century. The dates of his birth and death are unknown; the biographical works on viziers by Na@sáer-al-d^n Kerma@n^, Sayf-al-d^n Fazµl^, and others stop short at the viziers of the later Ghaznavids. It is possible that he was a brother of the Abu÷l-¿Ala@÷ b. Ya¿qu@b Na@ku@k (q.v.) who had served Sultan Ebra@h^m b. Mas¿u@d I in India. Abu÷l-Fathá Yu@sof acted as vizier to Sultan Malek Arslan or Arslan Shah (q. ... J. G. J. ter Harr ÷L-FAYZ˜ KAMAÚL-AL-DÈN SERHENDÈ, MOH®AMMAD EH®SAÚN B. H®ASAN AH®MAD B. MOH®AMMAD HAÚDÈ B. ¿OBAYDALLAÚH B. MOH®AMMAD MA¿SáUÚM B. AH®MAD, author of Rawzµat al-qayyu@m^ya, a still unpublished tadòkera of the NaqÞband^ya-Moèadded^ya order in India. References in the text indicate that Abu÷l-Fayzµ was born on 27 1121/2 October 1709 in Sirhind. In 1131/1718-19 he became a mor^d of Moháammad Zobayr, the fourth qayyu@m (see below), who subsequently sent him in 1145/1732-33 as his kòal^fa from Shahjahanabad to the eastern districts. ... ÷L-FAZ˜L ABUÚ MOH®AMMAD. See ¿ABD-AL-H®AMÈD B. VAÚSE¿. R. M. Eaton ÷L-FAZ˜L ¿ALLAÚMÈ, historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar I. Born on 6 Moháarram 958/14 January 1551, he was the second son of Shaikh Moba@rak, a teacher and scholar who had migrated to Agra in 950/1543 from Nagaur, Rajastan. Although Abu÷l-Fazµl grew up in the capital during the period when Akbar was reestablishing Mughal authority in north India, he was not initially attracted to court service, as had been his older brother Fayzµ^ (q.v.), Akbar's famous poet-laureate. ... M. Momen ÷L-FAZ˜L (or ABU÷L-FAZ˜AÚ÷EL) GOLPAÚYEGAÚNÈ, MÈRZAÚ MOH®AMMAD, prominent Baha÷i scholar and apologist. He was born in Ôoma@da@ II, 1260/June-July, 1844 in Golpa@yega@n, the son of M^rza@ Moháammad-Rezµa@ ˆar^¿atmada@r. After studying traditional Islamic sciences at Karbala@, Naèaf, and Isfahan, he proceeded, in October, 1873 to Tehran, where he soon became head of Madrasa-ye H®ak^m Ha@Þem, also known as Madrasa-ye Mada@r-e ˆa@h. H. Algar ÷L-FAZ˜L MOH®AMMAD B. H®ASAN K¨OTTALÈ (d. 453/1061?), preceptor of Abu÷l-H®asan ¿Al^ Hoèv^r^ (q.v., d. 465/1073), the author of the celebrated Persian treatise on Sufism, KaÞf al-maháèu@b. It is from this work that virtually our entire knowledge of K¨ottal^ is derived (Samarqand, 1330/1912, pp. 208-09; Eng. tr. R. A. Nicholson, The Kashf al-Maháèu@b: The Oldest Persian Treatise on Sufism, GMS 17, new ed., London, 1936, pp. 166-67). K¨ottal, his birthplace, is said to have been a village near Dastgerd on the road to Khorasan (Moháammad Ma¿sáu@m ˆ^ra@z^, T®ara@÷eq al-háaqa@÷eq, ed. ... ÷L-FAZ˜L MÈKAÚL, ¿OBAYDALLAÚH (also called ¿ABDALLAÚH and ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN) B. AH®MAD B. ¿ALÈ, author and poet, d. 436/1045. Abu÷l-Fazµl traced his lineage back to the Sasanian king Pe@ro@z. His mastery of Arabic literature was such that T¨a¿a@leb^ recognized him as the equal of Ebn ¿Am^d and Sáa@háeb b. ¿Abba@d, and in poetry the peer of ¿Abdalla@h b. al-Mo¿tazz and Abu@ Fera@s H®amda@n^. He wrote a d^va@n of poetry, and a collection of his essays entitled Makòzu@n al-bala@g@a was well-known. ... P. P. Soucek ÷L-FAZ˜L B. FAZ˜LALLAÚH MAÔD-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD SAÚVAÔÈ (1248-1312/1832-95), a scholar, calligrapher, poet, and physician active in Qajar court circles. His father had moved to Tehran from Sa@va, but his family was descended from H®asan Khan ˆa@mlu@, the Safavid governor of Herat under Shah ¿Abba@s I and Shah Sáaf^. Abu÷l-Fazµl was precocious, attaining renown as a poet, calligrapher, and physician by the age of twenty-three. In calligraphy he used the cursive styles popular in the period: nasta¿l^q, ta¿l^q, and Þekasta. ... L. A. Giffen ÷L-FAZ˜L ˆÈRAÚZÈ, AL-¿ABBAÚS B. AL-H®OSAYN, vizier in the time of the Buyids, patron of the Shi¿i Arab poet Ebn al-H®aèèa@è, born in Shiraz in 303/915, died at Ku@fa in 362/973. ÷L-FAZ˜L (in Ôu@zèa@n^ ABU÷L-FATH®) TAÚÔ-AL-DÈN NASáR B. T®AÚHER, amir of the line of later Saffarids, sometimes called the third dynasty of Saffarids and, by a historian like Ôu@zèa@n^, the “Maleks of N^mru@z and Seèesta@n.” He succeeded his father Baha@÷-al-dawla T®a@her b. Moháammad in about 483/1090-91 and died, a centenarian, in 559/1164. The Ta@r^kò-e S^sta@n records various internecine struggles between him and his relatives and rivals before he could establish his authority and embark on his long reign. ... J. A. Wakin ÷L-FOTUÚH® ESáFAHAÚNÈ, AS¿AD B. ABI÷L-FAZ˜AÚ÷EL MAH®MUÚD B. K¨ALAF AL-¿EÔLÈ, known also by his laqab Montaèab-al-d^n (or in some sources Montakòab-al-d^n), a well-known Shafe¿ite scholar and traditionist. Abu÷l-Fotu@há was born in Isfahan in 514/1120 or 515/1121, and studied traditions there with a number of leading scholars, including Omm Ebra@h^m Fa@tÂema, daughter of ¿Abdalla@h Ôu@zda@n^ya. Known for his piety and temperance, he refused to consume anything he had not earned by his own hand, and so supported himself by copying books and selling them. ... M. J. McDermott ÷L-FOTUÚH® RAÚZÈ, ÔAMAÚL-AL-DÈN H®OSAYN B. ¿ALÈ B. MOH®AMMAD B. AH®MAD B. EBRAÚHÈM B. AL-FAZ˜L B. ˆOÔAÚ¿ B. HAÚˆEM K¨OZAÚ¿È, Shi¿ite commentator on the Koran who lived in the first half of the 6th/12th century. He came of an illustrious Arab family, his ancestor Bodayl b. Warqa@÷ having fought, together with his sons, alongside ¿Al^ at Sáeff^n (q.v.). The family became established in N^Þa@pu@r, until Abu÷l-Fotu@há's grandfather moved to Ray. Since one of the teachers of Abu÷l-Fotu@há, H®asan b. ... See K¨ORAÚSAÚNÈ, ABUÚ GÚAÚNEM. B. Spuler ÷L-GÚAÚZÈ BAHAÚDOR KHAN, khan of K¨^va (r. 1054-74/1644 to 1663-64) and Ùag@ata@y historian. The son of ¿Arab Moháammad Khan, Uzbek ruler of the Shaibanid dynasty (q.v.) and a princess of the same royal house, he was probably born 16 Rab^¿ I 1012/24 August 1603. He spent his youth at his father's court in Organè and then in Ka@t¯, where he was his father's deputy from 1029/1619 onwards. When his father was assassinated and his brothers asserted their claim to the throne, he fled to Samarqand. ... J. Chabbi ¿AMR B. SALMA H®ADDAÚD, an ascetic who was born and lived in N^Þa@pu@r, d. between 265/874 and 270/879. Biographers differ on the name of his father, variously calling him Sa@lem, Maslama, or Salma. The oldest references to him date from the second half of the 4th/10th century. Abu@ ¿Abdalla@h b. al-Bayye¿ (q.v.), author of the lost Ta÷r^kò N^sa@bu@r, called Abu@ H®afsá an ascetic (za@hed) but not a preacher (wa@¿ezá), which was then a common appellation for holy men. He described Abu@ H®afs's generation as one in which no one was called sáu@f^ (for the importance of the distinction between za@hed and sáu@f^ in Khorasan, see R. ... Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh one of the so-called “first poets” in New Persian. The concept of “first poet,” however, is simplistic; since poetry, like any stage of a language, evolves continuously and is rooted in its immediate past. The idea of “first poet” may have evolved from the lack of distinction in tadòkeras between the term earliest (qad^mtar^n) and first (awwal). Nor was Abu@ H®afs the first poet who used Arabic meter in his poetry. Others had already done so, and his extant one-line fragment does not strictly conform to the norms of Arabic prosody. ... Fazlur Rahman SáADR-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD TORKA, scholar and author of the late 7th/13th and early 8th/14th centuries, the first in a line of prominent men of the Torka-ye Esáfaha@n^ family. The family name refers to Abu@ H®a@med's grandfather, described as a Turk who moved from K¨oèand to Isfahan. B. Reinert d. 290/903, Sufi born and active in N^Þa@pu@r; according to ¿AtÂtÂa@r he died there (Tadòkera II, p. 97.6; Solam^, T®abaqa@t, p. 326.3; Z˜abb^, Ta@r^kò-e NayÞa@bu@r, p. 150; Ansáa@r^, T®abaqa@t, p. 123.8). He received his Sufi training from Abu@ Tora@b NakòÞab^ (q.v., d. 245/859), with whom he traveled extensively (ibid., p. 123.6; Hoèv^r^, KaÞf, p. 184.1). Abu@ H®amza also studied with Baghdadi masters, being counted among the contemporaries (aqra@n) of Ôonayd (d. 297/910) and as a companion (raf^q) of K¨arra@z (d. ... U. F. Abd-Alla@h NO¿MAÚN B. T¨AÚBET B. ZUÚT®AÚ (or AL-NO¿MAÚN) B. AL-MARZOBAÚN (or MAÚH), 80-150/699-767, eponym of the H®anaf^ school of Islamic law—the largest of the four primary Sunni schools of law. As one of the most important figures in Islamic social and intellectual history, he was controversial in his own time and long remained so; as Abu@ Zahra observes, probably no other figure in Islamic law of similar prominence evoked such high esteem from some, yet such categorical condemnation from others—in Abu@ H®an^fa's case especially from some of the proponents of Hadith (ahl al-háad^t¯; see Abu@ Zahra, Abu@ H®an^fa, p. ... See ESKAÚFÈ, ABUÚ H®ANÈFA. D. Pingree ÷L-H®ASAN AHWAÚZÈ, astronomer, fl. after ca. 215/830. He is known through citations by B^ru@n^. He used the revolutions of the planets in a maha@yuga according to the system of the Indian AÚryabhatÂa (B^ru@n^, India, Hyderabad [Deccan], 1958, p. 357; tr. E. Sachau, London, 1910, II, p. 19; cf. Ha@Þem^, The Book of the Reasons behind Astronomical Tables, tr. F. I. Haddad and E. S. Kennedy, comm. by Kennedy and D. Pingree [in press]). He criticized al-Z^è al-Sendhend by K¨úa@razm^ (d. ca. 232/847; B^ru@n^, Resa@la, ed. ... H. Algar ÷L-H®ASAN ESáFAHAÚNÈ, AÚYATALLAÚH (1284-1365/1867-1946), an Iranian moètahed who was a leading religious authority in the Shi¿ite world for more than thirty years. He was born in a village near Isfahan into a family of Behbaha@n^ origin that had traditionally produced religious scholars. His grandfather, Sayyed ¿Abd-al-H®am^d, had been a prominent student of Shaikh Mu@sa@ b. Ôa¿far Ka@Þef-al-g@etÂa@÷ early in the 19th century. After his elementary education, he moved from his native village to Isfahan, completing there the sotÂu@há and dars-e kòa@reè stages of the traditional madrasa curriculum. ... ÷L-H®ASAN ¿ALÈ B. FAZ˜L B. AH®MAD ESFARAÚ÷ÈNÈ, first vizier for the Ghaznavid sultan Mahámu@d (r. 388-421/998-1030). He began his career as a secretary in Khorasan in the entourage of the ambitious Turkish general of the Samanids, ¿Am^d-al-dawla Fa@÷eq K¨a@sásáa, and was probably a native of the town of Esfara@÷^n in northwest Khorasan. When the bid for control of Khorasan by Fa@÷eq and Abu÷l-Qa@sem S^mèu@r^ was thwarted by the efforts of Sebüktigin and his son Mahámu@d, Esfara@÷^n^ transferred to the service of Sebüktigin and then Mahámu@d. ... R. D. McChesney ÷L-H®ASAN B. MOH®AMMAD AMÈN GOLESTAÚNA, vizier of Kerma@nÞa@ha@n and chronicler of post-Afsharid Iran. He was a member of a family of H®asan^ sayyeds long established at Isfahan. Religious considerations had kept earlier members of the family from involvement with the state, but by Afsharid times Golesta@na sayyeds were found in government service throughout Iran. One of Abu÷l-H®asan's uncles, M^rza@ Moháammad Taq^, held several positions under Afsharid dynasts: administrator (wak^l) of tax revenues for Kerma@nÞa@ha@n, treasurer of provincial revenues (mostawf^ al-mama@lek), governor of Hamada@n, collector (moháasásáel) of tax revenues for Iraq, and commandant and governor of Kerma@nÞa@ha@n. ... D. Pingree ÷L-HA®SAN ˆAMSÈ HERAVÈ, medieval mathematician; Seèz^ (late 4th/10th century) quotes some of his propositions regarding the trisection of an angle; and these are all that survive of his work (F. Woepcke, L'algeàbre d'Omar Alkhayya@m^, Paris, 1851, pp. 118-19, 122). It was suggested (Suter, Mathematiker, p. 228) that he may be the ¿Abdalla@h b. Moháammad Herav^ who wrote a Resa@la f^ anna keta@b Oql^des fi÷l-osáu@l mabn^ ¿ala÷l-ta÷l^f al-mantÂeq^ f^ moqaddema@tehe (“Epistle on the fact that Euclid's book The Elements rests upon logical composition in its premises”). ... M. Dab^rs^a@q^ ÷L-H®ASAN ÔORÔAÚNÈ, ¿ALÈ B. ¿ABD-AL-¿AZÈZ B. H®ASAN B. ¿ALÈ B. ESMAÚ¿ÈL (“Qa@zµ^ Ôorèa@n^”), Shafe¿ite jurist, poet, and man of letters, b. ca. 322/933. He came to N^Þa@pu@r at the age of fifteen and there progressed rapidly in various fields of learning. He was appointed judge (qa@zµ^) of Gorga@n and became a close companion of the vizier Sáa@háeb b. ¿Abba@d. Losing his post after the latter's death in 385/995, he eventually secured the position of chief judge of Ray which he held until his death in 392/1001. ... H. Landolt ¿ALÈ B. AH®MAD B. ÔA¿FAR B. SALMAÚN (352-425/963-1033), Sufi shaikh of K¨araqa@n, some 20 km north of BastÂa@m in Khorasan. His shrine, with a recent gravestone but ancient adjoining mosque, overlooks the present-day village. Already celebrated in his own lifetime, K¨araqa@n^ is said to receive illustrious visitors such as Sultan Mahámu@d of GÚazna and Ebn S^na@. Although many traditions pointing to his greatness as a saint are clearly legendary, there can be no doubt he was a mystic of exceptional genius; his presence left a strong impression on such different Sufi personalities as Abu@ Sa¿^d b. ... H®. Mah®bu@b^ Ardaka@n^ ÷L-H®ASAN KHAN ARDALAÚN, H®AÚÔÔ FAK¨R-AL-MOLK, b. 1279/1862-63, government official under the late Qajars. He was related to the royal family by blood and marriage. In his youth he served in court as a page. Later he became an attendant of Na@sáer-al-d^n Shah and accompanied him in his tour of Europe (1306/1888-89). He held several military and administrative positions including the governorships of Hamada@n (1316/1898-99) and Ara@k (three times), and the ministry of commerce (1321/1903-04). ... B. W. Robinson ÷L-H®ASAN KHAN GÚAFFAÚRÈ, SáANÈ¿-AL-MOLK (1814-66), painter in oils and miniature, lacquer artist, and book illustrator. He was the eldest son of M^rza@ Moháammad GÚaffa@r^, and great-nephew of Abu÷l-H®asan Mostawf^, the first of a line of Ka@Þa@n painters. In 1829 he was a pupil of the best of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah's court painters, Mehr-¿Al^. During the next decade he made rapid progress, and in 1842 an oil portrait of Moháammad Shah secured him a position as a court artist. His style by now was formed; in oil painting it was refinement on that of Mehr-¿Al^; but his miniature paintings and portraits show originality, naturalism, and technical perfection (see Plate XIV). ... H. Javadi ÷L-H®ASAN KHAN ÈLÙÈ, MÈRZAÚ, Persian diplomat, b. 1190/1776 in ˆ^ra@z. He was the second son of M^rza@ Moháammad-¿Al^, the brother-in-law of H®a@èè^ Ebra@h^m Khan E¿tema@d-al-dawla (q.v.), the prime minister of the Qajars AÚg@a@ Moháammad Khan and Fathá-¿Al^ Shah; he married H®a@èè^ Ebra@h^m's daughter. In 1215/1800, when H®a@èè^ Ebra@h^m fell out of favor and was imprisoned, all his relatives either fled or were put to death or blinded. M^rza@ Abu÷l-H®asan, then the governor of ˆu@Þtar, was exiled to ˆ^ra@z. ... H. Busse ÷L-H®ASAN KHAN MAH®ALLAÚTÈ KOHAKÈ, SAYYED, imam of the Neza@r^ Isma¿ilis of the Qa@semÞa@h^ line, beglerbegi of Kerma@n under Kar^m Khan Zand and his successors from approximately 1181/1768 to 1206/1791-92. The epithet “Kohak^” indicates that he originally was from the village of Kohak in the Maháalla@t region. As imam of the Isma¿ilis, Abu÷l-H®asan Khan had many adherents in Kerma@n; his main stronghold was ˆahr-e Ba@bak on the southern slopes of Ku@h-e Masa@hem (about 110 miles west of Kerma@n), where he occupied an imposing and superbly equipped fortress. ... H. Algar ÷L-H®ASAN KHAN MOÔTAHED, MÈRZAÚ (1121-1279/1806-63), member of a prominent family of Shiraz who led a turbulent life alternating between government service and the cultivation of religious knowledge in a manner unusual in Qajar Iran. His father, M^rza@ Moháammad Ha@d^ Fasa@÷^, had married the daughter of H®osayn ¿Al^ M^rza@ Farma@nfarma@, so that Abu÷l-H®asan grew up in affluence and enjoyed the protection of Farma@nfarma@. Although this encouraged him in the practice of debauchery, he showed early signs of interest in religious sciences. ... ÷L-H®ASAN KHAN ˆÈRAÚZÈ. See MOˆÈR-AL-MOLK. F. Gaffary ÷L-H®ASAN MOSTAWFÈ, painter and historian of the 12th/18th century from Ka@Þa@n, son of M^rza@ Mo¿ezz-al-d^n Moháammad GÚaffa@r^. Under Kar^m Khan Zand, Abu÷l-H®asan was governor of Ka@Þa@n, Qom, Natáanz and ÔowÞeqa@n for more than thirty years, beginning in 1162/1749. Later he became Kar^m Khan's secretary and wrote a history of his reign, GolÞa@n-e mora@d, a detailed and important source for the period. It was completed until the end of the dynasty by Abu÷l-H®asan's son Moháammad-Ba@qer, also a historian and painter, in Ka@Þa@n in 1210/1795-96. ... D. Duda ÷L-H®ASAN NAÚDER-AL-ZAMAÚN, noted Mughal painter. He was born in 997/1589 at the court of Prince Sal^m (later the emperor Ôaha@ng^r, q.v.), where his father, AÚqa@ Rezµa@ from Herat, lived and worked as a painter. He was held in great esteem by Ôaha@ng^r (977-1037/1569-1627), who had him trained to be a court painter like his father and gave him the honorary title Na@der-al-zama@n (Wonder of the Age; Tu@zok-e Ôaha@ng^r^, tr. A. Rogers, London, 1909-14, II, p. 20). His father's preeminence at the Mughal court is indicated by his sobriquet Mor^d-e Pa@deÞa@h (disciple of the Emperor), attested by his own hand in an album from Golesta@n palace (L. ... H. Algar AÚYATALLAÚH (1326-96/1908-76), an influential moètahed of Isfahan who was murdered on 7 April 1976 under mysterious circumstances. Born into a family of religious scholars of Ma@zandara@n^ origin that had settled in Isfahan in the early 19th century, ˆamsa@ba@d^ received his preliminary education in Isfahan under the guidance of his father, M^rza@ Moháammad Ebra@h^m, and H®a@èè Molla@ Abu÷l-Qa@sem. At the age of twenty-five he went to Naèaf, where he stayed for about twelve years, studying under the important scholars of the day, such as AÚyatalla@h Abu÷l-H®asan Esáfaha@n^ (q. ... L. Richter-Bernburg ÷L-H®ASAN B. ¿ABD-AL-WAHHAÚB TAFREˆÈ (1261-1323/1845 to 1905-06), medical instructor, author, and public health official in late Qajar Persia. Abu÷l-H®asan was born in T®arkòora@n (34°40' north latitude, 50° east longitude, apparently identical with TafreÞ, of which it used to be a dependency; see Gazetteer of Iran I, p. 654, and maps I-43-B, I-44-A), today the central place of the district of TafreÞ, situated between Qom and Hamada@n in the Central Province (see Map of Iran, Administrative Divisions, Tehran, 1962). ... H. Algar ÷L-H®ASAN T®AÚLAQAÚNÈ, H®OÔÔAT-AL-ESLAÚM (?-1350/1932), religious scholar and father of the celebrated AÚyatalla@h Mahámu@d T®a@laqa@n^. Born in the village of Gel^rd near T®a@laqa@n, he completed the preliminary stages of his religious training in Tehran before joining the circle of the great moètahed M^rza@ H®asan ˆ^ra@z^ in Sa@marra@÷. After the death of ˆ^ra@z^ in 1312/1895, he continued his studies with AÚyatalla@h MosátÂafa@ Sáadr. He left the ¿ataba@t in 1317/1899, and after performing the háaèè took up residence in Tehran, where he supported himself as a watch repairer while teaching and preaching at various mosques. ... T. Nagel B. MOH®AMMAD B. H®ANAFÈYA, ¿Alid figure in Shi¿ite tradition. About two decades after the Prophet died, leaving the Muslim community without any temporal and spiritual guidance authorized by God, the Shi¿ite movement began to take shape. Its supporters held that ¿Al^, the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, and ¿Al^'s descendants guaranteed the continuance of the seemingly lost prophetic guidance. ¿Al^ and his sons came to be looked upon as charismatic leaders of the faithful, who ought to rally round them. ... H. Halm AH®MAD B. H®AMDAÚN AL-VARSENAÚNÈ AL-LAYT¨È, Isma¿ili da@¿^ (missionary) and author of the 4th/10th century. He was born in PaÞa@pu@ya, a district south of Ray, and became deputy to GÚ^a@t¯, the Isma¿ili da@¿^ active there. According to Nezáa@m-al-molk, Abu@ H®a@tem forced out the successor of GÚ^a@t¯, Abu@ Ôa¿far Kab^r (who suffered from attacks of melancholy) and himself became the local Isma¿ili leader. Apparently he succeeded in converting the governor of Ray, Ahámad b. ¿Al^ (307-11/919-24). ... D¨. S®afa@ ÷L-HAYÔAÚ ARDAˆÈR B. DAYLAMSOPAÚR NAÔMÈ QOT®BÈ, Persian poet of the 5th-6th/11th-12th centuries. At his request Asad^ T®u@s^ (q.v.) wrote the Log@at-e fors; and one line in that text attributed to a Naèm^ may be the work of Abu÷l-Hayèa@; Asad^ calls him his own “learned child” (Log@at-e fors, pp. 1-2; the verse is on p. 50). Abu÷l-Hayèa@ was still alive in 507/1113-14, when he completed the copying of Moháammad b. ¿Omar Ra@du@ya@n^'s Tarèoma@n al-bala@g@a (Fa@tehá Library, Istanbul; ed. ... H. Corbin ÷L-HAYT¨AM AH®MAD B. H®ASAN GORGAÚNÈ, Isma¿ili philosopher, for a long time one of the great unknown figures in the history of Irano-Islamic philosophy. A brief notice on him survives in the history of ¿Al^ b. Zayd Bayhaq^ (a notice in which the proper names are very badly treated in the Indian edition). The historian says: “I have never found any trace of him outside of a qasá^da in Persian on which Moháammad b. Sorkò N^Þa@pu@r^ commented.” And although he swears to not having seen, himself, any work of Abu÷l-Hayt¯am which would permit him to pass judgment on its scientific value, he classes him at the outset among the common philosophers (a¿wa@mm-e fala@sefa), i. ... W. M. Watt ¿ALÈ B. MOH®AMMAD B. AL-¿ABBAÚS, an outstanding man of letters and essayist of the Buyid period. He was born between 310/922 and 320/932, probably in Shiraz, though his birthplace is also given as N^Þa@pu@r, Wa@setá, or even Baghdad. He is said to have received the name Tawhá^d^ because his father was a seller in Baghdad of a type of date known as tawhá^d; but it is possible (cf. Soyu@tÂ^, Lobb al-loba@b) that Tawhá^d^ is derived from the name ahl al-tawhá^d wa÷l-¿adl adopted by the Mo¿tazela and so would refer to his philosophical views. ... J. van Ess ÷L-HOD¨AYL AL-¿ALLAÚF, MOH®AMMAD B. AL-HOD¨AYL B. ¿OBAYDALLAÚH B. MAKH®UÚL AL-¿ABDÈ (ca. 135-227/752-841?), early Mu¿tazilite theologian of universal reputation. He seems to have been of Persian descent, a mawla@ of ¿Abd-al-Qays. The greater part of his life was spent in Basára, where he must have been much impressed by the theology of Z˜era@r b. ¿Amr (ca. 110-200/728-815). The later school tradition did not acknowledge any relationship between him and this productive motakallem and, rather, referred to a certain ¿Ot¯ma@n b. ... D. Gimaret ÷L-H®OSAYN MOH®AMMAD B. ¿ALÈ B. AL-T®AYYEB AL-BASáRÈ, Mu¿tazilite theologian and lawyer, d. 436/1044. Although he was born in Basára, he spent most of his life in Baghdad. His best-known theological work, Keta@b tasáaffohá al-adella, was a critical investigation of the various arguments and proofs presented in the writings of earlier Mu¿tazilites. His best-known work on jurisprudence is Keta@b al-mo¿tamad f^ osáu@l al-feqh (ed. M. Hamidullah, Damascus, 1965). Since neither the Tasáaffohá nor the other theological treatises of Abu÷l-H®osayn have survived, it is impossible to attempt a reconstruction of his thought except on the basis of later sources, especially those of his disciple, Mahámu@d b. ... ÷L-H®OSAYN AH®MAD B. SA¿D KAÚTEB, official of the Buyids and writer in Arabic of the 4th/10th century. Little is known of him beyond what Ya@qu@t records in his biographical notice. He apparently came from Fa@rs; in 323/935 he was appointed head of the finances of the province of Isfahan by the Buyid amir ¿Ema@d-al-dawla, who had in the previous year taken over Fa@rs from the governor of the caliph Qa@her. Abu÷l-H®osayn only held this office for a year; and after 324/936 Ya@qu@t has nothing more to mention of him. ... J. Lassner founder of the ¿Èsa@w^ya, an obscure Jewish sect in Islamic times. The sources dealing with Abu@ ¿Èsa@ and his movement are scanty and often fragmentary. No mention is made of him in the medieval chronicles, an indication that the movement which he led was of little political consequence. There are, however, slight references to the ¿Èsa@w^ya in the heresiographical literature, particularly in ˆahresta@n^ (d. 548/1153) and in the Karaite writer Qerqesa@n^'s Keta@b al-anwa@r wa÷l-mara@qeb (ca. 329/939). ... W. M. Watt MOH®AMMAD B. HAÚRUÚN AL-WARRAÚQ, heretical theologian of the 3rd/9th century. His birthdate is unknown, and there are contradictory statements about the date of his death. Mas¿u@d^ (Moru@è VII, p. 236) says he died in 247/861-62. It is also stated, however (in a late work quoted in the notes to K¨ayya@tÂ, Keta@b al-entesáa@r, ed. H. S. Nyberg, Cairo, 1927, p. 205), that his pupil Ebn al-Ra@wand^ (q.v.) died shortly after him; and Ebn al-Ra@wand^ is often thought to have died about the end of the 3rd/9th century. ... D. Pingree B. AH®MAD B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. H®ABAˆ, mid- to late 3rd/9th century astronomer, son of a famous astronomer from Marv. Ebn al-Nad^m, followed by Ebn al-QeftÂ^, attributed to Abu@ Ôa¿far a Keta@b al-astáorla@b al-mosatátáahá (“Book of the plane astrolabe”). A manuscript of the text survives in Paris. MOH®AMMAD B. AL-H®ASAN AL-K¨AÚZEN AL-K¨ORAÚSAÚNÈ, astronomer (ca. 287/900-probably 360/970). According to Ebn al-Nad^m (Fehrest, pp. 138, 250) and Ebn al-QeftÂ^ (Ta÷r^kò al-háokama@÷, ed. J. Lippert, Leipzig, 1903, p. 40), a commentary on the beginning of Aristotle's De caelo was dedicated to him by Kend^'s pupil, Abu@ Zayd Balkò^ (q.v., d. 322/934). And according to Abu@ Nasár Mansáu@r b. ¿Era@q (Rasa@÷el, Hyderabad [Deccan], 1947, p. 45), he had correspondence with Ebra@h^m b. Sena@n (d. ... See T®UÚSÈ, ABUÚ ÔA¿FAR. W. Madelung ÷L-ÔAÚRUÚD ZÈAÚD B. AL-MOND¨ER B. ZÈAÚD AL-HAMDAÚNÈ AL-K¨AÚREFÈ, Kufan Shi¿ite scholar and leader of the early Zaydite group named after him, the Ôa@ru@d^ya. The nesba al-K¨a@ref^ refers him to K¨a@ref, a clan of Hamda@n which was represented in Ku@fa and had supported the movement of Mokòta@r. The reading of a further nesba, given as al-H®-w-f^ or H®-r-q^, is uncertain. Only T®u@s^ states that he was a mawla@. Other nesbas variously attributed to him, al-¿Abd^, al-T¨akaf^, al-Nahd^, al-K¨ora@sa@n^, are probably erroneous. ... ÷L-K¨AÚLED KAÚBOLÈ. See KANKAR. -AL-DÈN MARZBAÚN. See ¿EMAÚD-AL-DÈN. ¿ALAÚ÷-AL-DAWLA, second son of the Kakuyid amir of Ôeba@l, ¿Ala@÷-al-dawla Moháammad b. DoÞmanz^a@r, ruled in Hamada@n and parts of what are now Kurdistan and Luristan, 433-37/1041-42 to 1045, d. 443/1051-52. When ¿Ala@÷-al-dawla died in 433/1041-42, Abu@ Ka@l^èa@r GarÞa@sp's elder brother, Abu@ Mansáu@r Fara@marz (q.v.), succeeded in the Kakuyid capital of Isfahan as head of the family and supreme chief. Abu@ Ka@l^èa@r GarÞa@sp had already been governor of Hamada@n and Neha@vand during his father's lifetime, from some unspecified date, and probably with intervals of dispossession when the armies of the Ghaznavid sultan Mas¿u@d had appeared in 421/1030, 423/1032, and 426/1035. ... ¿ALAÚ÷-AL-DAWLA ¿AZ˜OD-AL-DÈN B. ¿ALÈ B. ABÈ MANSáUÚR FARAÚMARZ B. ¿ALAÚ÷-AL-DAWLA MOH®AMMAD, member of the Dailamite dynasty of the Kakuyids (d. 536/1141?). Like his father ¿Al^ and grandfather Abu@ Mansáu@r Fara@marz (q.v.), Abu@ Ka@l^èa@r GarÞa@sp was head of the Kakuyid family in their fief of the town of Yazd, which had been granted by the Saljuq Tog@rïl Beg in 433/1051. After his father's death in 488/1095, he became an honored figure at the Saljuq court. In the early years of the 6th/12th century, he enjoyed the favor of Sultan Moháammad b. ... A. Sachedina ÷L-K¨AT®T®AÚB MOH®AMMAD B. ABÈ ZAYNAB MEQLAÚS AL-AÔDA¿ AL-ASADÈ, founder of the extremist Shi¿ite sect K¨atátáa@b^ya. T®u@s^ gives his name as Moháammad b. Meqla@s (Meqla@sá) al-Asad^ al-Ku@f^ (Reèa@l, p. 302). KaÞÞ^ gives the longer form (Reèa@l [abridged and purged version entitled Ekòt^a@r ma¿refat al-reèa@l by T®u@s^], MaÞhad, 1348 ˆ./1969-70, p. 290). Maqr^z^ calls him Moháammad b. Ab^ T¨awr/Ab^ Yaz^d (K¨etáatá, Bu@la@q, 1270/1853-54, II, p. 352). His usual konyas were Abu@ Esma@¿^l and Abu÷l-K¨atátáa@b (KaÞÞ^, op. ... W. Madelung ÷L-K¨AYR B. AL-K¨AMMAÚR, H®ASAN B. SOVAÚR B. BAÚBAÚ B. BAHNAÚM (or BAHRAÚM), Nestorian Christian physician, philosopher, theologian, and translator, b. Rab^¿ I, 331/November, 942 in Baghdad. In philosophy he was a student of Yaháya@ b. ¿Ad^ (d. 364/974), head of the Aristotelian school then known as the logicians (mantáeq^yu@n). It is unknown with whom he studied medicine. He is described, however, as an associate of the physician T¨a@bet b. Sena@n (d. 363/973), who may have been his teacher in this art. ... Y. Bregel ÷L-K¨AYR KHAN B. DAWLAT SHAIKH OGÚLAÚN, of the descendants of ˆïban (the younger son of Ôo±i), the ruler of the Uzbek nomadic state in DaÞt-e Qïp±aq in the 15th century A.D. He was born in 1412 (the year of the dragon), when the former ulus of ˆïban was divided in a number of separate nomadic principalities. In the mid-1420s Abu÷l-K¨ayr, as well as some other Shaibanid princes, was subordinate to Ôumaduq Khan, a member of the same clan. In 1427 the latter was killed in battle with his rebellious amirs; Abu÷l-K¨ayr, who was in command of his left wing, was taken prisoner, but later was set free (Ta@r^kò-e Abu÷l-K¨ayr K¨a@n^, MS of the Institute of Oriental Studies, Leningrad, C-480, fol. ... J. van Ess ÷L-LAYT¨ NASáR B. MOH®AMMAD B. AH®MAD SAMARQANDÈ, productive Hanafite jurist, author of a Koran commentary and of popular paraenetical works; d. Monday night, 10/11 Ôoma@da@ II 373/19 November 983, Ch. Pellat a Persian slave of Mog@^ra b. ˆo¿ba, the governor of Basára, who assassinated the caliph ¿Omar b. al-K¨atátáa@b, on Wednesday, 26 D¨u÷l-háeèèa 23/2 November 644. The sources agree on his Persian origin, but disagree with respect of his religion; some claim that he was a Mazdean from Neha@vand, while others claim that he was Christian called Fe@ro@z Nasára@n^. What motivated him to kill ¿Omar is not clear. According to Mas¿u@d^, for example (Moru@è IV, pp. 191, 226-27, 353; ed. Pellat, pars. ... J. van Ess ÷L-MA¿AÚLÈ MOH®AMMAD B. ¿OBAYDALLAÚH B. ¿ALÈ, author of Baya@n al-adya@n, the oldest work on religions and sects written in Persian. From the somewhat abbreviated genealogy which he gives in the preface, it becomes clear that he was an ¿Alid. A comparison with Ebn ¿Enaba (¿Omdat al-táa@leb, Naèaf, 1381/1961, p. 331.2ff.) shows that he belonged to the descendants of H®osayn Aság@ar, the son of Zayn-al-¿a@bed^n. A great-grandson of this ancestor, H®osayn b. Ôa¿far (al-H®oèèa) b. ... Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh MOH®AMMAD B. ¿ABD-AL-RAZZAÚQ B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. FARROK¨, a dehqa@n (landowner) of T®u@s, official under the Samanids, and patron of a lost prose ˆa@h-na@ma (ˆa@h-na@ma-ye Abu@ Mansáu@r^). When Khorasan was assigned to Abu@ ¿Al^ Ùag@a@n^, Abu@ Mansáu@r governed T®u@s as his deputy until 335/946-47. He then joined Abu@ ¿Al^ in rebellion against Amir Nu@há b. Nasár; and when Abu@ ¿Al^ campaigned toward Marv and Bokhara, Abu@ Mansáu@r served as commander of Khorasan. After Abu@ ¿Al^'s defeat in 336/947-48, Abu@ Mansáu@r took refuge in Ray with the Dailamite Rokn-al-dawla H®asan. ... Z®AHÈR-AL-DÈN ˆAMS-AL-MOLK, eldest son of the Kakuyid amir of Ôeba@l, ¿Ala@÷-al-dawla Moháammad b. DoÞmanz^a@r. He reigned in Isfahan, 433-43/1041-51, and died at some unknown date after 455/1063. He may thus be considered as the second independent ruler of the Kakuyid dynasty, whose original fortunes had been made as commanders under the Buyids and who played a significant role in the first half of the 5th/11 century, skillfully maintaining their position in Isfahan, Hamada@n and other towns of Ôeba@l against the three rival great powers of the Buyids, Ghaznavids, and Saljuqs. ... MOWAFFAQ B. ¿ALÈ HERAVÈ, H®AKÈM (fl. ca. 370-80/980-90), author of the oldest preserved Persian text on materia medica, Keta@b al-abn^a ¿an háaqa@÷eq al-adw^a. He is known only from this source, which provides his name and title and attests to his Muslim faith (ed. Bahmanya@r [see bibliog.], p. 1). Knowledge of his place and date of activity is necessarily approximate. Of the two preserved manuscripts of his Keta@b al-abn^a, the copy made by the poet Asad^ T®u@s^ in ˆawwa@l, 447/December, 1055-January, 1056 is the oldest extant New Persian manuscript, and early attracted scholarly attention (J. ... L. Richter-Bernburg Dj. Khalegi-Motlagh minister (dastu@r) of Abu@ Mansáu@r b. ¿Abd-al-Razza@q (q.v., d. 350/961), a military commander of Khorasan under the Samanids. When the latter decided to have a ˆa@h-na@ma composed in New Persian, he instructed his minister to gather in T®u@s a number of Zoroastrian scholars and dehqa@ns; under Ma¿mar^'s direction they translated the Pahlavi Xwada@y-na@mag (q.v.), expanding it with material from other sources. The work was completed in Moháarram, 346/April, 957 and became the major source for Ferdows^. ... D. Pingree mathematician. Apparently sometime during the 9th/15th century Abu@ Mansáu@r wrote two works preserved in a manuscript at Florence: 1. Resa@la f^ ¿elm al-háesa@b (“Epistle concerning computation”); 2. Resa@la fi÷l-èabr wa÷l-moqa@bala (“Epistle concerning algebra”). D. Pingree ÔA¿FAR B. MOH®AMMAD BALK¨È, astronomer and astrologer, born in Balkò on 20 Sáafar 171/10 August 787. Abu@ Ma¿Þar (called Albumasar in Medieval Latin, Apomasar in Byzantine Greek) must have received his early education in that cosmopolitan city and acquired there his strong sense of the intellectual primacy of Iran among the nations of the Eurasian continent. He came to Baghdad in the early 3rd/9th century as an expert on Hadith, but by the late 820's—apparently as the result of a dispute with al-Kend^—had taken up the study of astronomy and astrology. ... D. Duda painter, portraitist, draftsman, engraver, and expert in artistic bookbinding and restoring who was extolled by the historian Qa@zµ^ Ahámad. He is not mentioned by any other authors. Nothing is known of his works. On his mother's side he was related to Shah Moháammad K¨oda@banda (985-95/1578-86). He is said to have died in 1005/1596 and to be buried near the shrine of Qom. J. W. Clinton (or BOK¨AÚRAÚ÷È), a poet of the Samanid court. He is mentioned earliest in a verse of ˆa@ker Bokòa@r^ (4th/10th cent.; Sáafa@, Adab^ya@t I, p. 399). Manu@±ehr^ Da@mg@a@n^ refers to him twice, once by name and again as one of the “five (poets) from Bokhara” (D^va@n, 3rd ed., M. Dab^rs^a@q^, Tehran, 1347 ˆ./1968). Nezáa@m^ ¿Aru@zµ^ cites him as belonging to the handful of poets, including Ru@dak^, who had been responsible for the survival of the Samanid dynasty's name (Ùaha@r maqa@la, 3rd ed. ... G. Lazard an early Persian poet and writer of the Samanid period, whose works have almost entirely disappeared. The details of his life are not known, but his works indicate a keen interest in Iranian antiquity, a knowledge of Pahlavi, and good acquaintance with Mazdean tradition. His major work seem to have been a large prose ˆa@h-na@ma which is referred to as ˆa@h-na@ma-ye bozorg, ˆa@h-na@ma-ye Mo÷ayyad^ or ˆa@h-na@ma-ye Bu÷l-Mo÷ayyad which evidently contained, in great detail, episodes which are not found as such in subsequent epic works (see, for example, Moèmal, p. ... Madelung MOH®AMMAD B. BAH®R AL-ESáFAHAÚNÈ AL-KAÚTEB, secretary, official, man of letters, and Mu¿tazilite Koran commentator, b. 254/868, probably in Isfahan. Nothing is known about his teachers. He must have come to Baghdad at an early age, for there he visited the house of the poet Bohátor^, who left Iraq in 279/892. At a social gathering in the caliphal court, he argued eloquently his claim that his home town Isfahan was the most pleasant spot on earth. In Baghdad he also became personally acquainted with the later ¿Abbasid vizier ¿Al^ b. ... GÚ. H®. Yu@sof^ ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN B. MOSLEM K¨ORAÚSAÚNÈ, prominent leader in the ¿Abbasid cause. He was born either at Marv or in the vicinity of Isfahan ca. 100-01/718-19 or 105-09/723-27. Sources differ regarding his original name and his origin. Some make him a descendant of Go@darz and of the vizier Bozorgmehr (q.v.) and call him Ebra@h^m; some name him Behza@da@n, son of Venda@d Hormoz (e.g., Moèmal al-tawa@r^kò, p. 315); and others relate him to the ¿Abbasids or to ¿Al^'s family. These suggestions are all doubtful. ... L. A. Giffen AL-BALK¨È, AL-H®AKAM B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. SALAMA B. ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN, faq^h, judge, and traditionist, disciple of Abu@ H®an^fa, died 183/799 in Balkò. Abu@ Motá^¿ was a judge for sixteen years in his native Balkò. He traveled to Baghdad several times and perhaps elsewhere, at least to Medina, Mecca, and Ku@fa; for among the names of persons from whom he is said to have heard Traditions are those of three men who were to become eponyms of schools of Islamic law, Ma@lek b. Anas of Medina, Abu@ H®an^fa of Ku@fa, and also Sofya@n al-T¨awr^ of Ku@fa (founder of a school of law, followed by Kufans and perhaps Iraqis in general, which endured several centuries). ... H. Halm ÷L-MOZ®AFFAR K¨úAÚFÈ, AH®MAD B. MOH®AMMAD B. AL-MOZ®AFFAR, d. in T®u@s in 500/1106, Shafe¿ite jurist and traditionist. He was one of the most important students of Ema@m-al-háaramayn Ôovayn^ (q.v., d. 478/1085) and a friend of GÚaza@l^. For some years he served as qa@zµ^ of T®u@s, but he was eventually deposed from office. E. Ehlers island in the Persian Gulf. G. R. Hawting ¿ABDALLAÚH B. QAYS, a Companion of the Prophet and important participant in the troubles which occupied the caliphate of ¿Al^. He was at various times governor of Basára and Ku@fa and was involved in the early Arab conquests in Persia. In spite of plentiful references to him in the sources for the early history of Islam, it is not possible to be sure regarding many of the details of his career and the interpretation and evaluation of the role which he played in certain events. J. van Ess ¿ÈSAÚ B. SáOBAYH® (or SáABÈH®) AL-MORDAÚR, theologian and ascetic, early representative of the Baghdad branch of the Mo¿tazela (d. 226/840-41). His surname al-Morda@r is frequently transmitted in a corrupt form: Mozda@r (H®a@kem al-ÔoÞam^, ˆarhá ¿oyu@n al-masa@÷el; cf. Qa@zµ^ ¿Abd-al-Ôabba@r, Fazµl al-e¿teza@l, ed. F. Sayyed, Tunis, 1974, p. 227, n. 511); Morda@d (Bag@da@d^, Farq [Cairo1], p. 102.8); Mora@d (Ôa@háezá, Keta@b al-borsáa@n wa÷l-¿orèa@n, ed. M. Mors^ al-K¨u@l^, Cairo, 1392/1972, p. ... C. E. Bosworth B. ESMAÚ¿ÈL SAÚMAÚNÈ, called AMÈR-E ˆAHÈD (“the martyred amir”) because of his violent death, Samanid amir in Transoxania and Khorasan (295-301/907-14). Under his father, Esma@¿^l b. Ahámad (the real founder of Samanid fortunes), he had been for a time governor of the recently conquered province of Gorga@n (see below). Succeeding as amir, he became ruler of a considerable empire. This included not only the heartland of the original Samanid governorate in Sog@d, but also the rich province of Khorasan; the latter passed definitely to the Samanids after the defeat and capture of the Saffarid adventurer ¿Amr b. ... B. NEZ®AÚM-AL-MOLK. See QEWAÚM-AL-DÈN Z˜ÈAÚ÷-AL-MOLK. W. M. Watt AL-ESMAÚ¿ÈLÈ, an alleged teacher of Abu@ H®a@med GÚaza@l^ (q.v., 450-505/1058-1111); it is not possible to identify him. A well-known Abu@ Nasár Ahámad b. Ema@m Abu@ Bakr Ahámad al-Esma@¿^l^ taught in Gorga@n but died in 405/1014-15 (Sobk^, T®abaqa@t1 III, p. 37; Ebn ¿Asa@ker, Taby^n kadòeb al-moftar^, Damascus, 1347/1928-29, p. 231). A suggested identification is Ema@m Abu÷l-Qa@sem Esma@¿^l b. Mas¿ada b. Esma@¿^l b. Ema@m Abu@ Bakr Esma@¿^l^, who died in Gorga@n in 477/1084-85 (Sobk^, T®abaqa@t1 III, pp. ... C. E. Bosworth T¨EQAT-AL-DÈN ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN B. ¿ABD-AL-ÔABBAÚR B. ¿OT¨MAÚN, 472-546/1079-1151, local historian of Herat in the Saljuq period. The scanty biographical information we possess derives only from Sam¿a@n^ [Leiden], fol. 418b) and from Ebn al-¿Ema@d (ˆadòara@t al-dòahab, Cairo, 1350-51/1931-33, IV, p. 140). These authors describe him as pious and modest, a háa@fezá, traditionist, and copyist of sacred texts, from whom many scholars in Herat and Pu@Þang subsequently related Traditions. It is curious that Sam¿a@n^ does not explain the nesba al-Fa@m^, but this presumably related to a quarter in Herat or to one of the surrounding villages. ... See FAÚRAÚBÈ, ABUÚ NASáR. C. E. Bosworth HEBATALLAÚH FAÚRSÈ, QEWAÚM-AL-MOLK NEZ®AÚM-AL-DÈN, official, soldier and poet of the Ghaznavid empire, flourished in the second half of the 5th/11th century during the reigns of the sultans Ebra@h^m b. Mas¿u@d I and Mas¿u@d III b. Ebra@h^m (qq.v.). His antecedents and his dates of birth and death are obscure, but it seems that his family had settled at Lahore and had a background of service to the Ghaznavids. He acted as deputy governor and commander-in-chief of the Ghaznavid army of the Panjab during the last years of Sultan Ebra@h^m, while his son Mas¿u@d was governor, and then after 492/1099, during the first years of the new ruler Mas¿u@d III, while the latter's son ¿Azµod-al-dawla ˆ^rza@d (the future sultan, 508-09/1115-16) was governor. ... D. Pingree B. ¿ALÈ B. ¿ERAÚQ, mathematician and astronomer, born probably in G^la@n about 349/960. Abu@ Nasár presumably belonged to the Banu@ ¿Era@q, who were the K¨úa@razmÞa@hs ruling from Ka@t¯ until their overthrow by Abu@ ¿Al^ Ma÷mu@n in 385/995-96. B^ru@n^, who calls him his teacher (AÚt¯a@r al-ba@q^ya, pp. 184-85; Chronology, p. 167, written in A.D. 1000), states that he was a freedman (mawla@) of the Am^r-al-mo÷men^n, who should be the Samanid ruler Amir Nu@há II (365-87/976-97). He apparently accompanied his learned student to the court of Sultan Mahámu@d of GÚazna in 1017. ... H. Moayyad MANSáUÚR B. MOˆKAÚN, head of the Ghaznavid chancery under Mahámu@d and Mas¿u@d from 401/1011-12 till his death in 431/1039-40. The name Mansáu@r appears only in T¨a¿a@leb^'s Tatemmat al-yat^ma (ed. ¿A. Eqba@l, Tehran, 1353/1934-35, vol. 2, p. 62) and his K¨a@sásá al-kòa@sásá (Beirut, 1966, p. 222). Both place and year of his birth are unknown, and the nesbas al-Zu@zan^ al-K¨úa@f^, mentioned in Moèmal-e fasá^há^ (ed. M. Farrokò, MaÞhad, 1341 ˆ./1962, vol. 2, pp. 141-42) are missing in other sources. ... K. A. Luther ESáFAHAÚNÈ ¿AZÈZ-AL-DÈN (or AL-¿AZÈZ) AH®MAD B. AH®MAD B. MOH®AMMAD B. ¿ABDALLAÚH, 472-527/1079-80 to 1133, well-known official of the Saljuqs of Iraq. He began service in the central d^va@ns late in the reign of Sultan Moháammad (498-511/1105-18) as assistant to Kama@l-al-molk Somayram^ who was moÞref-e mama@lek (chief financial inspector), then mostawf^-e mama@lek (minister of finance), then vizier of Moháammad's son Mahámu@d (511-25/1118-31). Abu@ Nasár, who had been young colleague of Somayram^ in the d^va@n of the Saljuq lady Gowhar K¨a@tu@n, reached real prominence as the new vizier's deputy. ... See ¿OTBÈ, ABUÚ NASáR. See QOˆAYRÈ, ABUÚ NASáR. W. Madelung AL-H®AÚFEZ®, AH®MAD B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. AH®MAD B. ESH®AÚQ B. MUÚSAÚ B. MEHRAÚN AL-AH®WAL, famous traditionist and author of the collection of Sufi biographies H®elyat al-awl^a@÷. He was born in Isfahan in Raèab, 336/January-February, 948 (the variant dates 334 or 330 given in some sources appear less reliable) into a family of Iranian origin which had been long established in the town. His ancestor Mehra@n converted to Islam as a client of ¿Abdalla@h b. Mo¿a@w^a b. ¿Abdalla@h b. ... B. AL-MOT¨ANNAÚ, Arabic philologist and grammarian (probably 110-209/728-824, but the sources have other, slightly different dates). His father and grandfather came from Ba@èarva@n, but he himself was born in Basára, a mawla@ of the clan of Taym of QorayÞ. The assertion that his family was of Jewish origin is probably a calumny of his enemies; more probably it was of Mesopotamian or Persian stock, since the Fehrest applies to him the Persian nickname Sakòt, “the powerful, overbearing one”. ... L. A. Giffen B. ABÈ ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN FARRUÚK¨ AL-TAYMÈ, often called RABÈ¿AT-AL-RA÷Y, important lawyer of the ancient school of Medina and transmitter of Traditions from Companions of the Prophet, died 136/753. Rab^¿a was a native of Medina and lived there most of his life. He was a mawla@ of the AÚl Monkader. C. E. Bosworth ÷L-QAÚSEM ¿ALÈ B. H®ASAN B. MOH®AMMAD B. ABÈ H®ANÈFA, vizier to the atabeg of Loresta@n ˆams-al-dawla GÚa@z^ Beg Aydog@muÞ. It was for this vizier that Abu÷l-ˆaraf Na@sáehá b. Z®afar b. Sa¿d Ôorba@dqa@n^, in the early years of the 7th/13th century, made his simplified Persian version of Abu÷l-Nasár ¿Otb^'s ornate Arabic history of Sebüktigin and Mahámu@d of GÚazna, al-Ta÷r^kò al-yam^n^ (See: ¿Otb^). R. W. Bulliet ÷L-QAÚSEM ¿ALÈ B. MOH®AMMAD B. H®OSAYN B. ¿AMR, a wealthy dehqa@n from Sabzava@r who was prominent as a founder of madrasas in the second decade of the 5th/11th century. As a member of an old and aristocratic family which had marital connection with the illustrious M^ka@l^ family, Abu÷l-Qa@sem served as the deputy for the Bayhaq area of the ra÷^s of N^Þa@pu@r, Abu@ Nasár Mansáu@r b. Ra@meÞ (d. 427/1036). The most noteworthy aspect of his career, however, was his foundation in Sabzava@r of four madrasas, one each for the Hanafites, Shafe¿ites, Karramites, and Shi¿ites. ... The Editors ÷L-QAÚSEM EBRAÚHÈM SOLT®AÚN, MÈRZAÚ, only son of Ka@mra@n M^rza@, the brother and rival of the Mughal emperor Homa@yu@n (r. 937-47, 962-63/1530-40, 1555-56). An incident of symbolic significance, placed in the year 952/1545 (or 951/1544), is related in the Akbar-na@ma (tr. I, pp. 455-56): The boys Abu÷l-Qa@sem and Akbar, sons of two rival princes, wrestle for possession of a kettle-drum, and the latter wins. As a potential candidate for the throne, Abu÷l-Qa@sem became a source of concern for Akbar during the insecure early years of his reign. ... W. Madelung B. MOH®AMMAD B. ESMAÚ¿ÈL B. EBRAÚHÈM B. ZAYD SAMARQANDÈ, H®AKÈM, Hanafite scholar, Sufi, and judge (qa@zµ^) of Samarqand. He studied in Balkò under the prominent Hanafite scholar Moháammad b. K¨ozayma Qalla@s (d. 314/926). Also in Balkò he became a disciple of the Sufi Abu@ Bakr Moháammad b. ¿Omar Warra@q, whose sayings he later transmitted, and for whom he expressed the highest admiration (see Solam^, T®abaqa@t al-sáu@f^ya, p. 219). Since Warra@q died in 280/893, Esháa@q must have been born not later than about 260/874. ... K. A. Luther B. ¿ALÈ B. Z®AFAR DANDAÚN, RABÈB-AL-DONYAÚ WA÷L-DÈN, vizier of Atabeg Ozbek b. Moháammad b. Eldago@z, ruler of Azerbaijan, 607-22/1210-25. He is known in the sources as a patron of learning, to whom Sa¿d-al-d^n Vara@v^n^ dedicated his Marzba@n-na@ma, and as an acquaintance and source of information for Moháammad Nasav^, author of the S^rat Ôala@l-al-d^n ÷L-QAÚSEM EBRAÚHÈM H®ASáÈRÈ. See ABUÚ BAKR H®ASáÈRÈ. J. van Ess AL-BALK¨È AL-KA¿BÈ, ¿ABDALLAÚH B. AH®MAD B. MAH®MUÚD (d. ˆa¿ba@n, 319/February, 931), administrator and intellectual of Persian descent, Hanafite jurist and foremost representative of the Mo¿tazela in Khorasan. His father had known ¿Abdalla@h b. T®a@her (d. 230/844) personally. Abu÷l-Qa@sem seems to have stood in a long kotta@b tradition (see Ta÷r^kò Bag@da@d XII, p. 340.10f.). In his youth he had been secretary to Moháammad b. Zayd Da@¿^, the Zaidite ruler of T®abaresta@n (d. ... P. P. Soucek ÷L-QAÚSEM ¿ABDALLAÚH KAÚˆAÚNÈ, historian of the reign of the Il-khan Olèa@ytu@ (r. 703-16/1304-16) and member of the Abu@ T®a@her family (q.v.) of potters. He was apparently associated with two rivals of the period, the viziers Fazµlalla@h RaÞ^d-al-d^n and Ta@è-al-d^n ¿Al^Þa@h. The first (and probably original) preface to his earliest work (no. 3, below) is dedicated to RaÞ^d-al-d^n, the second to Ta@è-al-d^n. The first preface gives the author's name as ¿Abdalla@h b. ¿Al^ b. Moháammad b. ... D. Pingree ÷L-QAÚSEM KERMAÚNÈ, author of a Keta@b f^ osáu@l al-aháka@m (“Book concerning the foundations of astrological judgments”). He may be identical with a namesake who was a contemporary of Ebn S^na@ (A.D. 980-1037). D. MacEoin ÷L-QAÚSEM KHAN EBRAÚHÈMÈ, H®AÚÔÔ, SARKAÚR AÚQAÚ, fourth head of the Kerma@n^ branch of the ˆaykò^ school of Shi¿ism. Abu÷l-Qa@sem was born in Kerma@n on 23 D¨u÷l-H®eèèa 1314/25 May 1897, the son of H®a@èè Zayn-al-¿a@bed^n Khan, his predecessor in the office, and the grandson of H®a@èè Moháammad Kar^m Khan Kerma@n^, the first head of the Kerma@n^ ˆaykò^s. His family had close links with the Qajar house and hence with most of the governors of Kerma@n in the Qajar period. His great-grandfather was Ebra@h^m Khan Z®ah^r-al-dawla, a cousin and son-in-law of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah and governor of Kerma@n from 1218/1803 to 1240/1824-25; his grandfather, Kar^m Khan, was married to a daughter of Moháammad-qol^ M^rza@ Molk-a@ra@ (the third son of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah, while two of his grand uncles were married to other daughters of the late Shah. ... ÷L-QAÚSEM AL-KUÚFÈ, ¿ALÈ B. AH®MAD AL-¿ALAWÈ, a scholar of philosophy, theology, and other disciplines who was at first an Ema@m^ Shi¿ite but later embraced a form of extreme Shi¿ism; died near ˆ^ra@z, 352/962. S. Moinul Haq ÷L-QAÚSEM MOH®AMMAD ASLAM (pen name MON¿EMÈ), 18th century historian of Kashmir. He was apparently attached to the court of Awadh, since he mentions his accompanying the nawwa@b's army to Etawah in 1188/1774. Though a poet, he is not mentioned in familiar tadòkeras. His father, K¨úa@èa Moháammad A¿záam Ko@l (Kawl?) Mostag@n^, wrote a history of Kashmir titled Wa@qe¿a@t-e KaÞmir (Rieu, Pers. Man. I, p. 300); it covers up to the year 1160/1747. Mon¿em^ reproduced this work, aiming to extend the narrative forty-odd years. ... L. Richter-Bernburg ÷L-QAÚSEM B. ÔA¿FAR NAÚ÷ÈNÈ, H®AÔÔ MÈRZAÚ SOLT®AÚN-AL-H®OKAMAÚ÷ (1245-1322/1829-30 to 1904-05), major representative (practitioner, instructor, author) of traditional medicine in late Qajar Persia. D. Duda ÷L-QAÚSEM SA¿ÈD B. EBRAÚHÈM B. ¿ALAM EBRAÚHÈM B. SáAÚLEH®, 5th/11th century calligrapher, probably a native and resident of N^Þa@pu@r. His name is preserved in the colophon of a Koran manuscript written in early naskò^ script. The Koran (London, British Library, Add. 7214; Plate XVI) is dated Ôoma@da@ I, 427/March, 1036. D. S. Rice's reading “b. ¿Al^” in the colophon differs from R. Ettinghausen's earlier “b. ¿Alam.” However, one could read “¿Alla@m” (i. ... M. H. Pathan ÷L-QAÚSEM SOLT®AÚN, Be@gla@r chief of Sind, b. at Nasarpur, Sind, in 969/1562. He was also known by the title “Arg@u@n” (M^r Moháammad, Ta@r^kò, p. 228; M^r ¿Al^, Toháfa I, p. 203); this was due to his family's association with the Arghunids of Qandaha@r and Sind. The family traced its ancestry to ¿Al^ b. Ab^ T®a@leb (Toháfa I, p. 200; M^r ¿Al^, Maqa@la@t, p. 523). Abu÷l-Qa@sem's grandfather, Amir Sayyed Qa@sem, migrated from Termedò to Samarqand and then to Sind in the reign of Shah H®asan Arg@u@n (928-67/1521-60). ... See GÚAZNAVÈ, ABUÚ RAÔAÚ÷. D. W. Madelung ÷L-RAYH®AÚN BÈRUÚNÈ. See BÈRUÚNÈ, ABU÷L-RAYH®AÚN. C. Cahen ÷L-RAYYAÚN ESáFAHAÚNÈ, AH®MAD B. MOH®AMMAD, Buyid vizier. Of unknown origin, Abu÷l-Rayya@n had been lieutenant in Baghdad of Motáahhar b. ¿Abdalla@h and the Christian Nasár b. Ha@ru@n, both viziers of ¿Azµod-al-dawla. They had chosen him less for reasons of exceptional qualities than for his long experience in numerous positions. When ¿Azµod-al-dawla died in the beginning of 375/985, Abu÷l-Rayya@n was temporarily imprisoned, then named the single vizier of the new amir, Sáamsáa@m-al-dawla. ... S. D. Goitein B. SAHL TOSTARÈ, businessman and quasi-vizier in Fatimid Egypt, d. 439/1047. Sahl and two younger brothers emigrated from Ahva@z and founded one of the most prominent business firms in the Egyptian capital. The scope and high quality of their undertaking are shown in letters addressed to them from Ahva@z (11 Sáafar 417/5 March 1026) and Qayrawa@n, Tunisia (Goitein, Letters, pp. 34-39, 73-79). The Egyptian Tostar^s remained in close contact with their homeland; a Jewish Persian court record from Ahva@z reveals that their sister Hannah made claims in that city in her own name and in those of her brothers (ed. ... D. Pingree B. NAWBAK¨T, 2nd/8th century astrologer and author. The family of Nawbakòt is said to have claimed descent from the Kayanid hero Ge@v, the son of Go@darz, but it is not known from what part of Iran Nawbakòt himself came. Nawbakòt first appears as an astrologer in the entourage of the second ¿Abbasid caliph, Mansáu@r (136-58/754-75), under whose influence he converted from Zoroastrianism to Islam (Mas¿u@d^, Moru@è VII, p. 290). He was associated with Ma@Þa@÷alla@h in selecting the proper astrological moment (30 July 762) for laying the foundations of Baghdad (Ya¿qu@b^, Bolda@n, p. ... GÚ. H®. Yu@sof^ (or H®amdu@÷^), AH®MAD B. H®ASAN, Ghaznavid official of the 4th-5th/11th century. His laqab is sometimes cited as H®amdu@n^ (e.g., Bayhaq^) but the more frequent form is established as correct by the rhyme words matched with it in Arabic and Persian poems; T¨a¿a@leb^ gives the full name, the laqab as al-H®amdu@÷^ (Tatemmat al-yat^ma, ed. ¿A. Eqba@l, Tehran, 1353/1934, II, pp. 60-62; see also pp. 73-74). C. E. Bosworth vizier of the Ghaznavids in the 5th/11th century. He served Sultan Ebra@h^m b. Mas¿u@d (451-92/1059-99) as that ruler's second vizier, succeeding Abu@ Bakr b. Ab^ Sáa@lehá (q.v.), probably in the early part of the reign. All that is known of his background is that he had been secretary in the Ghaznavid d^va@ns since the time of Sultan Mas¿u@d. At some unspecified date he fell from favor and was arrested and blinded at the sultan's orders. D. Pingree VÈÔAN B. ROSTAM KUÚHÈ (also QUÚHÈ), mathematician and astronomer. He was born ca. 330/940 at Ku@h, which, according to Ebn al-Nad^m (Fehrest, pp. 283-84), was in the mountains of Ma@zandara@n. He was well enough known as an astronomer and expert on observational instruments to be chosen, along with Ahámad b. Moháammad Seèz^, Nazá^f b. Yomn the Greek, and Abu÷l-Qa@sem GÚola@m Zoháal, to assist ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n Sáu@f^ (q.v.): They observed the sun's declinations at the winter solstices (December 16) of 359/969 and 360/970 and at the summer solstice (June 17) of 360/970. ... full name K¨úAÚÔA ABUÚ SAHL DABÈR ¿ABDALLAÚH B. AH®MAD B. LAKˆAN, official under the Ghaznavid amirs Mahámu@d (388-421/998-1030) and Mas¿u@d (421-32/1031-41). The name LakÞan occurs with several variants in Bayhaq^, but the meter of Farrokò^'s panegyrics establishes the vocalization (D^va@n-e Farrokò^ S^sta@n^, ed. M. Dab^rs^a@q^, 2nd ed., Tehran, 1349 ˆ./1969-70, pp. 247.2, 325.12). Cf. Sanskrit names with Laksáana- as prior element in a compound. W. Madelung also called EBN NAWBAK¨T (b. 237/851-52 in Baghdad, d. 311/924), a prominent member of the Nawbakòt^ family and noted Imamite leader and scholar. Nothing is known about his father or about his own upbringing and early career. His philosophical interests brought him into contact with the Sabian philosopher, logician, and mathematician, T¨a@bet b. Qorra (d. 288/834); he published his debates with him as Maèa@les T¨a@bet b. Qorra. The Mu¿tazilite theologian Abu÷l-H®osayn Sáa@lehá^ participated in disputations in his house (H®a@kem al-ÔoÞam^, ˆarhá ¿oyu@n al-masa@÷el I, ms. ... GÚ. H®. Yu@sof^ MOH®AMMAD B. H®OSAYN (or H®ASAN) ZUÚZANÈ, courtier and official under the Ghaznavid amirs Mahámu@d (388-421/998-1030) and Mas¿u@d (421-32/1031-41), d. ca. 440-50/1050-59 (see Rezµa@÷^, “Abu@ Sahl,” pp. 221-22). He is known chiefly from references by his contemporary, the historian Bayhaq^ (q.v.). His father was a religious scholar (Bayhaq^, 2nd ed., p. 222; cf. Manu@±ehr^, D^va@n, p. 107.10). Abu@ Sahl began as tutor to the children of Mahámu@d's vizier Ahámad b. H®asan Maymand^ (q. ... P. Jackson BAHAÚDOR KHAN, ¿ALAÚ÷-AL-DONYAÚ-WA÷L-DÈN, ninth Il-khan of Iran, the son and successor of Öljeitü (UÚlèa@ytu@). The more correct form of his name is Bu@ Sa¿^d, as stated by Sáafad^ (al-Wa@f^, p. 322) and confirmed by documents (see V. Minorsky, “A Mongol Decree of 720/1320 to the Family of Shaykh Za@hid, ” BSOAS 16, 1954: Busayid), but Abu@ Sa¿^d is the name by which he is generally is known in history. He was born of H®a@èè^ K¨a@tu@n at UÚèa@n on 8 D¨u÷l-qa¿da 704/2 June 1305 and subsequently became his father's sole heir through the deaths of his elder brothers. ... G. Böwering FAZ˜LALLAÚH B. ABI÷L-K¨AYR AH®MAD MEÚHANÈ (or MAYHANÈ), famous Iranian mystic, born 1 Moháarram 357/7 December 967 at Me@hana, a small town in Khorasan, about fifty miles west of Sarakòs, and died there 4 ˆa¿ba@n 440/12 January 1049. The major sources for his biography, two Persian hagiographies, were compiled by descendents of Abu@ Sa¿^d about a century and a half after his death and reflect a tendency to embellish the saint in family tradition. They are the H®a@la@t o sokòanan-e Þaykò Abu@ Sa¿^d Abu÷l-K¨ayr Me@han^ (ed. ... W. Madelung H®ASAN B. BAHRAÚM, founder of the Qarmatá^ state in Bahárain (b. between 230/845, and 240/855, d. 300/913 or 301/913-14). A native of Ôanna@ba@ on the coast of Fa@rs and of Persian origin, whether he himself claimed royal Persian descent or the claim was put forward later on his behalf is uncertain. He is said to have worked in Ôanna@ba@ as a furrier or a flour merchant before journeying to the Sawa@d of Ku@fa where he married into the family of the Banu÷l-Qasásáa@r, who were prominent in the early Isma¿ili movement there. ... Y. Bregel B. KUÙKUNÙI, cousin of ˆayba@n^ Khan (q.v.) and great-grandson of Ulug@ Beg (q.v.) in the female line, khan of the Uzbeks of Transoxania (936-40/1530-33). He became the heir-apparent to his father only shortly before the death of the latter, after the death of two senior Shaibanid sultans, first Soyun± K¨úa@èa b. Abi÷l-K¨ayr and later Ôa@n^beg® b. K¨úa@èa Moháammad. After the conquest of Transoxania by the Uzbeks he participated in various military campaigns: in the DaÞt-e Qip±a@q against the Qazaqs in 922-23/1516-17 (Wa@sáef^, Bada@÷e¿ al-waqa@÷e¿, ed. ... G. Lazard poet of the Samanid period. Nothing is known of his life. Allusions in his poetry indicate that he was a professional poet and had suffered reverses; in one distich (AÚfar^n-na@ma, line 36; in Lazard, Premiers poeàtes) he presents himself as a stranger imploring the protection of the “king of the world,” probably the Samanid amir. H®AFSá B. SOLAYMAÚN K¨ALLAÚL HAÚMDAÚNÈ, head of the Hashemite propaganda organization (da¿wa) that sparkled the ¿Abbasid revolution and first vizier of the new dynasty. Abu@ Salama was a Kufan mawla@ of an Arab tribe variously reported to have been al-Sab^¿ or al-H®a@ret¯ b. Ka¿b. His nesba K¨alla@l is variously explained as derived from manufacturing, or associating with makers, of vinegar (or else of sword scabbards). In any case he was a wealthy man and used his wealth to finance the Hashemite movement. ... C. E. Bosworth B. ESH®AÚQ B. AH®MAD B. ASAD SAÚMAÚNÈ, Samanid prince, the cousin of the amir Ahámad b. Esma@¿^l (295-301/907-14) and uncle of his successor Nasár b. Ahámad (301-31/914-43). Little is known of his personal life, except that he filled various governorships on behalf of the Samanid rulers. Esma@¿^l b. Ahámad (279-95/892-907) appointed him over Ray after the Samanid conquest of northern Persia as far as Qazv^n in 289/902. When the Samanids invaded S^sta@n in 297/909-10 and temporarily quelled the Saffarids there, Abu@ Sáa@lehá Mansáu@r was made governor of S^sta@n on behalf of Ahámad b. ... C. E. Bosworth (I) B. NUÚH® B. NASáR, called AL-AMÈR AL-SADÈD and AL-MALEK AL-MOZ®AFFAR (350-66/961-76), Samanid ruler in Transoxania and Khorasan and successor of his brother ¿Abd-al-Malek after the latter's death in ˆawwa@l, 350/November, 961. ¿Abd-al-Malek's reign had been filled with discord, the amir striving to free himself from domination by the great military leaders, but he fell under the domination of the slave commander Alptigin, governor of Khorasan, and the latter's then ally, the vizier Abu@ ¿Al^ Moháammad Bal¿am^. ... M. N. Osmanov (SOLAYK, according to Foru@za@nfar) GORGAÚNÈ, Persian poet, contemporary of ¿Amr b. Layt¯¯ the Saffarid (265-88/879-901). The tadòkeras Maèma¿ al-fosáaháa@÷ and Loba@b al-alba@b have preserved two fragments from his work in four bayts. In the first fragment, written in ramal meter (-¢--/-¢--/-¢-), the established traditions of written poetry can be felt, evidence of the fact that the verses have been subjected to literary reworking in the process of repeated copying. The second fragment, although written in the form of the classical kòaf^f meter (-¢--/¢-¢-/¢¢-), has a rhythm and images which reveal its roots in oral folk poetry. ... B. H®AYYAÚN ESáFAHAÚNÈ. See ESáFAHAÚNÈ, ABU÷L-ˆAYK¨. J. W. Clinton SáAÚLEH® B. MOH®AMMAD, or BUÚ ˆO¿AYB as he is more commonly known, one of the many poets of the Samanid court which has survived virtually in name only. Heda@yat identifies him in the Maèma¿ al-fosáaháa@÷ (I, p. 139) as having been active during the latter part of Ru@dak^'s life, but this dating is simply speculation. The earliest reference to him (T¨a¿a@leb^, Yat^ma [Cairo] IV, p. 422) is a mention of the Persian verses (fa@res^ya@t) of “Bu@ ˆo¿ayb” along with the poetry of “Abu@ Zo÷ayb” in some Arabic verses of Abu÷l-H®asan Moháammad b. ... QAÚZ˜È TAQÈ-AL-DÈN AH®MAD B. AL-H®ASAN (or B. AL-H®OSAYN) B. AH®MAD AL-¿ABBAÚDAÚNÈ, 434-500/1042-43 to 1106, Shafe¿ite jurist. He was born in Basára; his father was from ¿Abba@da@n and his grandfather from Isfahan. Abu@ ˆoèa@¿ taught Shafe¿ite law in his native city for over forty years. He edited a summary of the subject which was widely used and highly esteemed; it was later often versified and made the object of commentaries. This handbook is known by various titles: Mokòtasáar fi÷l-feqh ¿ala@ madòhab al-ema@m al-ˆa@fe¿^, GÚa@yat al-ekòtesáa@r, al-Taqr^b fi÷l-feqh. ... See ¿AZ˜OD-AL-DAWLA. See SEÔESTAÚNÈ, ABUÚ SOLAYMAÚN. O. Watson designation of a family of leading potters from Ka@Þa@n, known through four generations (602-734/1205-1333). The first member of the family may be a certain Bu@ T®a@her H®osayn, who is known through a single signed example of his work, a bowl decorated in the m^na@÷^ technique and dateable by its style to the end of the 6th/12th century. Painted in colored enamels on a blue glaze, it displays a series of circular medallions each containing a seated figure (Plate XVII). With one exception, Bu@ T®a@her's descendants are known only for tiles decorated in the luster technique. ... B. MOH®AMMAD. See ATAÚBEGS OF LORESTAÚN. Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh MOWAFFAQ-AL-DAWLA, officer, famous poet, and author in the reign of the Saljuq Sultan Moháammad b. MalekÞa@h (498-511/1105-18). He was the accountant (mostawf^) for Gowhar K¨a@tu@n, wife of Sultan Moháammad; hence, probably, his epithet K¨a@tu@n^. The title (laqab) Kama@l-al-d^n (Maèma¿ al-fosáaháa@÷ I, p. 141) is discredited by the earlier evidence of Asad^ T®u@s^ (Log@at-e fors [Tehran], p. 41) and Bonda@r^ (abridgement of ¿Ema@d-al-d^n Esáfaha@n^, Zobdat al-nosára, ed. M. T. Houtsma, Leiden, 1889, p. ... M. Dab^rs^a@q^ T®AYYEB B. MOH®AMMAD K¨OSRAVAÚNÈ, a poet of the Samanid period. He was a contemporary of Ru@dak^; according to ˆams-al-d^n Moháammad b. Qays (al-Mo¿èam f^ ma¿a@y^r aÞ¿a@r al-¿aèam, ed. M. Qazv^n^ and Modarres Razμaw^, Tehran, 1338 ˆ./1959, p. 470) he took the subject matter of a couplet by Ru@dak^ describing the dyeing of the beard and moustache and composed two lines on it. Ru@dak^ imagined that the verses were ridiculing him, and he answered with two more couplets, to explain the reason for the dyeing. ... M. Zand K¨úAÚÔA B. MAWLAÚNAÚ [MOLLAÚ] MÈR ABUÚ SA¿ÈD K¨úAÚÔA SAMARQANDÈ, MOLLAÚ (first half of the 13th/19th century), author of a book named T¨amar^ya (see N. D. Miklukho-Makla¥, Opisanie tadzhikskikh i persidskikh rukopise¥ Instituta vostokovedeniya, Moscow and Leningrad, 1955, nos. 82, 83, 84) or Samar^ya (see A. Semyonov, ed., Sobranie vostochnykh rukopise¥ Akademii nauk Uzbeksko¥ SSR I, Tashkent, 1952, no. 711; A. Mirzoev and A. Boldyrev, eds., Katalog vostochnykh rukopise¥ Akademii Nauk Tadzhiksko¥ SSR I, Stalinabad, 1960, no. ... Hameed ud-Din ¿ARÈZÈ, Mughal scholar chiefly famous for his alleged discovery of Malfu@záa@t-e T^mu@r^ or Wa@qe¿a@t-e T^mu@r^, an autobiographical account of T^mu@r from the 7th to the 74th year of his life. It also contains an appendix, called Tu@zok or Tu@zoka@t (“Institutes”). But the veracity of both texts is in doubt, since the original Chaghatay Turkish document, supposedly discovered in the library of Ôa¿far Pa@Þa@, ruler of Yemen, is no longer extant. Abu T®a@leb presented a Persian translation of the work to Shah Ôaha@n in 1047/1637-38. ... See KALÈM. M. Baqir LANDANÈ B. H®AÚÔÔÈ MOH®AMMAD BEG KHAN TABRÈZÈ ESáFAHAÚNÈ, official and author in British India. His father, an Azerbaijani Turk by descent, had emigrated from Isfahan to Lucknow. Abu@ T®a@leb was born in Lucknow in 1166/1753. In 1775-76 he served as a district administrator in the regime of the prime minister of Awadh, Mokòta@r-al-dawla. Subsequently he was in the service of Alexander Hannay (C. E. Buckland, Dictionary of Indian Biography, London, 1906, p. 188) and then Nathaniel Middleton, the British resident at Lucknow (ibid. ... ¿A. Ka@rang (pen name T®AÚLEB), poet and physician, d. 1015/1606-07. Born into a noble family of Tabr^z (which was taken by the Ottomans in 993/1585), Abu@ T®a@leb studied medicine and literature in Tabr^z and in Qazv^n, where he established his practice (Tarb^at, Da@neÞmanda@n, p. 243). He was a skilled writer of g@azals, and he held literary soirees with his fellow poets (ibid.). He returned to Tabr^z in the troubled period following the death of the Safavid king T®ahma@sp I (984/1576) and found a patron in the local governor, Ôa¿far Pa@Þa@ (ˆams-al-d^n Sa@m^, Qa@mu@s al-a¿la@m, Istanbul, 1308-16/1890-99, III, p. ... J. Wakin ÷L-T®AYYEB T®AÚHER B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. T®AÚHER T®ABARÈ AÚMOLÈ, jurisconsult, judge (qa@zµ^), and professor of legal sciences; he was regarded by his contemporaries as one of the leading Shafe¿ites of 5th/11th century Baghdad. Born in AÚmol in T®abaresta@n in 348/959-60, T®abar^ began his studies at age fourteen, somewhat late by the standards of the time. In 371/981 he went to Gorga@n and then to N^Þa@pu@r to study, but finally settled in Baghdad, where he became a student of the famous traditionist Da@raqotán^ (d. ... M. Forstner ÷L-T®AYYEB T®AÚHER B. H®OSAYN B. MOSá¿AB B. ROZAYQ, founder of the Taherid dynasty of Khorasan; born 139/775-76 in Pu@Þang (Bu@Þang), died 207/822 in Marv. T®a@her's great-grandfather Rozayq was mawla@ of the governor of Seèesta@n, Abu@ Moháammad T®alháa b. ¿Abdalla@h K¨oza@¿^ (62-64/681-82 to 683-84), and the Taherid family came then as mawa@l^ of the Arab tribe of K¨oza@¿a to Khorasan (cf. Kaabi, “Origines,” pp. 147, 150). The grandfather Mosá¿ab, who took part in the ¿Abbasid da¿wa in Khorasan, became ¿a@mel of Pu@Þang near Herat, as did his son H®osayn after him. ... B. Radtke ¿ASKAR B. H®OSAYN (or B. MOH®AMMAD B. H®OSAYN), noted 3rd/9th century ascetic. Although apparently born in NakòÞab near Bokhara, he is counted as one of the great shaikhs of Khorasan. His teacher is said to have been H®a@tem al-Asáamm. Abu@ Tora@b traveled extensively, heard Ahámad b. H®anbal in Baghdad, lived in Syria for a time, and several times made the pilgrimage to Mecca. He died in 245/859 in the desert (some sources say between Mecca and Medina, others say near Basára, stating he was torn by lions). ... S. Moinul Haq B. SHAH QOT®B-AL-DÈN ˆOKRALLAÚH, MÈR, noble in the service of Akbar and author of Ta@r^kò-e Goèra@t, a short history of that province from the reign of Baha@dor Shah (932-43/1526-36), with an account of his wars against Homa@yu@n, through Akbar's conquest and up to 992/1584. Abu@ Tora@b was born into the Sala@m^ family of Shiraz sayyeds. His grandfather, the scholar Sayyed Shah M^r, migrated from Shiraz and settled in Champanir by 898/1492-93. Abu@ Tora@b's date of birth is not known; even his lineage is somewhat uncertain. ... D. Pingree ÷L-WAFAÚ÷ B. SA¿ÈD, author of a Persian Mokòtasáar-e moÞtamel bar mesa@háat-e ab¿a@d va sotáu@há va moèassama@t va bar kayf^yat-e a¿ma@l-e hend^ (“Epitome comprising areas, distances, surfaces, and solids and the manner of the Indian operations”). The unique manuscript, in Leningrad, was copied from the author's autograph written in 823/1420-21. D. Pingree ÷L-WAFAÚ÷ MOH®AMMAD B. MOH®AMMAD BUÚZÔAÚNÈ, mathematician and astronomer, b. Wednesday, on the new moon of Ramazµa@n, 328/10 June 940, at Bu@zèa@n in the region of N^Þa@pu@r. He studied arithmetic under his paternal uncle, Abu@ ¿Amr Mog@a@zel^, and his maternal uncle, Abu@ ¿Abdalla@h Moháammad b. ¿Anbasa, presumably at Bu@zèa@n. He moved to Iraq at the age of nineteen (348/959-60) and soon became a leading mathematician and astronomer at the Buyid court in Baghdad. He is known to have made observations there in A. ... H. Landolt famous Sufi of Kobraw^ affiliation, esoterist, scholar, poet, and musician, known as “angelic master” (p^r-e fereÞta) or “angel on earth” (fereÞta-ye ru@-ye zam^n). K¨úa@èa Abu÷l-Wafa@÷, as he is usually called, died in 835/1431-32 in K¨úa@razm. From one of his quatrains, in which he speaks of himself as an old man of seventy-four years about to leave this world no wiser than he entered it, we may infer that he was born around 760/1359. In an often quoted poem, he establishes his Kobraw^ affiliation as follows: Naèm-al-d^n Kobra@ (d. ... H. Algar ÷L-WAFAÚ÷ ˆÈRAÚZÈ, SAYYED KAMAÚL-AL-DÈN (fl. 10th/16th century), a Sufi of Shiraz, mor^d of the well-known preacher, mystic and writer, Shah Da@¿^ Ela@ Alla@h ˆ^ra@z^ (d. 870/1465), who dedicated to him his commentary on the L. A. Giffen ÷L-WAZÈR ¿OMAR B. MOT®ARREF B. MOH®AMMAD ¿ABDÈ AL-MARVAZÈ, secretary and author, d. 186/802. The biographers confirm that his family was from Marv, and the nesba ¿Abd^ relates him to the tribe of ¿Abd-al-Qays (q.v.; Fehrest, p. 127; Ya@qu@t, Odaba@÷ XVI, Cairo, 1936-38, pp. 71-73; Ag@a@n^3, p. 46). According to Ya@qu@t (loc. cit.), Abu÷l-Waz^r's father Motáarref served Mahd^ as a secretary while he was still heir-apparent to the caliphate. Abu÷l-Waz^r is said (Fehrest, p. 127) to have served as chief of the bureau for the eastern provinces (d^va@n al-maÞreq) under Mahd^ (according to Ya@qu@t [loc. ... Y. Richard ¿ABBAÚS B. TARK¨AÚN, Iranian poet, d. 230/844. He has occasionally been identified with Abu÷l-¿Abba@s Marvaz^ (q.v.; d. 200/815-16; see W. Barthold, “To the Question of Early Persian Poetry,” BSOS H. Algar YUÚSOF B. AYYUÚB HAMADAÚNÈ (440-535/1048-49 to 1140), important figure in the history of Iranian and Central Asian Sufism (largely neglected by both Iranian and Western scholarship). He was the first of the K¨úa@èaga@n, a line of Transoxanian masters from which evolved the NaqÞband^ and Yasav^ orders. He was born in Bu@zanèerd near Hamada@n, and left for Baghdad at the age of eighteen. There he studied feqh and Hadith under a number of teachers, of whom the principal was Abu@ Esháa@q ˆ^ra@z^, and developed an enthusiastic loyalty to the Hanafite madòhab which he later transmitted to his spiritual progeny. ... J. van Ess disciple of Ebn Karra@m (d. 255/869). He called God's hands, His face (waèh), etc. “bodies” (aèsa@m) and seems, by that, to bear some responsibility for the “anthropomorphic” image of the Karra@m^ya (q.v.). He was also a traditionist (moháaddet¯); some of his traditions are preserved in the Karra@m^ manuscript B.M. 8049. P. E. Walker (or SEÔZÈ), ESH®AÚQ B. AH®MAD, one of the most important of the early Isma¿ili da@¿^s. He achieved during his lifetime (fl. second-third quarters of the 4th/10th century) a special renown as a teacher and leader among the Isma¿ilis and gained even more recognition during subsequent generations for the influence of his doctrinal writings, which have been preserved and studied by members of the sect until modern times. His written works, only recently uncovered and publicized by non-Isma¿ili researchers, reveal that his contribution to the development of the sect's doctrinal position was seminal. ... See BAÚYAZÈD BEST®AÚMÈ. W. Madelung ¿ABD-AL-SALAÚM B. MOH®AMMAD B. YUÚSOF B. BONDAÚR, Mu¿tazilite scholar and author of an immense Koran commentary, born ˆa¿ba@n, 393/June, 1003 (according to another report 391) in Qazv^n. His family appears to have been wealthy. His father was lettered, transmitting poetry of Qa@zµ^ ¿Al^ b. ¿Abd-al- ¿Az^z Ôorèa@n^ to his son. Abu@ Yu@sof claimed to have begun hearing Hadith at the age of four. If Sobk^'s statement that he studied with the Shafe¿ite jurist Abu÷l-Qa@sem b. Kaèè (d. 405/1015) is correct, he must have traveled to D^navar before the age of twelve. ... W. M. Watt AH®MAD B. SAHL BALK¨È, in his day a noted scholar in both Islamic and philosophical disciplines, but now known chiefly as a geographer. He was born in the village of ˆa@mest^a@n, near Balkò in Khorasan, ca. 235/849 and died there in D¨u÷l-qa¿da, 322/October, 934. His father was a schoolmaster from Seèesta@n. As a young man he left home and traveled on foot as far as Iraq with a company of pilgrims bound for Mecca. He spent eight years in Iraq, assiduously studying many different subjects. Of his teachers the only one mentioned is the well-known philosopher Abu@ Yu@sof al-Kend^ (d. ... O. Watson a potter who signed a ceramic bowl in the enameled (m^na@÷^) technique dated 4 Moháarram 582/26 March 1186. Painted in blue, aubergine, and black on a turquoise ground, it depicts two personages seated on a throne with four attendants listening to a presentation by another seated figure. Another bowl in the same technique now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, painted in black, blue, green, and red on a white ground, and showing a figure seated on a donkey with a number of attendants, bears the incomplete signature “. ... O. Watson B. MOH®AMMAD B. ABÈ ZAYD KAÚˆAÚNÈ, perhaps the single most important luster potter of Ka@Þa@n known to us. More signed and dated works (from 587/1191 to 616/1219) are known by him than by any other potter, and his signature occurs on a greater variety of wares, including both tiles and vessels. His high status as a potter is shown by his collaboration with Moháammad b. Ab^ T®a@her (see Abu@ T®a@her) in the decoration of the two holiest Shi¿ite shrines at Qom (602/1205) and MaÞhad (612/1215-16). ... L. Richter-Bernburg author of the medical text ˆara@yetá-e èarra@há^; its dedication to the Timurid ˆa@hrokò (r. 807-50/1404-47) provides the only context for his life. Judging by the text, he was a practicing surgeon (and not an oculist, Kaháháa@l). The book, although titled “Surgical Requirements,” is actually a general medical handbook—thus an example of a common genre in Muslim medical literature. As was customary in Abu@ Zayn's period, the discussion emphasizes the compounding of drugs and a survey of diseases with their appropriate treatment. ... E. Yarshater an oasis village of the province of Ka@Þa@n, called Bu@za@ba@d for short and B^zeva in the local dialect. It is situated thirty km to the east and slightly to the south of the city of Ka@Þa@n (Razma@ra@, Farhang III, p. 3) on a flat plain bordered by sand and salt deserts to the east, with a number of qana@ts as its water supply. In the 19th century, the village was considered the eastern confine of Greater Ka@Þa@n, lying seven farsakòs from the city's gate (¿Abd-al-Rahá^m Kala@ntar Z˜arra@b^, Ta@r^kò-e Ka@Þa@n [Mer÷a@t al-Qa@Þa@n], ed. ... E. Yarshater (Bu@za@ba@d^ for short), a variety of the local dialects of Ka@Þa@n province, spoken in the village of Abu@@zayda@ba@d (q.v.) and its farms, and belonging to the Central or Median group of Iranian dialects. In general features, Abu@@zayda@ba@d^ resembles Abya@na÷^ (q.v., as a sample of the Ka@Þa@n province local dialects). In phonology, worthy of note is the ` < original j (Ir. è, IE. g2, gh2), which shows considerable variety in Ka@Þa@n^ dialects (y in Ara@n^-B^dgol^ and Qohru@d^; è in Jewish Ka@Þa@n^, Ba@dru@d^, Abya@na÷^, and ÔowÞaqa@n^); e. ... E. Yarshater a remarkable village in the Barz-ru@d subdistrict (dehesta@n) in Natáanz Þahresta@n, 38 km northeast of Natáanz (Razma@ra@, Farhang III, p. 3), and 18 km from the asphalt road connecting Natáanz to Ka@Þa@n (Farhang-e a@ba@d^ha@-ye keÞvar VII, Tehran, 1969, p. 46). An upland village of about 2,000 population (2,181 according to the 1966 census, ibid.), Abya@na sits at the top of the fairly long (about 25 km) and verdant valley of Barz-ru@d, which runs westward from the Hanèan bridge past the villages of Ya@rand, Komèa@n, Barz, and Tara. ... E. Yarshater the dialect spoken in the village of Abya@na (q.v.), one of a number of closely similar dialects spoken in the villages of Ka@Þa@n and its neighboring districts, all belonging to the Central Dialects of Iran (or Southern Median). E. Ehlers title of the person given official charge of the irrigation of a@b^ “irrigated” lands. He may be a farmer or sharecropper elected by the cultivators, in those villages where farmers work their own land (see K¨orda-ma@lek, and Ra¿^yat), or he may be appointed by a landlord. The a@bya@r's duty is to oversee the just and equal distribution of irrigation water; he is compensated by either a share in the produce of the a@b^ lands or a fixed payment in money or in kind. B. Spooner “irrigation” in Iran. A. E. Khairallah K¨úAÚÔA ¿AMÈD-AL-DÈN AS¿AD B. NASáR B. ÔAHˆÈAÚR B. . . . FARROK¨AÚN ANSáAÚRÈ FAÚLÈ, poet and the vizier of the Salghurid Atabeg of Fa@rs Sa¿d b. Zang^ (594-623/1197-1226). Ebn Fowat^ calls him ¿Am^d-al-molk Abu@ GÚa@nem Abu÷l-Mozáaffar (Qazv^n^'s note to ˆadd al-eza@r, p. 521). He was probably a native of Abzar/Afzar in Fa@rs, south of Shiraz. Fasa@÷^ cites the vizier's nesba as Afzar^ (I, p. 32; II, pp. 179, 332). C. Huart, however, interpreted the name as “Abraz^” and thus made him a native of the canton of Abarè (formerly Abraz), north of Shiraz (see bibliog. ... M. F. Kanga Middle Persian term meaning “prosperity, increase” in Zoroastrianism. The Avestan word sp™nta (usually translated as “holy” or “bountiful”) implies increase and abundance. It is generally translated into Pahlavi by a£zo@n^k, “increasing, prosperous.” The rendering of sp™nta by a£zo@n^k looks to the result of the activity of the being who is sp™nta, i.e., possesses the supernatural power (ne@rang) needed to promote the wellbeing of the world, which is the a£zu@t of living creatures. ... See AC™KZÈ. J. R. Russell HRAÙ÷EAY YAKOBI, Armenian linguist, born 8 March 1876 (O. S.; 20 March N. S.) at Constantinople. He studied general linguistics and Indo-European at the Sorbonne under Antoine Meillet (q.v.), was elected a member of the Socie‚te‚ de Linguistique de Paris in 1897, and in 1898 attended Heinrich Hübschmann's lectures at Strasbourg. Between 1902 and 1923, A±arμean lived at ˆu@Þa (Azerbaijan), Tabr^z, Nor Bayazet (now Kamo), Rostov (Arm. Nor Naxièewan), Tehran, and again at Tabr^z, teaching Armenian studies and continuing his research in Armenian dialectology and historical and comparative linguistics. ... C. M. Kieffer ACAKZÈ, or AÙ™KZÈ, AÙAKZ®È, a tribal grouping of PaÞátu@n clans in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Ac™kz^ form part of the Z^rak branch of the Dorra@n^ (or Abda@l^) and thus belong to the so-called western PaÞátu@n (who are distinguished from the GÚilz^, encompassing the eastern PaÞátu@n). Their language is Mag@reb^/Qandaha@ri Pashto. Their eponymous ancestor is supposed to be a certain Ac™k, son of Z^rak, son of Abda@l, son of Tar^n, son of K¨arÞábu@n, whence Ac™k, + -z^ (plural of the Pashto suffix -zay, “descendant of”) and the singular form Ac™kzay. ... M. A. Dandamayev (Greek Achaime‚ne@s), Old Persian proper name Haxa@maniÞ, traditionally derived from haxa@- “friend” and manah “thinking power” (but see Achaemenid Dynasty). R. Schmitt from the Persian clan of the same name, ruled ca. 700 to 330 B.C. M. Boyce The sources are threefold, Greek writings, Achaemenid monuments and artifacts, and texts from Persia in Old Persian, Elamite, and Aramaic. The Greek writings establish with all reasonable clarity that the later Achaemenids were Zoroastrians; but the religion of the early kings has been much debated. R. E. Emmerick (a Turkish word meaning “opening”), a town in the Domoko (Dumaqu) oasis near Khotan (q.v.), so named with reference to the local springs. In its vicinity M. A. Stein (q.v.) found substantial remains of a Buddhist settlement (Serindia, Oxford, 1921, I, pp. 199, 211; Ancient Khotan, Oxford, 1907, p. 468), and a Khotanese document from this region bears the signature “Achma.” M. A. Dandamayev an Old Persian name beginning with *a@ç- “fire;” cf. HaÞina and Atrina@/AÞina, which are respectively the Elamite and Akkadian forms of the name attested in the Behistun (B^sotu@n) inscription. The same name in the form HaÞina is also attested for officials of the royal administration in the Elamite Persepolis fortification tablets. R. Schmitt (a-ç-i-y-a-di-i-y-), name of the ninth month (November-December) of the Old Persian calendar (see Kent, Old Persian, p. 161a), equivalent to Akkadian Kisl^mu and Elamite ˆ^bari (which is several times attested in the Persepolis tablets; see R. T. Hallock, Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Chicago, 1969, pp. 74, 756b). The Old Persian name, occurring only in DB I.89, III.18, is frequently rendered as Elamite HaÞiyatiÞ (with sundry variants; see Hallock, Tablets, p. 693b) in the Persepolis tablets. The name AÚçiya@diya, i. ... See ARCHELAI. J. P. Asmussen Syriac martyrological texts. Their events are set in the year 446 A.D., during the reign of Yazdegerd II; and they were apparently recorded not long afterward. Fragments of a Sogdian version are also known (Olaf Hansen, Berliner Sogdische Texte II [Abh. der Ak. der Wiss. und der Lit. in Mainz, Geistes- und sozialwissenschaftliche Kl., 1954, no. 15], pp. 31f.). A. Vööbus a collection of the acts of martyrdom under ˆa@pu@r II (309-79 A.D.). They were made known by S. E. Assemani on the basis of Ms. Vat. Syr. 160 (Acta sanctorum martyrum I, Rome, 1748). New and better manuscripts emerged, which made possible a new edition by P. Bedjan (Acta martyrum et sanctorum II, Leipzig, 1891), based on the Ms. Dijarb. 96, Ms. B.M. Add. 14,645 and Ms. Berlin Sach. 222. Other sources have also emerged; however, only the acts of ˆem¿o@n have been critically edited, by M. Kmosko (Patrologia Syriaca I/2 Paris, 1907, col. ... J. Duchesne-Guillemin “requital” in Avestan. In the Ga@tha@s the term implies a two-way process. It may proceed from Ahura Mazda@ to the faithful: “Come to me, a good requital, and give support to me” ( Y. 49.1); “listen to me, have mercy on me, when there is any requital” (Y. 33.11). In the third occurrence, it is supposed to go from the faithful to Ahura Mazda@: “Receive, O Wise One, strength through good requital” (Y. 33.12). No clear eschatological connection is implied in any of these passages, whereas the term a@da@na (Y. ... , above. L. P. Elwell-Sutton title of several Persian periodicals. C. E. Bosworth (“The correct usages of war and bravery”), a treatise in a straightforward Persian prose style in the “Mirror for Princes” genre, written by Fakòr-al-d^n Moháammad b. Mansáu@r Moba@rakÞa@h, called Fakòr-e Modabber (q.v.). He flourished in the late 6th/12th and early 7th/13th century, dying in the reign of the Slave King of Delhi ˆams-al-d^n IltutmuÞ (607-33/1210-36). The above title is that of the British Museum and Royal Asiatic Society, Bengal manuscripts, which contain thirty-six chapters; the India office one (Ethe‚, Cat. ... I. Abbas an Arabic work by Ebn al-Moqaffa¿ dealing largely with Persian manners and court etiquette. Although published many times under this name (in the singular), it is, more accurately, al-AÚda@b al-kab^r (in the plural), as it is called by Ebn al-Nad^m (Fehrest, p. 118) and those who cite it, such as Ebn Qotayba (¿Oyu@n al-akòba@r, Cairo, 1925-30, I, pp. 20-22, 31). Ebn Meskawayh, the well-known historian and philosopher, cited it under this name; and he incorporated the whole work, except for the introduction, in al-H®ekmat al-kòa@leda (Cairo, 1952, pp. ... C. E. Bosworth (“Manual for secretaries”), a work composed by the celebrated Baghdad scholar probably of Khorasanian mawla@ origin, Ebn Qotayba (213-76/828-89). It was written during the caliphate of Motawakkel (r. 232-47/847-61) and dedicated to his vizier, Fathá b. K¨a@qa@n. Although its title makes one think of the great line of Arabic treatises on the multi-faceted art of the secretary, the culmination of which was to be the great Sáobhá al-a¿Þa@ of the Mamluk author QalqaÞand^, Ebn Qotayba's work essentially is on Arabic grammar. ... M. Dab^rs^a@q^ (“Manual of penmanship”), a short essay on writing the nasta¿l^q hand by the noted Safavid calligrapher M^r ¿Ema@d (q.v., 961-1024/1553-54 to 1615-16). It has been argued that the actual author is Ba@ba@Þa@h Esáfaha@n^ (Baya@n^, K¨oÞnev^sa@n II, pp. 87-89; see also pp. 518-38). The text discusses such topics as the qualities of a calligrapher, pen exercises, rules of penmanship, ink preparation, and the various kinds of paper. I. Abbas an Arabic book of wisdom and advice, based on Middle Persian works. Recent discoveries tend to confirm the opinion of scholars such as G. Richter, F. Gabrieli (see bibliography of al-Adab al-kab^r) and ¿A. Eqba@l (cf. M. GÚafra@n^, ¿Abdalla@h Ebn al-Moqaffa¿, Cairo, n.d., p. 127). They held that the book of this name is not by Ebn al-Moqaffa¿ or, at least, that the extant form of it might not be the same book mentioned by Ebn al-Nad^m, because there are no citations in the sources to prove this attribution. ... L. P. Elwell-Sutton (“Justice”), name of several periodicals. J. Richard GUILLAUME, 14th-century traveler. A member of the Dominican order, he came originally from the south of France (he studied at Condom in 1302). Ca. 1312 he was sent to the Mongol khanate of Iran; he traveled from Tabr^z to Hormoz, continuing on to India and by sea to Ethiopia. Upon his return he wrote for Cardinal Raymond de Farges the treatise De modo Serracenos extirpandi; in it he proposed a crusade which would blockade Mamluk Egypt from both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, follow up the earlier overture of the Il-khan Arg@u@n (q. ... A. Gorj^ ABUÚ SA¿ÈD SAHL B. ZÈAÚD RAÚZÈ, late 3rd/9th century Shi¿ite traditionist. He was considered to have been a companion of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh imams by Shaikh Moháammad b. H®asan T®u@s^ (d. 406/1015-16; in his al-Reèa@l, Naèaf, 1381/1961-62, pp. 401, 416, 43l). He authored two books: a Keta@b al-tawhá^d and Keta@b al-nawa@der. L. P. Elwell-Sutton (“Humanity”), name of two Iranian periodicals. See AÚdur. See AÚzòar . . . . A. Parsa and N. Ramazani, A. Parsa i. Lentils. ii. Vetch (¿adas-e waháÞ^). K¨. FarÞ^dvard “particle,” Arabic word corresponding to the Persian abza@r which is used as a technical term in logic (mantáeq), grammar (dastu@r), and rhetoric (ma¿a@n^ o baya@n). W. Sundermann one of the earliest disciples of Mani (to judge from the Cologne Mani Codex, p. 165.6; see Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik V, 1970, p. 111, n. 32). According to the Middle Iranian “history of the Manichean mission” (Andreas-Henning, Mir. Man. II, p. 301ff.), he was sent as a bishop on a mission into Roman-ruled territory. He was serving under the teacher Pattikios, and they were accompanied by an abbot or scribe named Mani, as well as other “brothers,” and are said to have reached Alexandria. ... J. R. Perry AFˆAÚR, the royal title of ¿Al^-qol^ Khan, r. 1160-61/1747-48, nephew and successor of Na@der Shah (q.v.). The eldest son of Na@der's brother, Ebra@h^m Khan, ¿Al^-qol^ Khan was appointed governor of MaÞhad in 1150/1737 and in the same year married Kethewan, daughter of the Georgian king Taymoraz (Tamaris). Three years later he was also married to a daughter of Abu÷l-Fayzμ, ruler of recently subdued Bokhara. Physically strong and courageous, he led several punitive expeditions for Na@der, chastising the Yaz^d^s of Kurdistan in 1156/1743, and the Karakalpas and Uzbeks of K¨úa@razm in 1158/1745. ... R. M. Eaton a dynasty of Indo-Muslim kings who governed the city-state of Bijapur from 895/1490 to 1097/1686. The city and its surrounding territories became an important province when, in the 8th/14th century, Muslim settlers in the Deccan declared their independence from the Delhi sultanate and founded the Bahman^ kingdom (see Bahmanids). In the late 9th/15th century, however, the Bahman^ kingdom underwent rapid decline, and each of its five major provinces became, in turn, an independent sultanate. The first was Bijapur, whose governor Yu@sof ¿AÚdel Khan had the kòotába read in his own name in 895/1490. ... R. N. Frye a kana@rang (eastern border margrave) appointed by the Sasanian king Kava@d (r. 488-531 A.D.). He is mentioned only in the Persian Wars of Procopius; the form of his name given by that historian may represent *AÚdurgundbad, an abbreviation of AÚdurguÞnaspbad. He succeeded his relative Gousanastades ( = GuÞnaspdad?), who was executed by order of the king (Procopius 1.6.18). As K¨osrow I moved to secure the succession, he wished to eliminate a rival in the person of his nephew Kava@d (Cabades), who was the son of King Kava@d's second eldest son Zames (Procopius 1. ... W. Thackston MÈRZAÚ EBRAÚHÈM, 11th/17th century poet. He was a son, by a daughter of Shah ¿Abba@s I, of M^r Razμ^ AÚrt^ma@n^ (q.v.) of the powerful ˆahresta@n^ family. M^r Razμ^, sometime grand vizier and keeper of the seal of the properties assigned to the Imams, was himself a poet (see Ethe‚, Cat. Ind. Off. no. 1522). Adham went to India in the reign of Shah Ôaha@n, while still a young man. He was introduced at court by the court physician, H®ak^m Da@÷u@d Taqarrob Khan. (The latter had been physician to Shah ¿Abba@s, as had his father, H®ak^m ¿Ena@yatalla@h Yazd^. ... R. E. Emmerick (“The perfection of wisdom in 150 lines”), title of a Praèña@pa@ramita@ text in Tantric style. It contains fifteen chapters, fourteen of which are spoken by a number of Buddhas, who expound the various methods of Praèña@pa@ramita@. Each expository chapter is summarized by means of a mystic syllable. The text survives in the Sanskrit original and in translations: into Chinese (six translations and two comment; extant), Tibetan, Mongol, and Khotanese. The Khotanese version was one of the earliest Khotanese texts to be studied. ... D. Sellwood a district near the present-day borders of Iraq, Iran, and Turkey, approximately 36° north latitude and 44° east longitude, bounded on three sides by the Tigris and its tributaries the Greater and Lesser Za@b, while eastwards it extended to Lake Orm^a. It thus corresponded with the heartland of the ancient empire of Assyria. However, after the fall of Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, in 612 B.C., the general hatred aroused by its genocidal policies precluded any immediate revival of its name. The Seleucid empire, founded in the aftermath of Alexander's invasion, split many of the relatively unwieldy Achaemenid satrapies into much smaller divisions. ... Munibur Rahman -AL-MAMAÚLEK FARAÚHAÚNÈ, MOH®AMMAD S®AÚDEQ B. H®OSAYN, poet and journalist, b. 1277/1860 in the village of Ka@zara@n near Soltáa@na@ba@d in ¿Era@q-e ¿Aèam, d. 28 Rab^¿ II 1335/21 February 1917. Both his parents were related to M^rza@ Abu÷l-Qa@sem Qa@÷em-maqa@m (q.v., d. 26 June 1835), prime minister to Moháammad Shah Qa@èa@r. His early education occurred in his native town, where he also began writing poetry under the pen name Parva@na. His literary fame dates from his move to Tabr^z in 1897; he attached himself as court poet to H®asan ¿Al^ Khan Garru@s^ Am^r Nezáa@m, governor of Azerbaijan. ... ¿A. N. Monzaw^ BADÈ¿-AL-ZAMAÚN ABUÚ ¿ABDALLAÚH H®OSAYN B. EBRAÚHÈM B. AH®MAD ¿ERAÚQÈ, poet and linguist of the 5th/11th century, from Natáanz Ô. Mat^n^ SHAIKH ¿ABD-AL-ÔAWAÚD, Persian litterateur and poet. Son of a farmer, Molla@ ¿Abba@s N^Þa@bu@r^, he was born in N^Þa@bu@r in 1281/1864-5 (or 1284/1867-8). At the age of four he was blinded in one eye by smallpox and his other eye was seriously impaired. Despite his physical weakness and his father's opposition, he was encouraged by his great love for learning and prodigious memory to spend the first sixteen years of his life in study. Then in 1297/1880, he went to MaÞhad, where he lived successively in the K¨ayra@tkòa@n^, Fa@zμel Khan and Nawwa@b madrasas. ... Munibur Rahman poetic name of SAYYED AH®MAD B. ˆEHAÚB-AL-DÈN RAZ˜AWÈ. He was born near Peshawar ca. 1260/1844 and claimed descent from the noted Sufi ˆeha@b-al-d^n ¿Omar Sohravard^ (539-632/1144-1234 A.D.). During his youth, his father and numerous relatives were killed in the border wars between the British and the Afghan tribes. In consequence, Ad^b moved to Kabul and then GÚazn^, where he completed his early education. In 1877 he migrated to Iran, where he joined the madrasa of H®a@èè^ Molla@ Ha@d^ Sabzava@r^ (d. ... D¨. S®afa@ ˆARAF-AL-ODABAÚ÷ ˆEHAÚB-AL-DÈN B. ESMAÚ¿ÈL TERMED¨È, famous poet of the first half of the 6th/12th century. He began his career as a poet in his home town and later lived for a long period in Marv, Balkò and K¨úa@razm, being chosen as the panegyrist (madda@há) of the Saljuqid Sultan Sanèar (511-52/1117-57). Apart from the writing of poetry, he was also entrusted with other official duties at court. Sanèar sent him on a mission to Atsez the K¨úa@razmÞa@h with the aim of ending the dispute between them. ... M. Momen H®AÚÔÔ MÈRZAÚ H®ASAN, prominent Iranian Baha÷i author of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He was born in T®a@laqa@n in ˆawwa@l, 1264/September, 1848, the son of an eminent ¿a@lem, M^rza@ Moháammad-Taq^. After his father's death he studied in Tehran and Isfahan; in 1291/1874 he was employed by E¿tezμa@d-al-saltáana and later by Mo¿tamad-al-dawla, playing an important part in the production of books by these two princes. He became, eventually, Ema@m-e Ôom¿a and teacher in the Da@r al-Fonu@n, and was given the title Ad^b-al-¿olama@÷. ... P. Oberling a small Lur tribe of Loresta@n which lives the year round in the bakòÞ of T®arha@n. In the early 1900s it comprised some 150 families (H. L. Rabino, Les tribus du Louristan, Paris, 1916, p. 28), and in the early 1940s some 300 (¿A. Razma@ra@, Ôog@ra@f^a@-ye nezáa@m^-e Èra@n X, Tehran, 1320 ˆ./1941, p. 215). J. Calmard, L. P. Elwell-Sutton -E MOZ®AFFAR “Mozáaffar's justice.” S. Bakhash, 1925-79 T. Yazici (879/1474), Ottoman vizier and poet, better known in Turkish literature by his pen name ¿Adn^. Born to a Greek or Serbian family, Mahámu@d Pa@Þa@ finished his studies in the palace at Edirne before the accession of Sultan Moháammad II to the throne. The sultan raised him to the rank of vizier. He was present at all major battles of this period and rendered great services to the Ottoman state. His achievements roused the jealousies of those around him, whose slanders eventually caused his dismissal and execution by the sultan (1474). ... C. J. Brunner the third station from the western border of “Upper Media” recorded by Isidore of Charax in the 1st century A.D. (Parthian Stations 6, ed. and tr. W. H. Schoff, Philadelphia, 1914, pp. 6-7, 28). It was a royal residence (basíleia) and had been destroyed by Tigranes the Great of Armenia (95-55 B.C.); no doubt this occurred during his great campaign against Parthia begun in 87 B.C., when for a time the highway from Media into Mesopotamia was cut. Adrapana lay 12 schoeni west of [Ec]batana (Hamada@n) on this highway, a distance conformable to that of modern Asada@ba@d. ... M. F. Kanga Gujerati term for the Parsi betrothal ceremony (in Persian na@mzad^). Matches are generally arranged by the parents with the consent of the marriage partners, although now the latter often make their own selection after consulting the parents. For the betrothal, the solemn celebration of the marriage contract, an auspicious day is fixed (see D. Menant, Les Parsis, Paris, 1898, pp. 159-60). The essential part of the ceremony is the reciprocal exchange of jewelry, silver coins, and new sets of clothing. Nuptial songs are sung by the ladies of the two families. ... R. Schmitt (a-du-u-k-n-i-Þ-), name of the first month (March-April) of the Old Persian calendar (see Kent, Old Persian, p. 161a), equivalent to Akkadian Nisannu and Elamite Zikli (several attestations in the Persepolis tablets; see R. T. Hallock, Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Chicago, 1969, pp. 74, 774b). The Old Persian name, whose reading cannot be assured until an undisputed and fully convincing etymological interpretation is found, occurs once in DB II.69. But it is attested frequently in the Persepolis tablets in the Elamite rendering HadukannaÞ, with numerous variants (ibid. ... M. Boyce (and a@dar) Middle Persian word for “fire;” the Avestan form is a@tar (of unknown derivation), and the late form is arabicized in New Persian as a@zòar. The Middle Persian by-form a@taxÞ (NPers. a@taÞ) represents the old nom. sing. form of the word, with intervocalic -t- irregularly preserved. There is reason to think that in Middle Iranian the standard Parthian form was a@dar, the standard Middle Persian a@taxÞ. Both forms occur freely in the mixed language of the Pahlavi books. “Adur” is the name of the ninth Zoroastrian month and the ninth day of the month. ... Ph. Gignoux 3rd century A.D. Sasanian “queen of queens.” The name is probably a compound of two associated deities, Fire and Ana@hita@, and so falls into a category of proper names well documented from Sasanian times, but clarified only recently. Previously it was taken to mean “Fire of Ana@hita@.” The name appears in two passages of ˆa@pu@r I's inscription at the Ka¿ba of Zoroaster (Mid. Pers. lines 23, 25; Parth., 18, 20; Gr., 39, 47). In the first, the king declares to have instituted fires for his daughter AÚdur-Ana@h^d and for three of his sons. ... A. Tafazμzμol^ a Sasanian mobad of mobads (mowbeda@n mowbed) or high priest. He is mentioned in Middle Persian sources with two others who held this title, AÚdurfarnbag@ and Hu@da@d (De@nkard II, p. 573.23f.; The Epistles of Manushchihar, ed. B. N. Dhabhar, Bombay 1912, p. 47.2), and with AÚdurba@d, son of ZarduÞt (who was son of AÚdurba@d Mahrspanda@n; Ma@diya@n ^ haza@r da@dista@n, ed. J. J. Modi, part 2, Bombay, 1912, p. 38). The Ma@diya@n places all four in the reign of a Yazdegerd, probably Yazdegerd II (A.D. ... M. Boyce an AÚtaÞ Bahra@m (see AÚtaÞ), i.e., a Zoroastrian sacred fire of the highest grade. The tradition of its foundation is lost in antiquity, but if it is correct that the temple cult of fire was first established in the late 5th or early 4th century B.C., its installation cannot be put earlier than that. Burze@n-Mihr (“Exalted is Mihr”) is known as a personal name, and is presumed to be that of the unknown founder of the fire. “Burze@n” is a Parthian form, and the fire was established in Parthia (the northeast of Iran). ... M. Boyce an AÚtaÞ Bahra@m (see AÚtaÞ), that is, a Zoroastrian sacred fire of the highest grade, held to be one of the three great fires of ancient Iran, existing since creation (see further under AÚdur Burze@n-Mihr). The Middle Iranian name Farnba@g, presumably that of the fire's unknown but historical founder, means “Having a share (ba@g) through Fortune.” Old Persian farnah- is a dialect form of Avestan (xvar™nah-, Pahlavi xwarrah (a “learned” word) meaning “fortune, glory,” a common noun and the name also of a yazata (see Farr). ... M. Boyce an AÚtaÞ Bahra@m (see AÚtaÞ), that is, a Zoroastrian sacred fire of the highest grade, held to be one of the three great fires of ancient Iran, existing since creation (see further under AÚdur Burze@n-Mihr). The name GuÞnasp, presumed to be that of the fire's unknown founder, means “Stallion.” The fire was installed somewhere in Media at an unknown date, presumably in the late Achaemenid or Parthian period. A. Tafazμzμol^ son of the Sasanian king Hormizd II (A.D. 302-09) and ruler for several months after his father. It is inferred from Byzantine historians (see Justi, Namenbuch, p. 3; Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, p. 51, n. 3) that Hormizd II had two sons, Hormizd and AÚdur Narseh, by his first wife, and another son of unknown name. AÚdur Narseh was made king in 309 but was deposed and killed because of his cruelty. The Arab historian T®abar^ gives a quite different account of the succession. According to him Hormizd II was childless at his death, and the yet unborn ˆa@pu@r II was immediately chosen as king (I, p. ... A. Tafazμzμol^ second author of the 9th century A.D. Zoroastrian compilation, De@nkard. He gives an account of his activity at the end of De@nkard 3 (ed. Madan, p. 406.11ff.). When the first author, AÚdurfarnbag ^ Farroxza@da@n (q.v.), died, the text passed into the care of the latter's son, ZarduÞt. But a “bad accident” befell ZarduÞt, and the book became disordered and dispersed. AÚdurba@d reunited and added to it; he gave it the title Works of the Religion [De@nkard] in 1,000 Chapters. Since his name appears only at the end of De@nkard 3, it may be inferred that he had a greater role in the redaction of that section than in the rest of the work. ... A. Tafazμzμol^ È MAHRSPANDAÚN (“AÚdurba@d, son of Mahrspand”), Zoroastrian mobad of mobads (mowbeda@n mowbed) or high priest in the reign of the Sasanian king ˆa@pu@r II (A.D. 309-79). The Pahlavi BundahiÞn (p. 237.2) traces AÚdurba@d's lineage back to the legendary Du@rsarw, son of Manu@±ihr; similarly B^ru@n^'s al-AÚt¯a@r al-ba@q^a mentions him as a descendant of Dwsr (ed. J. Fück, Documenta Islamica Inedita, Berlin, 1952, p. 76). He was a native of the “village Kura@n” (kwl÷n MT÷, De@nkard, p. ... A. Tafazμzμol^ È FARROXZAÚDAÚN (Pa@rs^: AÚdar-farra@÷ Farrokòza@da@n), first author of the 9th century A.D. Zoroastrian compilation, the De@nkard. He is referred to there as leader of the Wehde@ns (those of the Good Religion, i.e., Zoroastrianism); hence he is usually identified with the officially recognized leader of the orthodox Zoroastrian community who debated with Aba@liÞ (q.v.) before the ¿Abbasid caliph, al-Ma÷mu@n (197-218/813-33). He seems to have been a major intellectual figure in the Zoroastrian church, and his alleged sayings were frequently cited, by younger contemporary writers and later ones, as authoritative. ... C. J. Brunner a brother of the Sasanian king ˆa@pu@r II (A.D. 309-79) who is mentioned in the Syriac Acts of the Persian Martyrs (q.v.; G. Hoffmann, Auszüge aus syrischen Akten persischer Märtyrer, Leipzig, 1880, p. 24). The name is spelled ÷drprzgrd; Hoffmann vocalized it, with emendation, as “AÚdòurafro@zgerd.” The above reading, however, is more direct and produces a grammatically correct compound, “Having the furtherance (cf. Avestan fraÞo@.k™r™ti-) of Fire.” Given the role of dynastic fire foundations in the state cult, and the honor thus given to the god Fire, the name is appropriate for a Sasanian prince. ... M. L. Chaumont CLAUDIUS, a sophist of the first third of the 3rd century A.D., from Praenest near Rome. Although he was a pure Roman, he spoke and wrote Greek fluently. Of his compositions in Greek, two are preserved: a treatise “On the Nature of Animals” and a collection entitled “Various Histories” (see M. Wellmann, Pauly-Wissowa I, 1893, pp. 486-88). His chief service to Iranian history was the preservation of some data from the works of Ctesias of Cnidus, the Greek physician of Artaxerxes II. ... J. P. Asmussen “wrath” in Younger Avestan: Gathic ae@Þ™ma-, Middle Persian (x)e@Þm, Pa@zand and New Persian kòaÞm, kòeÞm. (On the word's root and its derivatives in Old Iranian and Old Indic, see F. Windischmann, Zoroastrische Studien, Berlin, 1863, p. 139; S. Wikander, Der arische Männerbund, Lund, 1938, pp. 59-60.) The term indicates wrath both metaphysically, as a distinct demon, and psychologically as the function and quality of that demon realized in man. The Avesta expresses abhorrence of Ae@Þma, for he endangers the integrity of the Good Religion of the Mazdayasnians. ... Z. Ahmad and W. Kirmani SHAH FAQÈRALLAÚH, Panjabi Persian poet (b. ca. 1070/1660, d. 1154/1741). Born in Lahore where he passed his whole life, he is said to have belonged to the Ôu@ya, a Shi¿ite tribe of the Guèar community (AÚza@d Belgra@m^, K¨eza@na-ye ¿amera, Cawnpore, 1287/1871, p. 28). He was given a standard education, committing much Persian verse to memory and mastering the Mat¯naw^ of Ru@m^, which he later taught. He had friendly relations with local scholars and Mughal officials, but eventually chose a life of seclusion. ... Ô. Mat^n^ a poem in the motaqa@reb meter by the 4th/10th century poet Abu@ ˆaku@r Balkò^ (q.v.). The scattered extant verses, some 320 bayts in tadòkeras, dictionaries, and other books, indicate that in addition to purely didactic and homiletic material, the work probably contained stories as well. Three of the verses make it clear that Abu@ ˆaku@r wrote the AÚfar^n-na@ma, which he dedicated to the amir Nu@há b. Nasár Sa@ma@n^ (r. 331-43/943-54; see Lazard, Premiers poeàtes, line 123), in 333/944 when he was thirty-three years old (ibid. ... Ch. M. Kieffer in current political usage, any citizen of Afghanistan, whatever his ethnic, tribal, or religious affiliation. According to the 1977 constitution of the Republic of Afghanistan (1973-78), all Afghans are equal in rights and obligations before the law. In an attempt to alleviate the inevitable tensions and conflicts of an ethnically diverse state, the republic discouraged reference to ethnic or tribal origin and prohibited the use of personal names that evoke an ethnic group (such as Afr^d^, Ahámadzay, OÚrmurá, Nu@rzay, Po@palzay, Wardak, etc. ... N. R. Keddie ÔAMAÚL-AL-DÈN (1254-1314/1838 or 39-97), an outstanding ideologist and political activist of the late 19th century Muslim world, whose influence has continued strong in many Muslim countries. Although for much of his life he claimed to be of Afghan origin, probably in order to present himself as a Sunni Muslim and to escape oppression by the Iranian government, overwhelming documentation now proves that he was born and spent his childhood in Iran. (One of the chief documentary sources that demonstrates this, as well as many other points about his life, is Afg@a@n^'s collection of papers left in Iran upon his expulsion in 1891, catalogued in È. ... ¿A. H®ab^b^ (afg@a@n^), the unit of currency in modern Afghanistan. Throughout the 19th century, Afghanistan's unit of currency was the rupee (ru@pya). In Qandaha@r, each rupee was equal to one-half miskal (2.3 gr.) pure silver or 36 paisa (paysa), and in Kabul each rupee was equal to one miskal pure silver or 60 paisa (or folu@s). Each Kabuli rupee equaled two qera@n, three ¿abba@s^ (one ¿abba@s^ being equal to 20 paisa), or twelve Þa@h^ (one Þa@h^ being equal to five paisa). Paisas were made of copper or zinc, whereas coins of higher value were minted in silver. ... J. F. Shroder, Jr., M. ˆaf^q Yu@nos, K. Habibi, L. Dupree, Ch. M. Kieffer, G. Morgenstierne, G. Morgenstierne, N. H. Dupree, F. Tissot, D. Balland R. Farha@d^ Z. Ahmad ALLAÚHYAÚR KHAN, b. 1233/1817-18, d. 21 Ramazµa@n 1278/22 March 1861, poet, son of Nawwa@b Am^r-al-dawla, the founder of the state of Tonk. Alla@hya@r Khan seems not to have participated in government administration or military affairs after his education and marriage; he is never referred to in such capacities in the detailed Ta@r^kò-e To@nk of Aság@ar ¿Al^ Khan AÚbru@ (Agra, 1901). (He must not be confused with Alla@hya@r Khan Fathá-e Ôang, the Nawwa@b's son-in-law and a member of the defense council. ... N. H. Zaidi ˆAMS SERAÚÔ (d. ca. 802/1399), author of Ta@r^kò-e F^ru@zÞa@h^, a Persian life of F^ru@z Shah Tog@loq (r. 752-90/1351-88). Like his father, grandfather and great grandfather before him, ¿Af^f served the Tog@loq court at Delhi in various capacities. His work betrays a fond attachment to F^ru@z Shah, since it portrays even his shortcomings as virtues. Its importance lies more in its detailed descriptions of the events, the social customs, the political atmosphere, and the agricultural, commercial, and industrial conditions of the country. ... T. Yazici ¿AÚREFÈ, ˆAMS-AL-DÈN, b. between ca. 685/1286 and 690/1291, author of texts on the virtues of Ôala@l-al-d^n Ru@m^ and his disciples. The pen name Afla@k^ was apparently derived from his work as an astronomer (T¨a@qeb Dede, Safina III, p. 5), while the nesba ¿AÚref^ was taken by him from his shaikh Awla@ ¿AÚref Ùeleb^. His place of birth and the names of his parents remain unknown. According to Afla@k^ his father was a distinguished man or scholar at the court of Awrang Khan (r. 712-41/1312-40), overlord of the Golden Horde; on his death he left a great many books and considerable wealth. ... M. Momen (“twigs” or “branches”), term used in the Baha÷i faith (initially by Baha@÷alla@h) to designate certain lines of descent in the maternal family of the Ba@b (q.v.). The Ba@b married K¨ad^èa Begom, his mother's paternal cousin, and the Afna@n are the siblings of his mother and his wife, together with all their descendants. The family members have no administrative functions or privileges and their designation is purely honorary. ... A. Parsa Persian term for the maple tree (genus Acer), also embracing a few shrubs of the family Aceraceae. There are 150 species indigenous to the north temperate regions of the Old and New Worlds; eleven of them are represented in Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Iraq, Turkey, and the Caucasus region. The following species are known to be indigenous to present-day Iran: 1. Karab/karaf (Acer campestre L.), hedge or common maple, found in the forests and mountains of Gorga@n, Ma@zandara@n, and Azerbaijan at an elevation of 800-2,200 m. ... J. P. Asmussen name attested in Syriac (÷frhtá) of a number of Iranian Christian churchmen. Cf. Middle Persian frahaxtan “educate, teach, instruct” and the New Persian name Farha@d. J. P. Asmussen YA¿QUÚB, Persian bishop of the mid-4th century A.D., author in Syriac. (The younger form of the name, Farha@d, is given in the 13th century by Bar Hebraeus.) Ya¿qu@b Afraha@tá was born between A.D. 260 and 275 and died shortly after 345. Famous as “the Persian sage” (háakk^ma farsa@ya@), he was the first historically distinct Iranian Christian of outstanding importance. An uncertain later tradition (a MS of A.D. 1364) connects him with the monastery of Ma@r Mattai (Matthew) near Mosul, ancient Nineveh. ... E. Yarshater (Av. Fraºrasyan; Mid. Pers. Fra@siya@v, Fra@siya@k, Frangra@sya@k, etc.; T®abar^: Fara@s^a@t; D^nawar^, Mas¿u@d^, B^ru@n^: Fara@s^a@b; T¨a¿a@leb^, Ferdows^: Afra@s^a@b; Pazand: Fra@sya@vak, Fra@sya@van), Turanian king and hero and Iran's archenemy in its legendary history. By far the most prominent of Turanian kings, Afra@s^a@b is depicted in Iranian tradition as a formidable warrior and skillful general; an agent of Ahriman, he is endowed with magical powers and bent on the destruction of Iranian lands. ... G. A. Pugachenkova and E`. V. Rtveladze the ruined site of ancient and medieval Samarqand in the northern part of the modern town. The term Qal¿a-ye Afra@s^a@b appears in written sources only from the end of the 17th century. The name is popularly connected with that of the epic king of Tu@ra@n, Afra@s^a@b, but scholars see in it a distortion of Tajik Pars^a@b (Sogdian ParÞva@b), “Above the black river,” i.e., the S^a@ha@b or S^a@b, which bounds the site on the north. The area of Afra@s^a@b covers 219 hectares, and the thickness of the archeological strata reaches 8-12 m. ... See AÚl-e AfraÚsÈaÚb. B. Sholevar and H. Javadi MOH®AMMAD-¿ALÈ (1287-1338 ˆ./1908-59), poet, writer and satirist. Like his father Ôawa@d, he was a native of RaÞt, while his mother was from a peasant family of G^la@n, a fact which explains his wide knowledge of the customs, manners, and language of the G^lak^ peasants. Before finishing school, he was forced to work in such capacities as teacher, cashier, and chauffeur; his difficult childhood figures as a theme in many of his verses. He established his identity as a writer and poet after the Allied occupation of Iran (August, 1941), when freedom of expression became possible. ... J. P. Asmussen 5th century A.D. Christian bishop of the province of Sagasta@n (i.e., S^sta@n). AÚfr^d is a proper name, also occurring in compounds (e.g., Burza@fr^d, Hormiza@fr^d), from Avestan a@fr^¡ti- “blessing,” the name of one of the minor yazatas (Air Wb., col. 330), according to the Syriac Synodicon Orientale (ed. J. B. Chabot, Paris, 1902)—a collection of ecclesiastical canons from the Seleucia-Ctesiphon synods dating from the beginning of the 5th to the end of the 8th century—this bishop represented Sagasta@n (sgstn) at the synod of the catholicos Da@d^Þo@¿ (swnhdws ddyÞw¿), A. ... C. M. Kieffer or APRÈDÈ (singular -ay), designation of a major PaÞátu@n tribe in northwest Pakistan, with a few members in Afghanistan. The Afr^d^ form part of the GÚilz^ and are thus of the so-called “eastern PaÞátu@n,” who are to be distinguished from the Dorra@n^ (or Abda@l^, q.v.) encompassing the “western PaÞátu@n.” Their language is PaÞáto@ MaÞreq^. Their eponymous ancestor is supposed to have been a certain Far^du@n, a descendant of Karla@ná (whence the Karla@nái lineage) through Ma@n^ (or Ma@nay?) and Ko@day (and his second wife). ... See AÚL-E AFRÈGÚ. F. M. Kotwal and J. W. Boyd “blessing,” benedictory prayers said at the conclusion of every Zoroastrian ceremony of blessings (a@frinaga@n, q.v.). The purpose of these prayers is to invoke the blessings of the yazads (benign spirits), Amahraspands (seven Bounteous Immortals), and fro@hars (guardian spirits) of the departed worthies of ancient Iran. The intended recipients of these blessings are the head of the family that has requested the ceremony and the departed soul in whose memory the M. F. Kanga a term for one of the outer Zoroastrian liturgical services and for the specific Avestan prayers which accompany it. The word is derived from OIr. a@-fri- and invites comparison with Sanskrit a@pri-, a class of prayers expressing an invitation to divinities to partake of the sacrifice (see M. Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, Literature, and Religion of the Parsees, 2nd ed., London, 1878, pp. 284-85). The other outer services are the faroxÞi (q.v., the recitation of the Fraward^n YaÞt in honor of the dead) and the stom (Av. ... See under AÚTAˆDAÚN. P. P. Soucek (“sprinkling”), the decoration of paper with flecks of gold and silver, sometimes called zarafÞa@n “gold sprinkling” (an expression otherwise used to describe the scattering of gold coins as a gesture of largesse). Textual sources on the technique's origin and development are scanty but can be supplemented by evidence from manuscripts and album leaves. It was popular in both China and Japan for centuries before being introduced to Iran and Central Asia by an unknown route, apparently during the Timurid period. ... P. Oberling one of the twenty-four original GÚuz Turkic tribes (T. Houtsma, “Die Ghuzenstämme,” WZKM 2, 1888, pp. 223-24). Now widely scattered in Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan, the AfÞa@rs were first mentioned by Ka@Þg@ar^ (Divanü lûg¡at-it Türk, Ankara, 1939-41, I, p. 56). According to RaÞ^d-al-d^n, AfÞa@r, the eponymous founder of the tribe, was a son of Yildiz Khan, the third son of Og@uz Khan (Ôa@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò, ed. A. A. Ali-Zade, Moscow, 1965, I/1, pp. 79-80). The name AfÞa@r means “obedient” (J. ... AH®MAD SOLT®AÚN. See AH®MAD SOLT®AÚN. H®. Mah®bu@b^ Ardaka@n^ H®AÚÔÔÈ BAÚBAÚ, court physician under Moháammad Shah Qa@èa@r. His real name is unknown, since H®a@èè^ Ba@ba@ is a name usually given to a child in memory and honor of his grandfather or great-grandfather. Son of an officer in ¿Abba@s M^rza@'s army, he was sent in 1226/1811 together with a number of others to study medicine and chemistry in England at the expense of the crown prince and under the supervision of Sir Harford Jones (Ya@dga@r 1/5, pp. 30-35). During eight years of residence in England, probably part of which was spent at Oxford, he seems to have been seriously engaged in studies, though he did not acquire a degree (Yag@ma@ 6/8, pp. ... H. Farhat one of the twelve dastga@hs or modal systems of classical Iranian music. In the contemporary tradition, AfÞa@r^ is customarily classified as a derivative of the dastga@h ˆu@r. In fact, however, AfÞa@r^ is quite independent and possesses its own modal characteristics as well as its own foru@d (cadence) pattern. In the dara@mad (the introductory and the main part of the dastga@h) AfÞa@r^ has the following modal scheme: J. R. Perry a dynasty (1148-1210/1736-96) founded by Na@der Shah AfÞa@r (q.v.) upon the abolition of the Safavid dynasty in 1148/1736. What follows is an outline history of the state founded by Na@der Shah until 1210, when it was annexed by the Qajars. Nominally a continuation of the Iranian empire as reestablished by Na@der, after his death the Afsharid state was in practice confined to Iranian Khorasan. Moreover, actual power was exercised for most of this sixty years not by the nominal ruler but by military leaders or other court factions, and for a brief time by Solayma@n II, whose reign was an attempted Safavid restoration. ... C. E. Bosworth princely title of the rulers of OÞru@sana at the time of the Muslim conquest, the most famous of whom was K¨eydòa@r (arabicized H®aydar) b. Ka@vu@s, d. ˆa¿ba@n, 226/May-June, 841. The term is an arabicized form of middle Persian PiÞ^n, Avestan Pisinah-, a proper name of uncertain etymology (AirWb., col. 907). In pre-Islamic Iranian tradition, it is the name of a grandson of Kayanid king Kava@d (Yt. 13.132, 19.71). In the Islamic period, it is found as a proper name attested by Armenian historians in the form OÚÞin (from AwÞin; see Justi, Namenbuch, pp. ... ¿A. Ka@rang and F. R. C. Bagley B. DÈVDAÚD, ABU÷L-MOSAÚFER or ABUÚ ¿OBAYDALLAÚH MOH®AMMAD, founder of the semi-independent Sajid dynasty in Azerbaijan (r. 276/889-90-317/929). He and his brother Yu@sof, who seized power after him, are prominent in Armenian history. In Arabic sources he is named Moháammad b. Ab^ Sa@è, in Armenian sources AfÞ^n, which was the title of the princes of OÞru@sana in Transoxania; he evidently assumed the name AfÞ^n at some stage, as it appears on a coin minted for him at Barda¿a in 285/898. ... M. Baqir (AFSOÚS), the takòallosá of MÈR ˆÈR-¿ALÈ, late 18th century poet and translator of India. He was born at Naya@ ˆahr. His ancestors, originally from K¨úa@f in Iran, came to India and settled in the town of Narnawl near Agra; hence the family was known as Narnawl. His grandfather and his father, Sayyed Mozáaffar ¿Al^ Khan, came to Delhi during the reign of the emperor Moháammad Shah (1719-48) and became associates of the poet ¿Omdat-al-molk Nawwa@b Amir Khan Anèa@m (d. 1747), who was a favorite of the emperor. ... L. P. Elwell-Sutton (“Sun”), name of several Persian periodicals. G. L. Windfuhr the dialect of Aftar (population about 1,200), located at 53° 07' east longitude and 35° 39' north latitude in the mountains one kilometer west of the Semna@n-F^ru@zku@h road to Ma@zandara@n. Historical phonology shows Aftar^ as a Northwest (i.e. non-Perside) dialect of Iranian, e.g., *v → v: varg “wolf;” *dv → b: bar “door;” *k → s: kasin “small;” *ĝ → z: yeze “yesterday;” *ƒr, fr, xr (h)r: pu@r “son,” hera@n “tomorrow,” erin “buy;” note also a < *azam “I;” hu@è < *yu`am “you (pl. ... A. Parsa a medicinal herb. Aft^mu@n or dodder is a genus of parasitic plants (Cuscuta) of the family Cuscutaceae. Of about 120 species of dodder, widely distributed, 25 are found in Iran. The common Persian names for aft^mu@n include the following: ka@Þu@t¯ (K¨orramÞahr), reÞa@-ye keÞvar (Hamada@n, Isfahan, Tehran), geÞu@z (Hamada@n), ku@ku@l-e pol (“moist silk,” in the bazaar of Ka@Þa@n), du@la@Þ^k (Orm^a). The flowers and seeds of aft^mu@n are exported from Iran to India mixed with the leaves and spines of the plants on which they grow. ... W. Sundermann (Manichean Middle Persian ÷pwryÞn) “blessing, praise,” a technical, literary term for a category of Manichean hymns. The parallel term in Parthian, a@fr^wan (spelled (÷)÷frywn, ÷÷fr¿ywn, [÷fr]yywn), is also used in a general, non-technical sense. Sometimes Middle Persian ¿st÷yÞn and Parthian ¿st÷wyÞn (“praising”) are substituted for these terms. An a@furiÞn-hymn is more precisely defined by reference (1) to the divine or human being to whom it is addressed (e.g. ... S. Shahnavaz opium, its production and commerce in Iran. The word afyu@n is derived from the Greek opion and Latin opium (concerning this term and other words used in Persian for opium, see Dehkòoda@, afyu@n, tarya@q, tarya@q-e akbar, tarya@q-e fa@ru@q@, tarya@k, kòaÞkòa@Þ, ku@kna@r). The Persian name most in use today, tarya@k, is also derived from the Greek (the@riake‚, antidote against a poisonous bite). The opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) grew in western Asia in ancient times, and Asia Minor remained one of the chief producing regions. ... W. Kirmani KHAN QAÚQˆAÚL, south Indian tadòkera writer. Little is known about his early life or the Indian members of the Turkish clan from which he was descended (see Storey, I/2, p. 849, n. 1). A resident of Awranga@ba@d in the Deccan or mid-southern region of India, he served in the army of AÚsáafèa@h Nezáa@m-al-molk (d. 1161/1748), founder of the princely state of Hyderabad, during the period of British rule. He held the post of troop commander (resa@lada@r) and continued in the same position under Na@sáer Ôang, the son and successor of AÚsáafèa@h. ... -AL-DÈN KAÚˆAÚNÈ. See BAÚBAÚ AFZ˜AL. M. E. Ba@sta@n^ Pa@r^z^ -AL-DÈN KERMAÚNÈ, ABUÚ H®AÚMED AH®MAD B. H®AÚMED KUÚHBONAÚNÈ, writer, poet, and physician of Kerma@n in the 6th and early 7th/12th and early 13th centuries (introduction to M. E. Ba@sta@n^ Pa@r^z^, Salèu@q^a@n va GÚozz dar Kerma@n, Tehran, 1343 ˆ./1964, p. 57); he is often called Afzµal-al-d^n Ka@teb (Na@sáer-al-d^n MonÞ^ Kerma@n^, Semtá al-¿ola@, ed. ¿A. Eqba@l AÚÞt^a@n^, Tehran, 1328 ˆ./1949, p. 17). In his ¿Eqd al-¿ola@ (ed. ¿A. M. ¿AÚmer^, Tehran, 1311 ˆ./1932, p. ... R. Quiring-Zoche -AL-DÈN TORKA, name of three figures from Isfahan. 1. The only thing known about the first is that he was an adherent of Fazµlalla@h Astara@ba@d^ (d. 796/1394), the founder of the H®oru@f^s (H. Ritter, “Studien zur Geschichte der islamischen Frommigkeit II. Die Anfänge der H®uru@f^sekte,” Oriens 7, 1954, p. 15). P. P. Soucek AL-H®OSAYNÈ, painter active during the reign of Shah ¿Abba@s II (1052-77/1642-66). The principal evidence of him comes from an extensively illustrated ˆa@h-na@ma of Ferdows^ now in the Leningrad Public Library (G.P.B. MS Dorn 333). According to the preface, it was prepared as a gift for Shah ¿Abba@s II by order of Qu@r±^ba@Þ^ Mortazμa@-qol^ Khan. The calligrapher, Moháammad-ˆaf^¿ b. ¿Abd-al-Ôabba@r, states that the manuscript was begun in 1052/1642 and completed in 1061/1651. Approximately half of its 128 paintings are by Afzµal H®osayn^; sixty-two bear his signature, and four more can be attributed to him on the basis of style. ... ¿A. H®ab^b^ AMIR MOH®AMMAD (1220-84/1814-67), governor of Balkò and for a short time ruler of Afghanistan. The eldest son of the ruler Do@st Moháammad Khan (Fayzμ Moháammad Haza@ra, Sera@è al-tawa@r^kò II, p. 251; Y. ¿A. K¨a@f^, Pa@deÞa@ha@n-e mota÷akòkòer I, p. 212), under his father (whose reign at Kabul began in 1254/1838) Afzµal held a governorship at Zormat, south of Kabul, and in 1266/1849 was appointed governor of the northern provinces of Afghanistan with his seat at Balkò. Since the ancient city of Balkò was in ruins, he built the new town of Takòta-pol east of the old citadel (Sera@è II, p. ... W. E. Begley title of MOLLAÚ ˆOKRALLAÚH ˆÈRAÚZÈ, Mughal court official (ca. 978-1048/1570-1639). Born in Shiraz, in his late thirties he went to India, where he eventually attained the position of prime minister (d^va@n-e koll) under the Mughal emperor Shah Ôaha@n (r. 1037-68/1628-58); the official court history gives the chronogram for this event as Þod Afla@táu@n waz^r-e Eskandar, “Plato became the vizier of Alexander” (1038/1629; ¿Abd-al-H®am^d La@hu@r^, Pa@deÞa@h-na@ma, ed. K. Ahámad and ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m, 2 vols. ... J. Enevoldsen (b. 1075/1664-65), chief of the K¨atáak tribe, Pashto poet, and author of Ta@r^kò-e morasásáa¿. He was the eldest son of AÞraf Khan “Heèr^” (1044-1105/1635 to 1693-94); in 1083/1672-73 AÞraf succeeded his father K¨úoÞháa@l Khan in the chieftaincy of the K¨atáak tribe, but in 1092/1681 he was betrayed into the hands of the Mughal emperor Awrangze@b by his brother Bahra@m and died in captivity. Afzμal Khan was arrested by the Mughals in 1098/1686-87 and carried to Kabul; he returned two years after the death of K¨úoÞháa@l Khan (1100/1689) to assume the chieftainship of the K¨atáak tribe, which he held for sixty-one years. ... See ABZARÈ. See AÚQAÚ BOZORG TEHRAÚNÈ. J. R. Perry (r. 1203-12/1789-97), founder of the Qajar dynasty (q.v.). He was born about 1155/1742, the eldest son of the chief of the Qava@nlu@ (Qoyunlu@) clan of the Qajars of Astara@ba@d, Moháammad-H®asan Khan, whose father, Fathá-¿Al^ Khan, had been executed by T®ahma@sb II (perhaps at the instigation of the future Na@der Shah). Subsequently the Qava@nlu@ and the AÞa@qaba@Þ branch of the Qajars to which they belonged were dominated by the rival Develu@ clan of the Yu@kòa@r^ba@Þ branch. Moháammad-H®asan was a fugitive on the Turkman steppe during Na@der's reign. ... P. Oberling a tribe of mixed ethnic origin living in eastern K¨u@zesta@n. The name Ag@a@± Er^ (“People of the Forest” in Turkic) is very ancient (cf. RaÞ^d-al-d^n, Ôa@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò, ed. A. A. Ali-Zade, Moscow, 1965, I/1, p. 35; V. Minorsky, “ÄÁnallu/Inallu,” RO 18, 1953, p. 4; Nozhat al-qolu@b, p. 81; Jordanes, The Origin and Deeds of the Goths, Princeton, 1908, p. 11; G. Nemeth, A honfolgalo‚ magyarsa‚g kialakula‚sa, Budapest, 1930, pp. 32, 138, 168; J. Marquart, Osteuropäische und ostasiatische Streifzüge, Leipzig, 1903, pp. ... Ô. Qa@÷em-Maqa@m^ town in K¨u@zesta@n and district (bakÞ) in the county (Þahresta@n) of Behbaha@n, situated seventy-eight km to the northwest of the city of Behbaha@n. The name derives from that of the tribe, Ag@a@± Er^ (q.v.), that used to winter there. The district is bounded on the north by the Ma@ru@n river, on the east by the Behbaha@n district, on the south by the Hend^èa@n district, and on the west by the AÚsya@b subdistrict (dehesta@n) of K¨orramÞahr county. The town is the only populated place of the district, which owes its status as a district to its important oil wells. ... ¿A. Zarya@b (or AGÚAÚÔÈ, AÚGÚAÔÈ, AÚGÚAÚÙÈ), title of a court official in the administrations of the Ghaznavids and Saljuqs; it apparently existed as early as the Samanids, judging by the epithet of the poet AÚg@a@è^ Bokòa@r^ (q.v.). The functions of this position are not specifically defined in the historical literature but only implied. It appears from the Ta@r^kò-e Bayhaq^ (pp. 169, 344, 472, 511, 595, 648, 650) that the a@g@a@è^ was the intermediary who delivered important letters and messages to the amir or sultan, especially when the latter was in private audience or not receiving anyone. ... ¿A. Zarya@b (or AÚGÚAÚÙÈ) BOK¨AÚRÈ, ABU÷L-H®ASAN ¿ALÈ B. ELYAÚS, Samanid amir and poet; he served at the courts of Mansáu@r b. Nu@há and Nu@há b. Mansáu@r (350-87/961-97) and is called a contemporary of Daq^q^ (¿Awf^, Loba@b [Tehran], pp. 568, 623). He may have belonged to the Samanid family, a possibility strengthened by the fact that ¿Awf^ discusses him in the chapter on “great kings” (see Naf^s^'s notes to Loba@b, pp. 623-24). He wrote panegyrics (of which a few bayts survive among his fragments) and was himself the subject of such poems. ... K. Abu-Deeb KETAÚB (“The Book of Songs”), the major work of Abu÷l-Faraè Esáfaha@n^ (q.v., 284-356/897-967). Although thirty-six works are attributed to him (see ¿A. Asáma¿^, Abu÷l-Faraè al-Esáfahan^ wa keta@boh al-Ag@a@n^, Cairo, 1951, pp. 172-75; EI2 I, p. 118), his reputation rests entirely on al-Ag@a@n^. In its most recent edition (Cairo, 24 vols., 1927-74), the work runs to over 9,000 pages of text; it thus goes far beyond its original purpose, which was to record 100 songs selected for the caliph Ha@ru@n al-RaÞ^d, and forms a rich anthology of historical fact, biographical detail, songs, myths, folktales, literary prose and poetry, and criticism. ... See AÚQAÚSÈ. R. W. Thomson (Greek for “messenger of good news”), the supposed author of a History of the Armenians, which describes the conversion of King Trdat of Armenia to Christianity at the beginning of the 4th century A.D. The Armenian version (Aa) of this History dates from the second half of the 5th century. The first mention of a history by Agathangelos in other Armenian sources is found in Lazar of P'arp (ca. A.D. 500). A Greek version of Aa (Ag) was made soon after the Armenian received its present form. On Ag depend an Arabic version and numerous secondary versions in Greek, Latin, and Ethiopic. ... M.-L. Chaumont Byzantine historian, b. 536 or 537 in Myrina, a small village in Asia Minor, d. about 580. He completed his legal studies in Constantinople, where he practiced the profession of advocate, whence the surname scholasticus. More interested in belles-lettres than in the bar, he at first devoted himself to poetry and composed a collection of erotic poems and numerous epigrams. When he was about thirty, he decided to continue the work of Procopius of Caesarea and turned to history. His History of Justinian covers the years 553-59 and comprises five volumes; it was not completed because of his premature death. ... See AÚTAˆKADA. a special kind of pottery, so designated because of a village in southeast Azerbaijan of the same name, where most of it was said to have been found in the 1930s. So-called AÚg@kand-ware belongs to the class of lead-glazed earthenware with designs engraved through a white slip in bold, linear outlines, colored with golden brown, yellow, a clear, fluctuating green, and sometimes manganese purple. Globular bowls with sharp-edged rims of metallic character are the predominant shape. The decoration consists of ornamental designs and of stumpy scrolls often enlivened with animals and seldom with representations of human beings (Plate XXXI). ... A. Tafazμzμol^ (AÚg@oÞ son of Veha@dò), king of G^la@n at the time of Kay K¨osrow, the Kayanid king, and one of the commanders of his armies. Kay K¨osrow sent four armies to fight Afra@s^a@b, the third of which was led by AÚg@oÞ Veha@dòa@n. Accompanied by Gostahm, son of No@dòar, AÚg@oÞ went from the region of K¨azar toward K¨úa@razm and met and defeated ˆe@da, Afra@s^a@b's son, and Garse@vaz, his brother (Moèmal, p. 388; T®abar^ I, p. 608; Bal¿am^, Ta@r^kò, p. 606). The kings of G^la@n traced their lineage to AÚg@oÞ (Moèmal, p. ... G. Hambly city and district center in the state of Uttar Pradesh in northern India, situated on the west bank of the river Jumna (Yamona@) approximately 125 miles south of Delhi. Capital of Mughal empire during the 16th and 17th centuries, it is today the location of some of the most important examples of Mughal architecture, including the Taj Mahal. Mention of Agra as a local center occurs as early as Ghaznavid times (5th/11th century) and throughout the period of the Delhi sultanate as a dependency of nearby B^a@na. ... Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh (Av. A©rae@raƒa), Turanian warrior and brother of Afra@s^a@b (in the older and more reliable copies of the ˆa@h-na@ma, including the Florence ms. of 614/1217, the final letter is correctly t; in later mss. it has changed to t¯, as in the case of Kayo@mart¯ and T®ahmo@rat¯). In the Avesta Ag@re@rat¯ is mentioned in several passages. In YaÞt 9.18 it is said that Haoma, the yazad or genius of the plant haoma, offered sacrifice to the goddess Drva@spa@ so that he might chain Afra@s^a@b and deliver him to Kavi Haosravah (Pers. ... E. Ehlers in Iran. The rural economy, for millennia the economic and social basis for all Persian governments, is characterized by a series of ecological and economic restraints that have hampered its development. While the natural limitations of the country have effects on the extent of agriculturally usable land and the kinds of crops grown, the socioeconomic structure of Iran and its historical foundations are important for the organization of agricultural production and for economic development. Of special importance for the understanding of the historical development of Iranian agriculture is the theory of rent-capitalism (Rentenkapitalismus) developed by the Austrian geographer H. ... E. Ehlers, T. S. Kawami “lime,” a solid, white substance consisting essentially of calcium oxide. V. C. Pigott iron, from prehistory to the ethnographic present. ¿A. ¿A. Ka@rang the name of a county (Þahresta@n) and town in Azerbaijan. Situated between the Aras river on the north and the counties of Tabr^z on the south, Sara@b, MeÞg^n and Mog@a@n on the east and Marand on the west, Ahar is one of the ten counties of eastern Azerbaijan. Except for the subdistrict (dehesta@n) of Garma@du@z and villages and hamlets on the banks of the Aras and Dara@vard rivers, the climate in the rest of the county is healthy, with cool summers. Spring and autumn have abundant rain, and snowfalls are heavy in the winter. ... ¿A. ¿A. Ka@rang the Ahar river. Originating in the mountains of EÞkanbar, Sa@r^ Ùaman and Qara@èa-da@g@, the Ahar river runs from east to west. It passes north of Varzqa@n and south of Ahar, where a few seasonal streams such as K^±^k-±a@y flow into it before it changes direction to the north near the village of ¿Al^a@ba@d. Further north near the village of Ku@ènaq it joins the river Qara-su@ which itself is formed from a few smaller rivers and streams in the Sabala@n region, such as Andara@b and K¨^a@v-±a@y. After passing by the villages of Sáa@háeb D^va@n, Gavla@n, Qara Darv^Þ, Sáafara@ba@d and ˆakarlu@, in the vicinity of the village of Gozal-l^, it merges into the Qara-su@-ye Ba@la@ river, which itself originates in the Sáalawa@t range. ... Ë. Aka ABUÚ BAKR QOT®BÈ (8th/14th cent.), author of Ta@r^kò-e ˆa@h Oways, dedicated to the Jalayerid ruler Oways (757-76/1356-74). As may be deduced from both his work and his nesba, Ahar^ was from the town of Ahar in Azerbaijan and spent a good part of his life in that region. His work begins with the creation, dividing events into those before and after the advent of Islam. The first section relates the history of the Pishdadids, Kayanids, Arsacids, and Sasanians; the second describes the first four caliphs, the Omayyads, the ¿Abbasids, and the Mongols. ... W. S. McCullough name of a Persian king in pre-Christian Jewish tradition; it appears in the biblical books of Esther (1.1 et passim), Ezra (4.6), and Daniel (9.1) and in the apocryphal book of Tobit (14.15). In the Greek text of Esther, the Persian king's name is Artaxerxes (q.v.; presumably Artaxerxes I, 465-424 B.C.), but it is impossible to equate the Old Persian for Artaxerxes (ArtaxÞaça) with the Hebrew (see below), which is rendered as Ahasuerus. In the Tobit passage, Nebuchadnezzar and Ahasuerus (Greek Asue@ros) are said to have captured and destroyed Nineveh (612 B. ... R. M. Savory WOÔUÚH-E, fines collected in Safavid times by the officers of the night watch (aháda@t¯), who were under the supervision of the da@ru@g@a (q.v.; see Tadòkerat al-molu@k, ed. and tr. V. Minorsky, London, 1943, pp. 82, 149). The duty of the aháda@t¯ was to patrol the city at night, stop brawls in taverns, arrest prostitutes, break up gambling parties, etc. According to Eskandar Beg, the early kings had neglected to collect the fines imposed by the aháda@t¯, because the da@ru@g@a nearly always had to take the offender to court, and presumably the sums accruing to the treasury did not cover the administrative costs involved. ... ¿A. ¿A. Raja@÷^ SOLT®AÚN-QOLÈ BEG TORˆÈZÈ, Chaghatay amir, poet, and companion of GÚar^b M^rza@, a son of the Timurid sultan, H®osayn Ba@yqara@. His takòallosá prior to AÚh^ was Narges^. He wrote in both Persian and Turkish; according to ¿Al^-ˆ^r Nava@÷^, he wrote a K¨amsa in imitation of Nezáa@m^'s, but it failed to become popular. AÚh^ died in Tabr^z in 927/1521. I. K. A. Howard -E BAYT (Ahl al-Bayt), the “family of the house” or “household,” i.e., of the Prophet. In pre-Islamic Arabia bayt included the meaning of a noble family within a tribe (Ebn Manzáu@r, Lesa@n al-¿arab al-mohá^tá, ed. Y. K¨ayya@tá, I, Beirut, n.d., p. 292). Thus the term Ahl al-Bayt in its most generalized understanding refers to the descendents of the Prophet's forbear Ha@Þem, who had been a bayt or a family possessing honor among the pre-Islamic QorayÞ; during the Islamic period the term continues to refer to all the descendents of Ha@Þem, including the ¿Abbasids. ... H. Halm -E H®AQQ “People of (the absolute) Truth,” a sect found in western Persia and some regions of northeastern Iraq; the name has also been adopted by other Islamic sects (Nosáayr^s, H®oru@f^s) and appears to be rooted in the tradition of the extremist Shi¿ites (g@ola@t). ¿Al^-Ela@h^ or ¿Al^-Alla@h^ “adherents to the divinity of ¿Al^,” a name applied to the Ahl-e H®aqq by outsiders in their neighborhood, points to the same origin, but misleadingly, since the “deified” ¿Al^ plays only a minor role in their system. ... Ph. Gignoux (Ahlav; written ÷hlwb), a middle Persian term which plays a fundamental role in Mazdean soteriology and which is usually translated as “just.” It is not exclusively Zoroastrian, since it is found both in Avestan (aÞa@van-) and in Old Persian (arta@van-). The former term is derived from Avestan aÞa- (OIr. *ráta-), whose significance is complex, but which specifically denotes the cosmic order, both social and moral. The aÞa@van respects this order or works to maintain it, while the dr™gvant- is adept at lying, i. ... W. Thackston MAWLAÚNAÚ MOH®AMMAD, poet (858/1454?-942/1535). He apparently lived all his life in his native Shiraz. Of his parentage there is no record, and his life style was retiring and contemplative and probably, to judge from several complaints in his works, attended by poverty. His works include g@azals, qasá^das, roba@¿^s (including a sa@q^-na@ma “book of the Saki” made up of this form), and other types. One ornamental qasá^da imitates a famous rhetorical piece by Salma@n Sa@vaè^. Prior to the Iranian Literary Return (ba@zgaÞt), this poem was judged even more successful than Salma@n's original; but later Lotáf-¿Al^ Beg (AÚtaÞkada) comments that such rhetorical devices are not the stuff of which true poetry is made. ... C. J. Brunner Middle Persian form of Younger Avestan aÞ™mao©a- “one who produces confusion of Truth,” a term applied to Iranian priests who deviated from Zoroastrian doctrine. Its use may have developed with the spread of Zoroastrian belief and practice through Iran, since there continued to exist ancient daiva-worshipping rites incompatible with the orthodoxy of the magian hierarchy. The aÞ™mao©as are listed among the archetypal enemies of the Mazda-worshipping religion (Y. 9.18, 31) and most closely associated with sa@stars “tyrants,” presumably their patrons (Y. ... H. Halm B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. MAYMUÚN AL-QADDAÚH® (3rd/9th century), son of the supposed founder of Isma¿ili doctrine (see ¿Abdalla@h b. Maymu@n al-Qadda@há) and grandfather of the first Fatimid caliph, Mahd^. Anti-Isma¿ili writers assert his descent from the alleged heretic “Maymu@n al-Qadda@há,” but this claim is as unhistorical as the official Fatimid account that he was a grandson of Moháammad b. Esma@¿^l b. Ôa¿far al-Sáa@deq. Ahámad's place in Fatimid genealogy is indicated by a letter of Mahd^ to the Isma¿ilis of Yemen (H. ... C. E. Bosworth B. ASAD B. SAÚMAÚN K¨ODAÚ (d. 250/864), early member of the Samanid family and governor of Farg@a@na under the ¿Abbasids and Taherids. Ca. 204/819-20 Ahámad and his three brothers (Nu@há, Yaháya@, and Elya@s) were made subordinate governors of various cities of the east by GÚassa@n b. ¿Abba@d, the caliph Ma÷mu@n's governor of Khorasan, as a reward for their part in suppressing Ra@fe¿ b. Layt¯'s revolt in Samarqand. Ahámad was allotted Farg@a@na (NarÞakò^, tr. R. N. Frye, The History of Bukhara, Cambridge, Mass. ... A. A. Kalantarian B. AYYUÚB H®AÚFEZ®, 7th-8th/13th-14th Azerbaijani architect, one of the best representatives of the architectural school of Nakòèava@n. He constructed in Barda (Bardòa¿a) a mausoleum, completed in 722/1322 according to the building inscription. Externally the mausoleum is cylindrical (height 14 m, diameter 10 m), while its interior is decagonal; the tomb is cruciform. The mausoleums outer facing is of glazed and unglazed brick finished by a broad frieze, the central band of which bears an inscription from the Koran. ... Hameed ud-Din B. BAHBAL KANBOÚ, Mughal historian and author of a Persian work, Ma¿dan-e akòba@r-e Ahámad^, also known as Ma¿dan-e akòba@r-e Ôaha@ng^r^. Nothing is known of his life. Ne¿matalla@h Herav^, a contemporary historian, describes Ahámad's work as invaluable because of its sources. According to Ne¿matalla@h (Ta@r^kò-e K¨a@nèaha@n^ va makòzan-e afg@a@n^, ed. S. M. Ema@m-al-d^n, Dacca, 1960, p. 7), it was compiled in 1020/1611; two later dates found in its text (1022/1613 and 1023/1614) might indicate that in 1611 Ne¿matalla@h consulted only that part of the text dealing with the Afghans, while the work was actually completed three years later. ... C. E. Bosworth B. FAZ˜LAÚN B. AL-¿ABBAÚS B. RAˆÈD, author of an extremely important travel narrative written after he had been a member of an embassy in the early 4th/10th century from the ¿Abbasid caliphate to the ruler of the Bulghars on the middle Volga in Russia. Nothing is known of Ebn Fazμla@n beyond what we glean from his account, which is apparently based on the official report which he made to the caliphal administration in Baghdad after he returned, though the story of the return journey has not survived. ... Ë. Aka B. H®OSAYN B. ¿ALÈ KAÚTEB, historian of the 9th/15th century born in Yazd, author of the Ta@r^kò-e èad^d-e Yazd. Little is known about his life; from his works we learn only that he studied with well-known ¿olama@÷ and shaikhs, attended the gatherings of prominent religious and political figures, and copied the books of a great number of authors. Having become interested in history, he saw that there was no history of Yazd other than Ôa¿far^'s Ta@r^kò-e Yazd; thus he wrote an updated version in twelve chapters (maqa@la). ... D. M. Dunlop B. ÔA¿FAR B. MUÚSAÚ B. YAH®YAÚ B. K¨AÚLED B. BARMAK, ABU'L-H®ASAN, poet, man of letters, musician, wit, and bon vivant at the court of several ¿Abbasid caliphs, hence sometimes called al-Nad^m (“the boon-companion”); born in 224/839, he lived to a great age and died in ˆa¿ba@n 324 or 326/July, 936, or June, 938. The laqab or nickname Ôaházáa by which he was usually known was given to him by Ebn al-Mo¿tazz with reference to his bulging eyes (cf. al-Ôa@háezá). His connection with the caliphs Mo¿tamed (256-79/870-92) and Moqtader (295-320/908-32) is especially mentioned. ... B. KEZ˜RUÚYA. See BALK¨È, ABUÚ H®AÚMED. C. E. Bosworth B. MOH®AMMAD B. K¨ALAF B. Layt¯¨, ABUÚ ÔA¿FAR (r. 311-52/923-63), amir in S^sta@n of the Saffarid dynasty (that part of it sometimes called “the second Saffarid dynasty”). The vast military empire built up by Ya¿qu@b and ¿Amr b. Layt¯ had been shattered by the Samanids of Transoxania, who had in 298/910-11 and again in 301/9l3-14 invaded S^sta@n and imposed their rule there. However, the accession in Bokhara of the child Nasár II b. Ahámad as amir inaugurated a period of Samanid weakness. ... C. E. Bosworth B. MOH®AMMAD B. T®AÚHER, governor in K¨úa@razm and son of the last Tahirid governor in Khorasan. Although Vasmer has doubted whether T®a@her b. Moháammad, who ruled in Marv after the capture of Moháammad b. T®a@her at N^Þa@pu@r in 259/873, was the latter's son, there seems no reason to doubt the filiation of Ahámad. He is mentioned by Ebn al-At¯^r, in his account of the complex fighting in Khorasan under the events of 262/875-6, as governor in K¨úa@razm at that time. After the Arab conquest of Qotayba, K¨úa@razm had been loosely attached administratively to Khorasan; and Ahámad was presumably governor at the side of the indigenous ruling monarch, the Afrighid K¨úa@razmÞa@h. ... C. E. Bosworth B. NEZ®AÚM-AL-MOLK, ABUÚ NAS®R (d. 544/1149-50), son of the well-known Saljuq vizier (d. 485/1092) and himself vizier for the Great Saljuqs and then for the ¿Abbasid caliphs. He was born in Balkò, his mother being a Georgian princess; she was either daughter or niece of King Bagrat I and formerly married (or at least betrothed) to Alp Arslan after the Caucasus campaign of 458/1064. Ahámad lived in Isfahan and Hamada@n during his father's lifetime and after; in 500/1106-07 he set off for Sultan Moháammad b. ... T. Nagel B. ¿OMAR B. SORAYÔ, ABU÷L-¿ABBAÚS, Shafe¿ite author from Shiraz (249/863-306/918-19). He studied feqh with some of the most prominent scholars of the second generation after ˆa@fe¿^; his first official post mentioned in the sources was that of qa@zμ^ in Shiraz. The last decades of his life he spent in Baghdad, where he acquired great fame as a teacher. The vizier ¿Al^ b. ¿Èsa@ is said to have urged him to take over the post of a qa@zμ^ al-qozμa@t, but Ebn Sorayè refused. He wrote many treatises, mostly concerned with polemics about juristic methodology. ... C. E. Bosworth B. QODAÚM, a military adventurer who temporarily held power in S^sta@n during the confused years following the collapse of the first Saffarid amirate and the military empire of ¿Amr b. Layt¯¯¯ in 287/900. In the ensuing years, various Saffarid princes held power within the limited region of S^sta@n itself, until in 298/911 the Samanid general S^mèu@r Dawa@t^ invaded the province on behalf of Amir Ahámad b. Esma@¿^l and deposed Layt¯ b. ¿Al^ and his brother Moháammad. But disorders within the Samanid state consequent upon Ahámad b. ... C. E. Bosworth B. SAHL B. HAÚˆEM, governor in Khorasan during the confused struggles for supremacy there between the Saffarids, Samanids, and various military adventures in the late 3rd/9th and early 4th/10th century, d. 307/920. Ahámad sprang from an aristocratic family of Persian dehqa@ns of the Marv oasis, the Ka@mka@r^a@n (after whom a particular variety of red rose was named), which traced its ancestry back to the last Sasanian king, Yazdegerd III. The family had scholarly interests, especially in the fields of secretaryship and astrology, and had been in the service of the Taherid governors of Khorasan. ... -E ¿ABD-AL-S®AMAD. See AH®MAD ˆÈRAÚZÈ. H. Corbin B. ZAYN-AL-¿AÚBEDÈN ¿ALAWÈ ¿AÚMELÈ, ES®FAHAÚNÈ, SAYYED, philosopher and author in Persian and Arabic (d. between 1054/1644 and 1060/1650). He belonged to one of the great Shi¿ite families of the region of Ôabal ¿AÚmel in Syria, from whence many Shi¿ite scholars emigrated to Iran at the time of the establishment of the Safavid dynasty. He was himself from Isfahan, and his works make him an illustrious member of its philosophical school. A first cousin and son-in-law of the great philosopher M^r Da@ma@d, known as “Mo¿allem-e t¯a@let” (the “Third Master,” after Aristotle and Fa@ra@b^), Sayyed Ahámad was the intellectual master of several generations of philosophical students. ... S. S. Alvi HAÚˆEMÈ SANDÈLAVÈ, Indo-Persian litterateur, b. 1162/1748-49 in Sandila, a town near Lucknow; d. after 1224/1809. He is remembered for his voluminous tadòkera of Persian poets, Makòzan al-g@ara@÷eb (partial ed., about one-sixth of the whole work, by M. Baqir, Lahore, 1968). He wrote poetry under the pen name K¨a@dem, but none is known to be extant (see Makòzan, p. 4). Of a poor and obscure family, Ahámad ¿Al^ received scant education (ibid., p. 6, the sole biographical source). Later, through the good offices of D¨u÷l-faqa@r-al-dawla Naèaf Khan, he enrolled in the cavalry of the Mughal ruler, Shah ¿AÚlam II. ... S. H. Askari B. SAYYED MUÚSAÚ HAMADAÚNÈ ÙARMPUÚˆ (ÙERAMPOÚˆ), Sohravard^ poet-saint of 14th century Bihar (d. 26 Sáafar 755/22 March 1354). Ahámad was educated at home in various branches of Islamic learning before he began his wanderings as a va@rasta qalandar (“liberated mendicant”; Mu@nes al-qolu@b, a malfu@záa@t collection of Ahámad Langar Darya@, grandson of H®osayn Mo¿ezz Balkò^). He adopted the laqab Ùarmpu@Þ as a mark of respect for his p^r ¿Ala@÷-al-d^n Ùarmpu@Þ, a Sohravard^ saint of Multan who had come to Bihar and performed his ±ella (q. ... D. Pingree B. ABÈ SA¿D (or SA¿ÈD) HERAVÈ, ABU÷L-FAZ˜L, one of the many eminent astronomers employed by the Buyids in the 4th/10th century. He observed the summer and winter solstices on 24 June and 15 December 959 in the presence of Abu@ Ôa¿far al-K¨a@zen (B^ru@n^, Tahád^d al-ama@ken, ed. P. Bulgakov, Cairo, 1964, pp. 98-99; tr. J. Ali, Beirut, 1967, pp. 67-68; commentary, E. S. Kennedy, Beirut, 1973, p. 41), and he determined the latitude of Ôorèa@n by observing the altitude of the sun at that location at the vernal equinoxes of 982 and 983 (ibid. ... C. E. Bosworth (in the sources, usually spelt Yena@lteg^n or, erroneously, N^alteg^n), Turkish commander and rebel under the early Ghaznavid sultan Mas¿u@d I (421-32/1030-41), d. 426/1035. Ahámad had been treasurer under Mahámu@d and in favor with him. When Mas¿u@d succeeded Mahámu@d in 421/1030, he made a clean sweep of the adherents of the old regime (Mahámu@d^a@n), and Ahámad was compelled to disgorge the monies which he had amassed. Although he had no particular military experience, he was then (422/1031) appointed commander-in-chief of the Ghaznavid troops in India in place of the fallen general Erya@roq, with instructions to collect the stipulated tribute from the Hindu princes. ... H. Moayyad -E ÔAM, in full ˆEHAÚB-AL-DÈN ABUÚ NAS®R AH®MAD B. ABU'L-H®ASAN B. AH®MAD B. MOH®AMMAD NAÚMAQÈ ÔAÚMÈ, a Conservative Sufi with unreserved loyalty to the ˆar^¿a (b. 440/1049 in Na@maq, near TorÞ^z, Khorasan; d. 536/1141 in Ma¿adda@ba@d on the outskirts of Ôa@m, which today, thanks to his tomb, is called Torbat-e [ˆaykò-e] Ôa@m). Although he claimed descent from the line of Ôar^r b. ¿Abdalla@h al-Baèal^, a companion of the Prophet, he had a distinctly non-Arab physiognomy (EI2 I, p. ... J. Fletcher K¨úAÚÔAGÈ B. ÔALAÚL-AL-DÈN KAÚSAÚNÈ (866/1461-62—949/1542-43), known as MAK¨DUÚM-E A¿Z®AM, Sufi, author of about thirty religious treatises, political activist, and founding ancestor of two important saintly lineages of NaqÞband^ kòúa@èaga@n. He was born into a family of sayyeds of Ka@sa@n in the Farg@a@na valley. As a youth he farmed for a living, then in Tashkent became a disciple of the NaqÞband^ p^r Moháammad Qa@zμ^ b. Borha@n-al-d^n (d. 921/1515-16), a kòal^fa of K¨úa@èa Ahára@r (d. ... K. A. Nizami also known as Ahámad MAGÚREBÈ, famous medieval Gujarati saint whose name is associated with the foundation of the city of Ahmadabad (b. Delhi, 737/1336; d. Sarkhej, 10 ˆawwal 849/9 January 1446). It is said that, born into a noble family, Ahámad was separated from his parents by a cyclone and fell into the hands of Ba@ba@ Esháa@q, a saint of the Mag@reb^ order, who brought him up and later initiated him into the selsela. He was educated in Delhi and then accompanied his spiritual master to Khattu, near Nagaur, in Rajasthan, where he lived till the latter's death in 776/1374-75. ... C. E. Bosworth B. ¿ABDALLAÚH K¨OÔESTAÚNÈ, military commander in 3rd/9th century Khorasan, one of several contenders for authority in the region after the collapse of Taherid rule had left a power vacuum, d. 268/882. He was from K¨oèesta@n, a small town of Ba@dg@^s (the district northeast of Herat, described by the geographers as the home of warlike people and as a last pocket of the Kharijites in eastern Iran (see, e.g., H®odu@d al-¿a@lam, tr. Minorsky, p. 104, commentary, p. 327; Ya@qu@t [Beirut], II, p. 347). ... GÚ. H®. Yu@sof^ B. H®ASAN MAYMANDÈ, ˆAMS-AL-KOFAÚT ABU÷L-QAÚSEM (d. 424/1032), Ghaznavid vizier, statesman, and foster brother and schoolfellow of Sultan Mahámu@d of GÚazna (r. 388-421/998-1030). His father was the ¿a@mel of Bost under Mahámu@d's father Sebokteg^n before he was crucified on Sebokteg^n's orders, a victim of intrigues. Sebokteg^n is reported to have regretted the act (Ôorfa@deqa@n^, Tarèama-ye Ta@r^kò-e Yam^n^, ed. Ô. ˆe¿a@r, Tehran, 1345 ˆ./1966, p. 337). Maymand^ enjoyed Mahámu@d's favor until, like his father, he fell because of intrigues; but he survived and after imprisonment was rehabilitated. ... P. P. Soucek 8th/14th century painter. Despite the prominence given him in modern scholarly writing, he remains a vague figure. All evidence which can be called “documentary” stems from a single source—the album of Bahra@m M^rza@ b. Shah Esma@¿^l now in the Topkapi Saray Library, Istanbul, Hazine 2154. Compiled in 961/1554 by Bahra@m's court librarian, Du@st Moháammad, the album contains both a prefatory essay concerning the evolution of calligraphy and painting, and samples to illustrate the essay's points. ... D. Pingree B. MOH®AMMAD NEHAÚVANDÈ, 2nd/8th century ¿Abbasid astronomer. The fame of this author is due almost entirely to Ebn Yu@nos's statement (al-Z^è, pp. 156-59) that he knew of no observations to determine the mean motion of the sun between the time of Ptolemy and that of the authors of al-Z^è al-momtaháan save those made by Ahámad b. Moháammad Neha@vand^ at Ôond^Þa@bu@r in the days of Yaháya@ b. K¨a@led b. Barmak; the results of these observations were recorded in Ahámad's al-Z^è al-moÞtamel. ... See QAWAÚM-AL-SALT®ANA. B. B. Lawrence ¿ABD-AL-H®AQQ (d. 837/1434), early Muslim saint of the Sáa@ber^ya ÙeÞt^ya (a branch of the ÙeÞt^ selsela only scantily documented). He was probably born ca. 751/1350 (cf. his disciple ¿Abd-al-Qoddu@s Gango@h^, Anwa@r al-¿oyu@n, lith. ed., Lucknow, 1296/1879, p. 26) in Rudawli, a town in eastern Uttar Pradesh near Jawnpur. His family had migrated from Balkò in the second half of the 7th/13th century (ibid., pp. 120-21) and must have settled for a time in Delhi, since his grandfather is said to have been a disciple of Nasá^r-al-d^n Ùera@g@-e Dehl^ (q. ... D. Pingree B. MOH®AMMAD S®AÚGÚAÚNÈ, ABUÚ H®AÚMED, one of the many astronomers who worked for the Buyids in Baghdad in the 4th/10th century. Thus B^ru@n^ (Tahád^d al-ama@ken, ed. P. Bulgakov, Cairo, 1964, p. 100; tr. J. Ali, Beirut, 1967, p. 69; commentary E. S. Y. Friedmann SHAIKH, outstanding Mughal mystic and prolific writer on Sufi themes. Born in the city of Sirhind in the Panjab in 971/1563-64, he studied religious sciences first with his father, the Sufi Shaikh ¿Abd-al-Aháad, and later with several other teachers in the city of Sialkot. He also spent some time at the court of Akbar in Agra, where he debated theological issues with the famous vizier Abu÷l-Fazµl ¿Alla@m^ and assisted the latter's brother Fayzμ^ in his literary endeavors. A decisive event in his life occurred in 1008/1599-1600, when he came to Delhi and was initiated into the NaqÞband^ order of Sufis by K¨úa@èa Moháammad Ba@q^ Be÷lla@h; from then on Serhend^ devoted himself to teaching and propagating the NaqÞband^ concepts of tasáawwof. ... See AFGHANISTAN X. POLITICAL HISTORY. M. J. Sheikh-ol-Islami (1909-1925), the seventh and last ruler of the Qajar dynasty. He was declared shah of Iran on 16 July 1909, the same day his father, Moháammad-¿Al^ Shah (1906-1909), was deposed. Moháammad-¿Al^ Shah was considered to have lost his right to the throne by opposing and seeking the overthrow of the constitutional order and by taking bast, or sanctuary, in the Russian embassy when the armed contingents of the constitutionalists seized control of Tehran. C. E. Bosworth B. MOH®AMMAD B. ¿ABD-AL-S®AMAD ˆÈRAÚZÈ, K¨úAÚÔA ABUÚ NAS®R (usually “Ahámad-e ¿Abd-al-Sáamad” in Bayhaq^, Ghaznavid official and vizier, d. ca. 434/1043. The nesba “ˆ^ra@z^” indicates a family origin in southwest Persia; and panegyrics to Ahámad's son mention descent from the ¿Abbasids. But the family was in the service of the Samanids by the late 4th/10th century; and Ahámad's father, Abu@ T®a@her, is only heard of as confidential secretary to the Samanid slave-general in Khorasan, H®osa@m-al-dawla Ta@Þ (¿Otb^, al-Ta÷r^kò al-yam^n^, Cairo, 1286/1869). ... R. M. Savory Qizilba@Þ amir in the Safavid service. He is first mentioned under the orders of Amir Khan Mawsáellu@, governor of Herat (H®ab^b al-s^ar [Tehran] IV, p. 403); he was in action against the Timurid prince, Moháammad Zama@n M^rza@ Ba@yqara@, who had seized Balkò in 922/1516 (see Riazul Islam, Indo-Persian Relations, Karachi, 1970, pp. 13-14). He was governor of T®u@s and MaÞhad in 927/1520-21 (H®ab^b al-s^ar IV, p. 585), but shortly afterwards he was replaced by Bu@ru@n Soltáa@n. In 929/1522 the new governor of Khorasan, Du@rm^Þ Khan ˆa@mlu@, appointed him governor of the following districts: Hera@t Ru@d; Langar-e GÚ^a@t¯^ya (i. ... Ë. Aka B. MOH®AMMAD TABRÈZÈ, Persian poet (first half of the 8th/14th century), known only as the author of the 18,000 verse ˆa@hanÞa@h-na@ma dedicated to the il-khan Abu@ Sa¿^d (717-36/1317-35). The epic begins with Noah's son Japheth (Ya@fet¯), relates the genealogy of the Mongols up to Ùengiz Khan, mentions Ögedey, Toluy, Ôala@l-al-d^n K¨úa@razmÞa@h, Ùag@atay, Güyük, and Möngke, and ends with the founder of the Il-khanid dynasty, Hülegü, and his successors. Its epilogue (kòa@tema) explains that it was begun at the order of Abu@ Sa¿^d and completed eight years later in 738/1337-38 after his death. ... P. Jackson third il-khan of Iran (r. 680-83/1282-84), seventh son of Hülegü (Hu@la@gu@), by Qu@tu@^ K¨a@tu@n. The year of his birth is not specified by Persian sources, but since Ebn ¿Abd-al-Z®a@her (TaÞr^f al-ayya@m wa÷l-¿osáu@r f^ s^rat al-malek al-Mansáu@r, ed. M. Ka@mel, Cairo, 1961, p. 271) gives his age at his death as thirty-seven, he must have been born around 645/1247. He was given the Mongol name Tegüder (“perfect”); his Muslim name dates only from his conversion, prior to which, according to Hayton (Recueil des historiens des croisades. ... J. van Ess Karra@m^ theologian who lived about 400/1010. He originated from Tu@n in the region of Qohesta@n and founded a branch of the Karra@m^ya which became known under the name of Tu@n^ya (cf. ˆahrasta@n^, p. 79). We have no information about his specific doctrine. He traced himself back, through his teacher Abu@ Bakr b. Ab^ ¿Abdalla@h, to Abu@ ¿Amr Ma@zen^ (middle of the 4th/10th century), who was the last to transmit the doctrine of Ebn Karra@m before the expansion and diversification of the movement under the early Ghaznavids. ... Hameed-ud-Din 10th/16th century historian of the Afghans in India. The details of his life are not known. The only information he gives about himself is that he was a courtier of the Afghan ruler of Bengal, Da@÷u@d Shah Karra@n^ (980-84/1572-76), who ordered him to write a history of Afghan rule in India along the lines of Ôu@zèa@n^'s T®abaqa@t-e Na@sáer^ and Baran^'s Ta@r^kò-e F^ru@zÞa@h^. The work he compiled, called Ta@r^kò-e Þa@h^ or Ta@r^kò-e sala@tá^n-e afa@g@ena, gives an account of the reigns of the Lo@d^ and Su@r sultans, together with brief notices of the Mughals Ba@bor and Homa@yu@n; it also describes Akbar's arrival in Delhi and the end of his rival, H^mu@. ... L. A. Desai the major city of Gujarat state in western India and a former center of Persian culture. It was founded on the left or eastern bank of the Sabarmati river in 813/1411 by Ahámad Shah I, the third of the Gujarat sultans, after whom the city was named. Since its foundation, the city has been the metropolitan capital of the province, a center of art and culture as well as of commerce and industry. One of the most picturesque cities in India, it attained great prosperity during the first century of the Gujarat sultanate (805-981/1403-1573). ... P. Oberling a small, sedentary Kurdish tribe of western Iran, inhabiting some five villages in the dehesta@n of Doru@ Fara@ma@n, southeast of Kerma@nÞa@h. The Ahámada@vands supported Kar^m Khan Zand and were moved to Fa@rs by that ruler along with other Kurdish tribes. But they returned to the Kerma@nÞa@h area after the fall of the Zands. Z. A. Desai a major city and province in the state of Maharashtra in western India, founded about 900/1495 by Malek Ahámad Nezáa@m-al-molk, a Bahman^ governor, on the site where he had earlier won a battle against his sovereign's forces. He liked not only its strategic importance for military campaigns but also its moderate climate, exuberant greenness, and fertility of soil. With the dismemberment of the Bahman^ kingdom, Malek Ahámad assumed independence (901/1496) and made the newly founded city his capital; it was named after him and also his minister Malek Ahámad Goèara@t^, entitled Nasá^r-al-molk (¿A. ... ¿ABD-AL-NABÈ. See ¿ABD-AL-NABÈ. K. A. Nizami GOL MOH®AMMAD (d. 1243/1827), a Panjabi saint and ÙeÞt^ hagiographer. He is best known for his tadòkera, D¨ekr al-asáf^a@÷, which he wrote as a supplement (takmela) to Am^r K¨ord's S^ar al-awl^a@÷ (see Storey, 1/2, pp. 943-44). Gol Moháammad was born into a family which traced its descent from Ma¿ru@f Karkò^. His ancestor Shaikh Z®ah^r-al-d^n came to India from Bokhara during the reign of the Mughal emperor Shah Ôaha@n (1037-68/1628-57) and was appointed Þaykò al-esla@m of Multan. Gol Moháammad's father Alla@hya@r settled at Ahmadpur, where Gol Moháammad received a good education in the traditional sciences and medicine and became the disciple of Qa@zμ^ Moháammad ¿AÚqel ÙeÞt^ (d. ... C. M. Kieffer “descendants of Ahámad” (sing. Ahámadzay), a PaÞáto@ clan and tribal name. Its diverse use is one indicator of the complexity of PaÞátu@n tribal structure. There are Ahámadz^ springing from different tribal branches and constituting ethnic groups at various levels (clans, sub-clans, tribal fractions, large families etc.) and tracing their descent to different eponymous Ahámads, known and unknown. The confusion is sometimes compounded by the interested parties themselves, when they incorrectly claim an ethnic origin, clan affiliation, or ancestral connection that seems to have more prestige or to be more advantageous. ... C. E. Bosworth (or BANU÷L-AH®RAÚR), in Arabic literally “the free ones,” a name applied by the Arabs at the time of the Islamic conquests to their Persian foes in Iraq and Iran. In a poem by the Prophet's older contemporary, Omayya b. Abi÷l-Sáalt al-T¨aqaf^, concerning the Persian conquest of Yemen from the Ethiopians, the author speaks of the Himyarite prince Sayf b. D¨^ Yazan as coming with a force of Banu÷l-Ahára@r, Persian troops sent by K¨osraw Ano@Þ^rva@n (Ebn HeÞa@m, S^rat Rasu@lalla@h, ed. ... J. M. Rogers K¨úAÚÔA ¿OBAYDALLAÚH B. MAH®MUÚD (806-96/1404-90), influential NaqÞband^ of Transoxania. Surprisingly little is known of his career, and the sources are often contradictory or biased. He was born in 806/1404 at Ba@g@esta@n in the wela@yat of Tashkent, into a family of hereditary shaikhs with agricultural and commercial interests. He studied in a maktab and later in a madrasa in Samarkand, though this he left after two years, claiming that he had not even mastered two pages of Arabic grammar (RaÞaháa@t, p. ... (Avestan: Angra/Aºra Mainyu; not attested in Old Persian), demon, God's adversary in the Zoroastrian religion. He seems to have been an original conception of Zoroaster's; and the scanty evidence in the Gathas on this point may perhaps be supplemented from later sources. But the notion of Ahriman did not remain unchanged through the centuries. In the Gathas Angra Mainyu is the direct opposite of Sp™nta Mainyu; both spirits are essentially actors in the primeval choice, a great drama dominating the life of man and the destiny of the world. ... J. Duchesne-Guillemin B. Schlerath a learned transcription of the Avestan nominative AÞiÞ vaºuh^, the goddess “Good Recompense.” In the Gathas the word aÞi- denotes “due recompense” as well as its personification. According to M. Boyce (Zoroastrianism I, p. 226) in YAv. AÞi vaºuh^ the epithet vaºuh^ “good” underlines the Zoroastrian nature of the goddess “in distinction presumably to the amoral pagan concept.” But the existence of personifications of that type outside Zoroastrianism is a conclusion not supported directly by texts. ... D. M. MacEoin SHAIKH AH®MAD B. ZAYN-AL-DÈN, 1166-1241/1753-1826, Shi¿ite ¿a@lem and philosopher and unintending originator of the ˆaykò^ school of Shi¿ism in Iran and Iraq. C. E. Bosworth AL-TAQAÚSÈM FÈ MA¿REFAT AL-AQAÚLÈM, a celebrated geographical work in Arabic written towards the end of the 4th/10th century by ˆams-al-d^n Abu@ ¿Abdalla@h Moháammad b. Ahámad b. Ab^ Bakr al-Banna@÷ al-ˆa@m^ al-Maqdes^ al-BaÞÞa@r^ (thus named in one of the two surviving principal manuscripts of his work). The form al-Maqdes^ is preferable to al-Moqaddes^; in Sam¿a@n^'s Keta@b al-ansa@b (Leiden, fol. 539b), we find only the former vocalization. The only biographical data on the author are in his book, apparently his only work. ... ¿A. Nava@÷^ AL-TAWAÚRÈK¨, a chronological history of Iran and the neighboring countries written by H®asan Beg Ru@mlu@ (b. 937/1530-31), a qu@r±^ in the service of the Safavid Shah T®ahma@sb. The first volume includes the historical events of Iran, the Ottoman empire, and Transoxania from 807/1405, the accession of the Timurid ˆa@hrokò, to 899/1493-94 during the reign of the AÚq Qoyunlu@ Rostam Beg over western and central Iran and that of Sultan H®osayn Ba@yqara@ in Khorasan. The author treats in great detail the reigns of ˆa@hrokò (807-50/1405-47), his son Ulug@ Beg, and their successors, as well as the careers of other Timurid princes such as Ba@ysonqor, Ebra@h^m Soltáa@n, and Moháammad Ôu@k^. ... B. Schlerath two homonymous Avestan terms. B. P. O'Regan, H. Javadi gazelle. C. J. Brunner Middle Persian form of Avestan Ahuna Vairya, name of the most sacred of the Gathic prayers (Y. 27.13, etc.). It is so named after the opening phrase, yaƒa ahu@ vairyo@. Its text contains important points of ZarathuÞtra's teaching (cf., especially, Y. 29 and 53.9), but its precise total sense remains debated. One possible rendering is: “As a temporal lord (is) chosen, so (is) a spiritual lord, according to Truth, (as) an establisher of the works of Good Mind in the world—and the sovereignty is Ahura Mazda@'s—whom they have bestowed on the humble as a shepherd. ... F. B. J. Kuiper designation of a type of deity inherited by Zoroastrianism from the prehistoric Indo-Iranian religion. In the Rig Veda, asura denotes the “older gods,” such as the “Father Asura” (10.124.3), Varunáa, and Mitra, who originally ruled over the primeval undifferentiated Chaos. The emergence of the dualistic cosmos was a process of polarization in which some of the asuras, such as Agni (Fire), Soma, Varunáa, and Mitra, went over to the “younger gods,” the devas. The other asuras were driven away from the earth and remained as exiles in the nether world. ... M. Boyce (Old Persian Ahuramazda, Parth. Aramazd, Pahl. Ohrmazd/Hormizd, NPers. Ormazd), the Avestan name with title of a great divinity of the Old Iranian religion, who was subsequently proclaimed by Zoroaster as God. His Indian counterpart, it has been argued, was the nameless, exalted Asura of the Rigveda; but this identification is not universally accepted. There is controversy also over the grammatical form of his Avestan name. Some scholars render it as Mazda@, others as Mazda@h; some interpret it as a substantive, “Wisdom,” others as an adjective, “wise,” qualifying Ahura “lord. ... B. Schlerath feminine deity of the waters. A complete yaÞt, hidden in the Yasna as chapter 68, is dedicated to her. (Similar cases are: Y. 9-11, the Ho@m YaÞt and YaÞt 57, the Sro@Þ YaÞt.) Ahura@n^ is not one of the “official” yazatas and has no day in the calendar—possibly because Ar™dv^ Sura@ Ana@hita@, another deity of the waters, holds the water-related function in the pantheon of the Younger Avesta. The zaotar officiant in the Zoroastrian yasna rite offers Ahura@n^ milk and butter (Y. ... M. Boyce an infrequent Avestan adjective meaning “following the Ahuric doctrine.” Its oldest occurrence is probably in the Fravara@ne@, the Zoroastrian confession of faith, which begins (Y. 12.1), fravara@ne@ mazdayasno@ zaraƒuÞtriÞ v^dae@vo@ ahura.†kae@Þo@ . . . “I profess myself a worshiper of Mazda@, a Zoroastrian, rejecting the dae@vas, following the Ahuric doctrine . . . .” Elsewhere (Yt. 13.89) Zoroaster himself is hailed as being mazdayasno@ . . . v^dae@vo@ ahura.†kae@Þo@ “a Mazda@-worshiper, . ... C. E. Bosworth, X. De Planhol, J. Lerner a town of southwestern Iran. D. Pingree a 4th/10th century mathematician. He was a contemporary of Abu@ Ôa¿far K¨a@zen (fl. ca. 950-970), whom he mentions. There is no convincing reason to accept his identification by Suter and Sezgin with Abu÷l-H®osayn Ahámad b. H®osayn Ahva@z^ Ka@teb who is mentioned by B^ru@n^ (AÚt¯a@r al-ba@q^a, pp. 289, 293; Chronology, pp. 284, 288-89) as an expert on the ecclesiastical hierarchy and the ceremony of christening in Constantinople. He is the author of ˆarhá al-maqa@lat al-¿a@Þera men keta@b Oql^des (“Commentary on the tenth book of Euclid”) in eight sections, which is preserved in a number of manuscripts. ... ABU÷L-H®ASAN. See ABU÷L-H®ASAN AHWAÚZÈ. -E AKBARÈ. See AKBAR-NAÚMA. A. Tafazμzμol^ (var. Adò^n GoÞnasp, Adò^n ÔoÞnas), general of Hormazd IV (A.D. 579-590), sent by him to campaign against the rebellious general Bahra@m Ùu@b^n. Unsuccessful, he was murdered in Hamada@n (T®abar^, II, p. 995; Ya¿qu@b^, Ta÷r^kò, Naèaf, 1358/1939, I, p. 136; ˆa@h-na@ma [Moscow] VIII, pp. 394, 428). He was probably a native of K¨u@zesta@n (Mas¿u@d^, Moru@è [ed. Pellat] I, p. 313; Gard^z^ [ed. H®ab^b^), p. 34, though in both cases the spelling of his name is corrupt). According to some sources AÚ÷^n GoÞasp was the dab^r “scribe” (ˆa@h-na@ma VIII, p. ... A. Tafazμzμol^ Arabic and New Persian town of Middle Persian e@we@n na@mag (“book of manners”), a general term for texts dealing with the exposition of manners, customs, skills, and arts and sciences. Cf. Mas¿u@d^'s equivalent, keta@b al-rosu@m (Tanb^h, p. 104). The term might apply to texts of diverse subject matter. E.g., the treatise Wiza@riÞn ^ ±atrang refers to an e@we@n na@mag containing the rules for playing chess (par. 38; Pahl. Texts, p. 120). The instructional text “on the manner of writing letters” (abar e@we@nag ^ na@mag-nibe@siÞn^h) may be considered another example of the genre (Pahl. ... L. P. Elwell-Sutton -YE GÚAYBNOMAÚ “The Revealing Mirror,” a fortnightly illustrated magazine which began publication in Tehran on 22 Ôoma@da@ I 1325/3 July 1907, edited by Sayyed ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m Ka@Þa@n^. It was suppressed after the Maèles bombardment of June, 1908, but reappeared in Raèab, 1329/July, 1911. E. G. Sims the practice of covering an architectural surface with a mosaic of mirror-glass. It is often dismissed as a gaudy and decadent kind of Persian architectural decoration, and there is no study of its forms and techniques, or survey of buildings decorated with it (or formerly so decorated, for many have disappeared). Yet in many ways it is a typically Persian mode of architectural decoration (verbal parallels for its reflecting and refracting of light may be found in Persian Sufi literature). AÚ÷^na-ka@r^ should be interpreted as the turning of an intrinsically valuable substance to an intense, decorative purpose by reduction of the physical material—reflecting glass—to simple but flexible elements, from which were recomposed decorative ensembles on large surfaces. ... M. Boyce an ancient Iranian divinity and a yazata of the Zoroastrian pantheon, known in Manichean Middle Persian as Aryaman, in Pahlavi as EÚrma@n. The Avestan common noun airyaman-, Vedic aryaman-, means “friend, companion;” and the Indo-Iranian Aryaman was, it seems, the hypostasis of friendship, and of friendly alliance; and this being ratified at times by a formal oath, he was close to the asuras Mitra and Varuna, who upheld oath and covenant. In the Vedas he appears as one of the group of AÚdityas; and with Varuna (under his by-name of Bhaga) he presided over marriage, presumably as the sealing of the bond of friendship between two families. ... C. J. Brunner Gathic Avestan prayer (named from its opening words, a@ airy™@ma@ iÞyo@) of Y. 54.1. etc. It may originally have been intended to summon a hypostasis of the power of the tribe (airyaman) to safeguard the Zarathushtrian community. It may be translated: “May the desirable Airyaman come for protection / for both the men and the women of ZarathuÞtra / for the protection of Good Mind. Whichever Conscience will merit a precious reward / I ask for the desirable recompense of Truth, which Ahura Mazda@ will apportion. ... See EÚRAÚNVEÚÔ. M. F. Kanga Avestan term “wrapping round, girdle” (from the root ya@h, OInd. ya@s “to put on, wrap,” AirWb., col. 948); it designates a strip from a date-palm leaf which is consecrated in the Yasna liturgy and used to tie the bundle of wires which constitute the barsom (Av. bar™sman), originally a seat for the divinities at the sacrifice, as in Vedic ceremonial. In the Avesta and after, it was a bundle of sacred twigs held in the hand of the officiating priest during the performance of rites (see, e. ... ¿A. Ka@rang a town and bakòÞ in East Azerbaijan. The bakòÞ, one of four comprised in the Þahresta@n of Mara@g@a, is bounded on the north by the bakòÞ of AÚdòarÞahr, on the west and south by Lake Urmia (Rezμa@÷^ya), and on the east by the central bakòÞ of Mara@g@a. It consists of the small town of ¿AèabÞ^r and one dehesta@n named D^zaè-ru@d, which has 41 inhabited villages and a total population of 25,463 in 4,623 families (Nazáar-^ be ta@r^kò-e AÚdòarba@yèa@n, pp. 554-56). The local climate is moderate, and adequate water supplies for human consumption and agricultural use are obtained from the D^zaè or Qal¿a river, springs, and semi-deep wells with motor-driven pumps (Ra@hnoma@-ye a@t¯a@r-e ta@r^kò^-e AÚdòarba@yèa@n, p. ... L. P. Smirnova AL-DONYAÚ or ¿AÔAÚ÷EB AL-AˆYAÚ÷ (“Wonders of the world” or “Wonderful things”), title of a Persian geography of the ¿aèa÷eb al-makòlu@qa@t (q. v.) type, extant in three MSS, at the Leningrad Oriental Institute (probably 11th/17th cent.), Cambridge University (modern), and the Maèles Library in Tehran (apparently late 10th/16th-early 11th/17th cent.). The spurious brief introduction (see Storey, II, pt. 1, p. 123) found in the Tehran and Cambridge MSS (the Leningrad MS is defective at the beginning) mentions Abu÷l-Mo÷ayyad Balkò^ as the author and says that the work was composed for the Samanid amir Abu÷l-Qa@sem Nu@há b. ... C. E. Bosworth, I. Afshar AL-MAK¨LUÚQAÚT (“The marvels of created things”), the name of a genre of classical Islamic literature and, in particular, of a work by Zakar^ya@÷ b. Moháammad Qazv^n^. U. Nashashibi AL-MAQDUÚR FÈ NAWA÷EB TÈMUÚR (“The wondrous turns of fate in the vicissitudes of T^mu@r”), a history of the life and conquests of T^mu@r (736-807/1336-1405), including a survey of developments after his death, written in ornate Arabic rhyming prose (saè¿) by Ahámad b. ¿ArabÞa@h DemaÞq^ (791-854/1389-1450). Ebn ¿ArabÞa@h was deported to Samarkand when T^mu@r captured Damascus in 803/1400-01; studying under the great scholars of Central Asia, he learned Persian, Turkish, and Mongolian. ... C. E. Bosworth the name given in medieval Arabic literature to the non-Arabs of the Islamic empire, but applied especially to the Persians. In origin, the verb ¿aèama simply means “to speak indistinctly, to mumble;” hence ¿Aèam or ¿Oèm are “the indistinct speakers,” sc. the non-Arabs. The Arabic lexica state at the outset that ¿aèama is the antonym of ¿araba “to speak clearly,” so that ¿oèma becomes the opposite of fosáháa, “chaste, correct, Arabic language” (cf. ... A. A. Kalantarian B. ABUÚ BAKR, 6th/12th century architect under the Eldigüzid atabegs, founder of the Nakhchevan architectural school, ¿Aèam^'s name is connected with the erection of two mausoleums in the town of Nakòèava@n (Nakhchevan)—that of Yu@sof b. Kot¯ayyer (the “Atáa@ba@ba@” mausoleum), and that of Mo÷mena K¨a@tu@n (the “Atabek” mausoleum). These are the earliest monuments of Muslim architecture in medieval Nakhchevan; they are also among the earliest tower-shaped tombs and so are important for the study of that architectural type. ... A. Mattoo NARAYAN KAUL, Kashmiri Brahman of the 17th-18th centuries, a poet and compiler of Mokòtasáar-e ta@r^kò-e KaÞm^r (1710-11; see Storey, I/1, pp. 681-82). No biographical details are available. During the Mughal period Persian-language historiography flourished in Kashmir, drawing on a long tradition of Sanskrit historical writing there. Two notable 17th century works are the anonymous Baha@resta@n-e Þa@h^ and the Ta@r^kò-e KaÞm^r of H®aydar Malek. The Hindu ¿Aèez was asked by the governor of Kashmir to compare H®aydar Malek's ornate work with some of the Sanskrit chronicles, and the poet prepared his Mokòtasáar, an abridged version of the Ta@r^kò-e KaÞm^r. ... E. Ehlers (Talkòa-ru@d, “Bitter river”), a river some 200 km in length which rises on the western flank of Ku@h-e Sabala@n near Sara@b and flows into Lake Urmia (Rezμa@÷^ya) near the town of Goga@n. In its upper and middle reaches, east of Tabr^z, numerous small tributaries from QowÞa@da@g@ to the north and Bozg@u@Þ and Ku@h-e Sahand to the south flow into it. Due to the mountain origins of many of its source rivers and tributaries, the flow of the river shows marked seasonal variations, peaking in April and May because of melting snow. ... M. Kasheff an assortment of nuts (pistachios, almonds, and hazelnuts being the most common), roasted chickpeas and seeds such as watermelon, pumpkin, and pear (an±u@±ak), and raisins and other dried fruits such as apricots, sour cherries, mulberries, and figs. The roasted nuts and seeds may simply be salted, or they may also be seasoned with Persian marjoram, turmeric, and lime or sour-grape juice (a@è^l-e a@±a@r); in contrast, a@è^l-e Þ^r^n or a@è^l-e b^-namak is made by mixing raw nuts with dried fruits, sugarplums, and èowzag@and (dried peaches stuffed with ground-up nuts and sugar). ... B. A. Litvinski¥ the present-day name of the mound covering the ruins of an early medieval Buddhist monastery (sarigha@ra@ma). It is situated twelve km east of the town of Kurgan Tube (Tajik SSR), in the Wakhsh valley (the river Wakhsh is one of the main tributaries of the river Panj, i.e., the AÚmu@ Darya@). The site is one km north of an early medieval town, whose ruins are now known as Chorgul Tepe. Before excavation Ajina Tepe had the shape of a double mound on a rectangular plan stretching from northwest to southeast. ... F. Lehmann (Aème@r, from Skt. Ajayameru), a city in Rajasthan, western India, of great strategic, commercial, and cultural importance from the 6th/12th to the 12th/18th centuries. It was the single most important site for the transfer of elements of Islamic (mainly Persian) culture to the Rajput nobility, especially by way of two institutions: the cult of saints and the Mughal court. The tomb of the martyred governor Sayyed H®osayn (d. 607/1210), who had been appointed by Qotáb-al-d^n Aybak (602-7/1206-10), founder of the Delhi Sultanate, was the oldest object of a saint cult; it received new buildings even from the Maratha governors in 1807 and 1813. ... See BRICK. H®. Mahábu@b^ Ardaka@n^ a Persian term translating the French military title adjudant-en-chef; the first half of the term is borrowed from the French, while the rest is rendered by Tk. ba@Þ^. In the military organization of the Qajar period, the a@èu@da@n-ba@Þ^ was aide and deputy to the army commander (am^r-e nezáa@m). The term came into use after a modern army had been created in Iran in the early 19th century under the auspices of Prince ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.), a son of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah (r. 1212-50/1794-1834). It seems that the title was first held by H®osayn Khan Moqaddam Mara@g@a÷^ (q. ... R. Schmitt (a-k-u-f-±-i-y-a), name of a tribe resident in the southeastern part of the Achaemenid empire, attested only once (in nom. plur.) in the list of countries and peoples in sec. 3 of Xerxes' so-called “daiva inscription” XPh 27 (Kent, Old Persian, p. 151), where these *AÚkaufaka-inhabitants (cf. as a morphological parallel Ma±iya@ “men of Maka”) are placed between the Skudra@ “Thracians” and the Puta@ya@ “Libyans” in a very irregular enumeration. The name is rendered as Elamite h. ... H. H. Biesterfeldt ABUÚ BAKR RABÈ¿ B. AH®MAD, 4th/10th century physician who worked in Bokòa@ra@ presumably all his life; author of Heda@yat al-mota¿allem^n fi÷l-táebb, his only extant book and sole source of information about him. He names Abu÷l-Qa@sem T®a@her b. Moháammad b. Ebra@h^m Maqa@ne¿^ Ra@z^, a student of Moháammad b. Zakar^ya@÷ Ra@z^ (d. 311/923), as his own teacher. This puts his work into the second half of the 4th/10th century and thus makes it the earliest medical compendium in New Persian and indeed an important example of early New Persian prose (cf. ... F. Lehmann ABU÷L-FATH® ÔALAÚL-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD (949-1014/1542-1605), third and greatest of the Mughal emperors of India. Akbar established the patterns of Mughal government and culture during his forty-nine year reign. While he worked successfully to establish his empire as one of the major sovereign states of the Islamic world, independent of the Safavid Persian sponsorship his grandfather and father had from time to time been forced to acknowledge, paradoxically his reign brought Persian cultural influence to its zenith in India, and the resulting Indo-Persian synthesis, in fact, outlived the Mughals. ... B. Lawrence AL-AK¨YAÚR, the most reliable tadòkera of early Indian Sufis, by Shaikh ¿Abd-al-H®aqq Moháaddet¯ Dehlav^ (q.v.; d. 1052/1642). The book has been so carefully pruned of factual errors and legendary accretions that the shaikh appears to have applied osáu@l-e esna@d, the yard-stick of Hadith scholarship, to the study of medieval saints (Nezami, Life and Times, p. 6). A history of the text is provided by the author himself at the end of several manuscripts. For instance, in State Library, Rampur no. ... C. E. Bosworth AL-DAWLAT AL-SALÔUÚQÈYA, an Arabic chronicle on the history of the Great Saljuq dynasty in Iran and Iraq, conventionally ascribed to the person mentioned at the head of the work as “al-Am^r al-Sayyed al-Ema@m al-Aèall al-Kab^r Sáadr-al-d^n Abu÷l-H®asan ¿Al^ b. al-Sayyed al-Aèall al-Ema@m al-ˆah^d Abu÷l-Fawa@res Na@sáer b. ¿Al^ al-H®osayn^;” this same heading names the work itself as the Zobdat al-tawa@r^kò akòba@r al-omara@÷ wa÷l-molu@k al-salèu@q^ya. It exists in a unique British Museum manuscript, Suppl. ... H®. Mahábu@b^ Ardaka@n^ SEPAHDAÚR-E A¿Z®AM, FATH®ALLAÚH KHAN, prime minister of Iran from AÚba@n, 1299 ˆ./October, 1920 to Esfand, 1299 ˆ./February, 1921. At different times he was known by his successive titles as Be@glerbe@g^, Sa@la@r-e Afkòam, Sa@la@r-e A¿záam, Sarda@r-e Mansáu@r (from 1320/1902-03), and Sepahda@r-e A¿záam (from 1333/1914-15). A rich notable of G^la@n, he was the son of H®a@èè^ Khan OmÞa÷^ and the nephew of Akbar Khan Be@glerbe@g^ of RaÞt. For many years Akbar Khan and he were the lessees of the customs administrations of G^la@n, Ma@zandara@n, and Khorasan. ... J. R. Perry (d. 1196/1782), youngest son of Zak^ Khan Zand. Cruel and ambitious, Akbar never rose to primacy, but he played an active and violent role in the internecine power struggle that followed the death of Kar^m Khan Zand in 1193/1779. Zak^ Khan, who first seized power, left Akbar in charge of ˆ^ra@z while he advanced against the rebellious ¿Al^ Mora@d Khan Zand. Zak^ was killed on the way, and his prote‚ge‚ Fathá-¿Al^ Khan (son of Kar^m Khan) returned to ˆ^ra@z as ruler and placed Akbar under arrest. During the subsequent rule of Sáa@deq Khan Zand, Akbar escaped and joined ¿Al^-Mora@d Khan, who in summer 1195/1781 laid siege to ˆ^ra@z. ... R. M. Eaton the official history of the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar (964-1015/1556-1605), including a statistical gazetteer of sixteenth century North India, compiled by Abu÷l-Fazµl ¿Alla@m^ (q.v.). One of the fundamental source materials for the history of Mughal India, the Akbar-na@ma is divided into three books. The first book presents Akbar's horoscope and the Indian and Greek astrological theories upon which it is based, followed by a list of eminent personalities of world history beginning with Adam and proceeding through the Timurid line to Akbar himself. ... C. E. Bosworth AL-T®EWAÚL, KETAÚB (“The book of the long historical narratives”), title of a historical work by the Persian writer of ¿Abbasid times Abu@ H®an^fa Ahámad b. Da@wu@d b. Wanand D^navar^ (q.v.), d. ca. 282/894-95 or, at the latest, by 290/902-03. Although very few of his numerous works have survived (the best-known, apart from this, being his Keta@b al-naba@t, a philological treatment of the lore of plants and plant life), D^navar^ was a scholar of wide interests, who had absorbed a perceptible amount of Hellenistic culture; he was trained in mathematics and astronomy and had acquired a knowledge of lexicography and philology from the Iraqi grammatical schools. ... H. Algar MÈRZAÚ MOH®AMMAD (1178-1233/1765-1818), a leading exponent of the Akòba@r^ school of feqh and a violent polemicist against its opponents. He was born in Akbara@ba@d, India, but settled in the ¿ataba@t in 1198/1784, after performing the háaèè. There he engaged in bitter and sometimes scurrilous controversy with the adherents of the Osáu@l^ school, accusing his opponents of such offenses as Omayyad ancestry and pederastic proclivities. Chief among his enemies was Shaikh Ôa¿far Naèaf^, from whose wrath he was ultimately obliged to flee and seek refuge in Tehran. ... E. Kohlberg a school in Imamite Shi¿ism which maintains that the traditions (akòba@r) of the Imams are the main source of religious knowledge, in contrast to the Osáu@l^ school. As long as the Imams were present and could wield their authority, their utterances, transmitted orally or set down in writing by their disciples (in collections known first as al-Osáu@l al-arba¿ome÷a, and later as Ôawa@me¿), formed the basis for Imamite doctrine and law. With the disappearance of the Twelfth Imam (260/873), the rationalist current within Imamism gradually asserted itself, in confrontation with the traditionist school, which at the time was based in Qom. ... M. A. Dandamayev (Greek Ake@s), a river in Central Asia, the modern Tejen or Har^-ru@d (q.v.). According to Herodotus (3.117), before the Achaemenids the Chorasmians possessed the valley of the Akes, which through five separate channels irrigated fields belonging to the tribes of Hyrcanians, Parthians, Sarangians, Thamanaeans, and Chorasmians. When these tribes were conquered by the Persians, he relates, sluice gates were constructed which were opened for distribution of the water over the fields only on personal appeal to the king and against high payment. ... F. Gaffary EBRAÚHÈM (family name later, Mosáawwer Raháma@n^), photographer and pioneer motion-picture cameraman, b. Raèab, 1291/August, 1874, d. 1333/1915. M^rza@ Ebra@h^m's father, M^rza@ Ahámad Sáan^¿-al-saltáana (b. 1264/1848), converted to the Baha÷i faith and corresponded with ¿Abd-al-Baha@÷, who named him Mosáawwer Raháma@n^ “the divine illustrator.” He left Iran secretly in the company of Mo¿ayyer-al-mama@lek, Na@sáer-al-d^n Shah's son-in-law, and spent seven years in Europe learning photography, porcelain-making, and engraving; in July, 1884, he became a member of the Grand-Orient de France Masonic lodge. ... F. Rahman “ethics” (plural form of kòoloq “inborn character, moral character, moral virtue”). Although no ethical document has come down from pre-Islamic Iran, it is certain that practical ethics or practical wisdom formed an aspect of both Zoroastrian religious literature (see Andarz) and the literature that entered into the Islamic tradition in the form of adab (q.v.). Because the Zoroastrian ruler was linked with religion, he was expected to be an embodiment of moral virtues, particularly justice; and some (like K¨osrow I) were accepted as such. ... P. Sprachman AL-AˆRAÚF (“The ethics of the aristocracy”), a satire composed in 740/1340-41, the most important work of ¿Obayd Za@ka@n^. This finely crafted amalgam of scholastic prose and ribald poetry is divided into seven chapters, each devoted to one or more of the traditional virtues: wisdom (háekmat); bravery (Þaèa@¿at); decency (¿effat); justice (¿ada@lat); generosity (sakòa@wat); forbearance (háelm) and fidelity (wafa@÷); and pudency (háaya@÷), honesty (sáedq), mercy (rahámat), and compassion (Þafaqat). ... G. M. Wickens -E ÔALAÚLÈ, also known as Lawa@me¿ al-eÞra@q f^ maka@rem al-akòla@q, an “ethical” treatise in Persian by Moháammad b. As¿ad Ôala@l-al-d^n Dava@n^ (Davva@n^), dedicated to the AÚq Qoyunlu@ Uzun H®asan and written for his son Sultan K¨al^l. It was possibly ten years in the making (872-82/1467-77), though its character would not seem to justify so sustained an effort. It is the second major mark in the main line of succession after Nasá^r-al-d^n T®u@s^'s Akòla@q-e Na@sáer^ and shows a far closer adherence to the latter's general plan and line of argument than does the third, the Akòla@q-e Mohásen^. ... G. M. Wickens -E MOH®SENÈ (less commonly known as Ôawa@her al-asra@r), an ostensibly serious treatise on ethics by the prolific prose-stylist Kama@l-al-d^n H®osayn Wa@¿ezá Ka@Þef^, completed in 900/1494-95 and titled after Abu÷l-Mohásen, the son of his patron Sultan H®osayn M^rza@ Ba@yqara@. (The translation of the title as Morals of the Beneficent seems to be based on both a misunderstanding of the Persian and ignorance of the historical circumstances of composition). Reckoning from Nasá^r-al-d^n T®u@s^'s Akòla@q-e Na@sáer^, this work is the third in the main line of succession of medieval Persian writing on ethical subjects; it represents a far more thoroughgoing popularization than does the second, the Akòla@q-e Ôala@l^. ... G. M. Wickens -E NAÚS®ERÈ, by K¨úa@èa Nasá^r-al-d^n T®u@s^, the principal treatise in Persian on ethics, economics, and politics, first published according to the author in 633/1235. It is based, particularly in its First Discourse, on the Arabic Tahdò^b al-akòla@q of Ebn Meskawayh (d. 421/1030); but it transcends that work both in scope and in arrangement and treatment of individual topics. Since T®u@s^ was a serious thinker and scientist, his work—though designedly popular in character—bears no comparison with the adaptations made from it by later writers, largely for entertainment (see Akòla@q-e Ôala@l^ and Akòla@q-e Mohásen^). ... C. E. Bosworth, H. Crane (or Greek Khliat, Khleat, Armenian Khlat¿), a town and medieval Islamic fortress in eastern Anatolia, in the former Armenian district of Bzunik¿, and now in the modern Turkish vilayet of Van. It lies on the northwestern shore of Lake Van, between the mountain massifs of Sipan Dag¡¡ and Nimrud Dag¡, in 42° 50' east longitude and 38° 50' north latitude and on a historic route connecting upper Mesopotamia (the medieval Islamic Ôaz^ra) with eastern Armenia. J. P. Asmussen Enoch, in Manichean texts. According to the Cologne Mani Codex, the outstanding Greek Mani-vita, the prophet grew up in a Judeo-Christian environment, in the sect founded by Elkhasai (*Alkhasa@ in a Parthian text) in Eastern Syria about 100 A.D. Given this background it can be assumed that in Mani's spiritual world Enoch must have been a well-known figure, since he was a favorite to Jews and Christians alike. He is mentioned, quoted, or alluded to in Biblical and post-Biblical Jewish literature (e.g., the Testaments of the twelve Patriarchs, the Assumption of Moses, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch [or the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch], the Book of Jubilees), in the New Testament, and among the Church Fathers (e. ... J. Duchesne-Guillemin “Evil Mind,” a term personified as a demon in Zoroastrianism. It is apparently not yet wholly personified in the Ga@tha@s. In two of its four occurrences there the term applies to human attitudes: dr™gvå . . . ahya@ Þyaothana@iÞ aka@† a@ Þyas manaºho@, “since the deceitful man lives by his actions, stemming from evil mind” (Y. 47.5); and: y™@ ϑwat mazda@ asruÞt^m aká™m±a@ mano@ yaza@i apa@, “I [ZarathuÞtra] who, through worship, shall turn away disobedience and evil mind from Thee [Ahura Mazda@@]” (Y. ... ¨úOND. See AÚK¨UÚND. See AÚXWARR. C. E. Bosworth (AK¨SÈKANT, later medieval form AK¨SÈ), in early medieval times the capital of the then still Iranian province of Farg@a@na; according to the H®odu@d al-¿a@lam (p. 112, tr. Minorsky, p. 116), it was “the residence of the am^r and his local representatives (¿omma@l).” At the time of the Arab conquests in Central Asia, Farg@a@na was an independent principality under a Sogdian local ruler (the name Akòs^kat¯ must mean “town of the prince”). Akòs^kat¯ may conceivably be the Si-kien of Chinese geographical sources (6th century and later). ... See AT¨ÈR AK¨SÈKATÈ. C. J. Brunner The imperfect recording in Arabic (T®abar^, I, p. 874ff.) of an eastern Middle Iranian term for “king;” it is used as a proper name. The underlying word occurs in Sogdian as ÷xÞ÷wn'÷r, ™xÞa@wan'a@r (literally, “holding power;” see W. B. Henning, Ein Manichäisches Bet- und Beichtbuch, APAW 1936, pp. 95-96; idem, ZDMG 90, 1936, p. 17, n. 2; I. Gershevitch, A grammar of Manichean Sogdian, Oxford, 1954, par. 1135). This title, among others, was adopted by the Hephthalite tribes which occupied Transoxania and T®okòa@resta@n in the 5th and 6th centuries A. ... D. O. Morgan a term, Mongolian in origin, derived from akòta@ “gelding” and meaning “groom” or, more specifically in the context of the court, “master of the horse.” The word is used in the Secret History of the Mongols (e.g., L. Ligeti, ed., Histoire Secreàte des Mongols, Budapest, 1971, pp. 82, 145), with the meaning, according to Haenisch (Wörterbuch zu Manghol un Niuca Tobca'an, Wiesbaden, 1962, p. 3) of the custodian or catcher of horses. Under the Il-khans, Mongol amirs who held the post of akòta@è^ are frequently mentioned in the sources, especially by RaÞ^d-al-d^n (Ôa@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò III, ed. ... See AXTAR. L. P. Elwell-Sutton a Persian newspaper published in Istanbul by AÚqa@ Moháammad-T®a@her Qara@èada@g^ (or Tabr^z^) beginning on 16 D¨u÷l-háeèèa 1292/13 January 1876. For many years Akòtar appeared weekly, and from time to time even more frequently. The first Persian newspaper to be published outside Iran, it was also one of the few to be printed with movable type, and soon acquired a wide reputation as a well-written periodical of moderate views. Among its well-known contributors were M^rza@ AÚqa@ Khan Kerma@n^, Shaikh Ahámad Ru@há^, and M^rza@ Mahd^ Tabr^z^. ... DJ. Khaleghi-Motlagh AH®MAD BEG GORÔÈ, a poet of the era of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah Qa@èa@r (1212-50/1797-1834). Heda@yat (Maèma¿ al-fosáaháa@÷ I, pp. 154-55, 319) writes that Akòtar was originally a Georgian slave under the Safavids and that Solayma@n Khan Qa@èa@r cut off his tongue for his impudence; calling him a “capable poet,” he cites thirteen of his verses. Akòtar's work consisted of qasá^das, g@azals, and scurrilous satires, but no collection of his poetry seems to have been made. In 1234/1819, on the instructions of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah, he began the composition of a work entitled Tadòkera-ye anèoman-a@ra@, which remained incomplete on his death. ... -E KAÚVÈAÚN. See DERAFˆ-E KAÚVÈAÚN. H. Algar (or AÚK¨úOND), a word of uncertain etymology with the general meaning of religious scholar. Various Persian origins have been proposed for the word. According to Pu@rda@vu@d (quoted by Mo¿^n in the supplementary notes to Borha@n-e qa@táe¿ I, p. 21), it is composed of the prefix a@- and -kòu@nd (< kòúa@nd, from kòúa@ndan, to read or to study), thus yielding the sense of learned. Mo¿^n also connects -kòu@nd with kòúa@nd, but regards the latter as the contraction of kòoda@vand (lord, master) that is found in certain proper names of the Timurid period (e. ... H®AÚÔÔ. See ¿ALÈ AKBAR ˆAHMÈRZAÚDÈ. A. Hairi, S. Murata MOLLAÚ MOH®AMMAD-KAÚZ®EM K¨ORAÚSAÚNÈ (1255-1329/1839-1911), Shi¿ite religious leader. H. Algar (in Soviet usage, AKHUNDOV), MÈRZAÚ FATH®-¿ALÈ (1812-78), Azerbaijani playwright and propagator of alphabet reform; also, one of the earliest and most outspoken atheists to appear in the Islamic world. According to his own autobiographical account (first published in KaÞku@l, Baku, 1887, nos. 43-45, and reprinted in M. F. Akhundov, Alefba@-ye èad^d va maktu@ba@t, ed. H. Moháammadza@da and H®. AÚra@sl^, Baku, 1963, pp. 349-55), AÚkòu@ndza@da was born in 1812 (other documents give 1811 and 1814) in the town of Nu@kòa, in the part of Azerbaijan that was annexed by Russia in 1828. ... DJ. Khaleghi-Motlagh -E DÈV, the demon Akva@n, who was killed by Rostam. According to the ˆa@h-na@ma (ed. Mohl, vol. 3, pp. 270ff.) Akva@n first confronts Rostam in the shape of a wild ass, large, powerful, with a yellow hide and a black stripe from mane to tail. Rostam chases him on horseback for three days and three nights, but whenever Akva@n is in danger, he conceals himself by magic. In the end, Rostam tires and falls asleep, whereupon Akva@n, who has been watching him from a distance, approaches and, cutting away the earth around him, lifts him up to the sky. ... H. Algar (pl. of Arabic kòayyer), “the chosen” (Persian, bargoz^daga@n), a category sometimes encountered in accounts given by Sufi writers of the unseen hierarchy known as reèa@l al-g@ayb (“men of the unseen”). The number of the akòya@r and the functions they are supposed to fulfill differ according to various sources. Hoèv^r^ numbers them at three hundred and says they are “among the officers of the divine court and the people of loosening and binding;” that is, they are the agents of destiny (KaÞf al-maháèu@b, tr. ... A. ˆa@mlu@ And J. R. Russell a folkloric being that personifies puerperal fever; the name apparently derives from Iranian a@l “red.” Although belief in a child-stealing witch that fits the a@l's description is attested earliest in ancient Mesopotamia, where it was called LamaÞtum, the name a@l does not derive from Babylonian a@lu, a kind of demon. The a@l is found in folklore throughout the Iranian world and also outside it; amongst the Georgians of the Caucasus, it is called al-i, and amongst the Turkic peoples of Central Asia al-bast¥. ... H. Algar -E ¿ABAÚ, “The Family of the Cloak,” i.e., the Prophet Moháammad, his daughter Fa@táema, his cousin and son-in-law ¿Al^, and his grandsons H®asan and H®osayn. The designation is generally held to derive from an incident recorded in both Sunni and Shi¿ite books of Tradition: Wearing a striped cloak of black camelhair, the Prophet went out one day and encountered first H®asan, then H®osayn, then Fa@táema, and finally ¿Al^. He took each in turn under his cloak, and when all were gathered beneath it, the Koranic verse 33:33 was revealed to him: “God wishes only to remove taint from you, people of the Household, and to make you utterly pure” (see, for example, Sáahá^há Moslem, English tr. ... C. E. Bosworth -E AFRAÚSÈAÚB, a minor Iranian Shi¿ite dynasty of Ma@zandara@n in the Caspian coastlands that flourished in the late mediaeval, pre-Safavid period; it is also called (e.g. by Rabino) the K^a@ dynasty of Ùala@b or Ùala@v (after the district [bolu@k] of that name in AÚmol, Ma@zandara@n). In the tortuous politics and military maneuverings of the petty princes of the Caspian region, the K^a@s or AÚl-e Afra@s^a@b rose to prominence as the ancient line of the Baduspanid Espahbads (q.v.) came towards its end in the 8th/14th century. ... -E AFRAÚSÈAÚB. See QARAKHANIDS. C. E. Bosworth -E AFRÈGÚ (Afrighid dynasty), the name given by the Khwarazmian scholar Abu@ Rayháa@n B^ru@n^ to the dynasty of rulers in his country, with the ancient title of K¨úa@razmÞa@h. According to him, the Afrighids ruled from 305 A.D. (year 616 of the Seleucid era), through the Arab conquests under Qotayba b. Moslem in 93/712, and up to their overthrow in 385/995 by the rising rival family of Ma÷munids (see AÚl-e Ma÷mu@n). The early political history of K¨úa@razm is obscure. B^ru@n^ says that the land was first colonized 980 years before the time of Alexander the Great (sc. ... -E AH®MAD, ÔALAÚL (1302-48 ˆ./1923-69), well-known writer and social critic. In a brief autobiographical sketch completed in 1346 ˆ./1967 but published only after his death (Mat¯alan sarhá-e aháwa@la@t) AÚl-e Ahámad describes his conservatively religious and moderately well-to-do family; his father's strong religious principles led him to close his court of record (maházμar) rather than submit to government supervision. He wanted his son to follow a career in the bazaar, and Ôala@l's formal education would have ended with elementary school had he not chosen to register—without his father's knowledge—for evening classes at the Da@r-al-fonu@n, while he worked days as, variously, a watchmaker, electrician, and leather merchant. ... -E ¿ALÈ. See ¿ALAWÈ; ¿ALIDS. -E BAÚBAÚN. See BAÚBAÚN. W. Madelung -E BAÚVAND (BAVANDIDS), a dynasty ruling T®abaresta@n (Ma@zandara@n) from at least the 2nd/8th century until 750/1349. It claimed descent from Ba@v, allegedly a grandson of Ka@÷u@s, son of the Sasanian king Kava@dò. J. Markwart (EÚra@nÞahr, p. 128) suggested that the family may rather be descended from a Zoroastrian priest of Ray at the turn of the 6th century. According to the legendary prehistory of the dynasty, Ba@v came to T®abaresta@n at the time of the Arab conquest of Iran and was elected by the people as their ruler. ... C. E. Bosworth -E BORHAÚN, the name of a family of spiritual and civic leaders in Bokhara during the 6th/12th and early 7th/13th centuries; stemming from Marv, they were so called because virtually all of them seem to have had the laqab (honorific) of Borha@n-al-d^n or Borha@n-al-mella wa÷l-d^n. P. Oberling -E BUÚ KORD, a tribe of K¨u@zesta@n, of uncertain origin. It formerly belonged to the Bakòt^a@r^ tribal confederacy, but some 180 years ago it moved from the Ra@mhormoz and Ôarra@há^ districts to the Ahva@z district. In time, the AÚl-e Bu@ Kord settled down in the villages of K¨erÞa, Ku@t ¿Abdalla@h, Ku@t Sayyed Sáa@lehá, Ku@t-al-¿am^ra, Abu@ Dob^s and Mozáaffar^ on the left bank of the Ka@ru@n river and at Ker^Þa@n on the opposite side. When they migrated to the Ahva@z district, they totaled some 400 or 500 individuals. ... -E BUÚYA. See BUYIDS. -E DAÚBUÚYA. See DABUYIDS. C. E. Bosworth -E ELYAÚS, a short-lived Iranian dynasty which ruled in the eastern Persian province of Kerma@n during the 4th/10th century. The founder of the family's fortunes, Abu@ ¿Al^ Moháammad b. Elya@s, was apparently of Sogdian origin; the family always retained estates in Sog@d. He started his career in the army of the Samanid amir Nasár II b. Ahámad (301-31/914-43). He is first mentioned as being jailed by the amir in Bokhara for some misdeed; but he was released on the intercession of the vizier, Abu÷l-Fazµl Moháammad Bal¿am^ (317/929). ... C. E. Bosworth -E FARÈGÚUÚN, a minor Iranian dynasty of Gu@zga@n (Gu@zga@na@n, Ôu@zèa@n; in what is now northern Afghanistan) which flourished from some time before the beginning of the 4th/10th century until the incorporation of Gu@zga@n into the Ghaznavid empire in the early 5th/11th century. The Iranian name of the family, Far^g@u@n, may well be connected with that of the legendary Iranian figure Far^du@n/Afr^du@n; moreover the author of the H®odu@d al-¿a@lam, who seems to have lived and worked in Gu@zga@n (see below), specifically says in his entry on the geography of Gu@zga@n that the malek of that region was a descendant of Afr^du@n (p. ... -E FAZ˜LUÚYA. See ATAÚBAKAÚN-E LORESTAÚN; ˆABAÚNKAÚRA. C. Cahen -E HAÚˆEM, 3rd-5th/9th-11th century local dynasty of the region of Darband (Ba@b-al-abwa@b). The chief source of information regarding it, beyond a few passing references (e.g., Mas¿u@d^, Moru@è II, p. 5), is an anonymous late 5th/11th century history inserted in Ahámad b. Lotáfalla@h Monaèèemba@Þ^'s Sáaháa@÷ef al-akòba@r (ed. and tr. V. Minorsky, A History of Sharva@n and Darband in the 10th-11th Centuries, Oxford, 1958). -E ÔALAÚYER. See JALAYERIDS. -E K¨AMÈS. See ARAB TRIBES. -E K¨AÚQAÚN. See QARAKHANIDS. B. Spuler -E KART, or perhaps AÚL-E KORT, an east Iranian dynasty (643-791/1245-1389). Their capital was at Herat, and their realm initially comprised Sabzava@r (now ˆendand), GÚu@r, S^sta@n, Balkò, and Kabol. Their importance thus lies mainly in their contribution to the history of what is now western and central Afghanistan. Ô. Qa@÷em-Maqa@m^ -E KAT¨ÈR, an Arab tribe of K¨u@zesta@n composed of two subtribes, Bayt Sa¿d and Bayt Kar^m and inhabiting two sectors of ˆu@Þ and Dezfu@l. The origin of the name is unknown; they themselves claim that they are the descendants of Ôa¿far Barmak^, and because of their large population are known as AÚl-e Kat¯^r. In the Arab genealogies we come across a family known as Banu@ Ab^ Kat¯^r (Abu÷l-Fawz Moháammad Am^n al-Sowayd^, Saba@÷ek al-dòahab f^ ma¿refat al-qaba@÷el al-¿arab, Naèaf, 1280/1863-64, pp. ... D. M. Dunlop -E MAÚKUÚLAÚ, a Persian noble family prominent at Baghdad in the 5th/11th century, including: C. E. Bosworth -E MA÷MUÚN (or Ma÷munids), a short-lived dynasty of independent Iranian rulers in K¨úa@razm, 385-408/995-1017; they replaced the ancient line of Afrighid K¨úa@razmÞa@hs, but were in turn displaced by the expansionist policies of Mahámu@d of GÚazna. The genealogical tree of the family is as follows: R. W. Bulliet -E MÈKAÚL, the leading aristocratic family of western Khorasan from the 3rd/9th to the 5th/11th century; descended from the pre-Islamic nobility of the Samarkand region, it played an important political role. Nothing is known about the life of M^ka@l b. Abd-al-Wa@háed, the early 3rd/9th century family member from whom the name M^ka@l^ is derived. The three generations before ¿Abd-al-Wa@háed are similarly unknown, but it is likely that the family was located in Iraq during this period, having been brought there as prisoners of war after the Arabs defeated and killed an ancestor named D^va@st^ in his fortress in the ZarafÞa@n valley in 104/722. ... C. E. Bosworth -E MOH®TAÚÔ, a local dynasty, most probably of Iranian origin but conceivably of Iranized Arab stock, who ruled in the principality of Ùag@a@n^a@n on the right bank of the upper Oxus in the basin of the Sorkòa@n river (Ùag@a@n-ru@d in H®odu@d al-¿a@lam, p. 41), first as vassals of the Samanids in the 4th/10th century and then probably as vassals of the Ghaznavids in the opening decades of the 5th/11th century; afterwards the dynasty, at least under this name, disappears from history. In the late 1st/7th and early 2nd/8th centuries, Ùag@a@n^a@n was ruled by a local magnate, presumably Iranian like the neighboring princes of Soghdia, with the title Ùag@a@n-kòoda@ (cf. ... -E MOˆA¿ˆA¿. A misnomer for the Sa@da@t-e MoÞa¿Þa¿. See MOˆA¿ˆA¿ÈAÚN. -E MOZ®AFFAR. See MUZAFFARIDS. -E NAWBAK¨T. See NAWBAK¨TÈAÚN. -E S®AÚ¿ED. See S®AÚ¿EDÈAÚN. -E ˆANSAB. See GHURIDS. G. Doerfer “red seal,” Turkish term for the supreme seal of the Mongol Il-Khans of Iran. The term also meant “document with a red seal.” Before the Mongol conquest, e.g., in Saljuq and K¨úa@razmÞa@h administration, there occur the terms tawq^¿ (equivalent to táog@ra@ “emblem” of the ruler) and mohr “seal” (in documents from subordinate officials; H. Horst, Die Staatsverwaltung der Grosselg¡u@qen und ÓorazmÞa@hs [1038-1231], Wiesbaden, 1964). After the Il-Khans gave the red seal significance in Iran, it was used by some later dynasties, e. ... -E VARDAÚNZUÚR. See ATAÚBAKAÚN-E YAZD. -E ZÈAÚR. See ZIYARIDS. H. Busse B. H®ASAN B. ¿ALÈ, ABU÷L-QAÚSEM, vizier of Fa@rs under the Buyid rulers ˆaraf-al-dawla and Sáamsáa@m-al-dawla. ¿Ala@÷'s term of office was situated in a period of disturbances following ¿Azμod-al-dawla's death in 372/983, when the latter's sons ˆaraf-al-dawla (d. 379/989), Sáamsáa@m-al-dawla (d. 388/998), and Baha@÷-al-dawla (d. 403/1012) were engaged in fierce fighting for succession and supremacy. ˆaraf-al-dawla had been appointed governor of Kerma@n by ¿Azμod-al-dawla; after his father's death he occupied ˆ^ra@z, while Sáamsáa@m-al-dawla was enthroned in Baghdad. ... E. Ehlers name of a number of mountains in Iran; of Turkish origin, the words mean “colored mountain.” Many mountains or mountain ranges in Turkey or regions inhabited by Turkman peoples, including Soviet central Asia and Siberia, bear this name. In Iran there are several mountains or smaller massifs known (often only to local inhabitants) as AÚla@ Da@g@, especially in northwestern Persia (Azerbaijan) and in the Zagros. The most important of the Iranian AÚla@ Da@g@ massifs is in Khorasan in the northeast. ... -AL-DAWLA. See ABUÚ KAÚLÈÔAÚR. H®. Mah®bu@b^ Ardaka@n^ -AL-DAWLA, MÈRZAÚ AH®MAD KHAN (d. 1329/1911), the son of Moháammad Rahá^m Khan ¿Ala@÷-al-dawla. According to Ba@mda@d (Reèa@l I, p. 90) he was born in 1283/1866-67, but this date is doubtful since he accompanied the shah on the royal voyage to Europe in 1290/1873 (E¿tema@d-al-saltáana, Montazáam-e Na@sáer^, Tehran, 1298-1300/1881-83, III, p. 328), and it is unlikely that a child of seven or eight would have been among his retinue. In 1298/1881 ¿Ala@÷-al-dawla's father formed the special Mansáu@r group of guards. ... H®. Mah®bu@b^ Ardaka@n^ -AL-DAWLA, MOH®AMMAD RAH®ÈM KHAN AMÈR-E NEZ®AÚM (d. 1299/1882), notable of the Qajar tribe and holder of high offices under Na@sáer-al-d^n Shah. He belonged to the Yokòa@r^ba@Þ faction and Davallu@ clan of the Qajars of Gorga@n, and was the son of Moháammad Am^n Khan, who had held the post of nasaq±^ba@Þ^ (chief disciplinary officer). He was appointed governor of K¨oy in 1267/1851 (E¿tema@d-al-saltáana, Montazáam-e Na@sáer^, Tehran, 1298-1300/1881-83, III, p. 207) and governor of Neha@vand in 1276/1860, in which year his son ¿Abdalla@h Khan was put in charge of the cavalry from the K¨azal region (ibid. ... J. Woods -AL-DAWLA, ROKN-AL-DÈN MÈRZAÚ B. BAÚYSONQOR B. ˆAÚHROK¨, Timurid prince (820-65/1417-60). A great-grandson of the conqueror T^mu@r, ¿Ala@÷-al-dawla was born in Herat during the reign of ˆa@hrokò b. T^mu@r in 820/1417 to Ôa@n Malek AÚg@a@, the daughter of a Timurid officer, Am^r Ùolpa@n, and ˆa@hrokò's son Ba@ysonqor (H®a@fezá-e Abru@, Zobdat al-tawa@r^kò-e Ba@ysonqor^, fols. 537a-538a; K¨úa@f^, Moèmal-e Fasá^há^ III, pp. 229-30; Mo¿ezz al-ansa@b, fols. 136b, 1436-44b). The care of the young prince was entrusted to his grandmother Gowhar ˆa@d AÚg@a@, the influential wife of ˆa@hrokò. ... R. M. Savory -AL-DAWLA D¨U÷L-QADAR, early 9th/15th century ruler of Mar¿aÞ and Albesta@n in the kingdom of Little Armenia, east of the Taurus mountains. His daughter was married to the AÚq Qoyunlu@ Sultan Mora@d, and he gave asylum to the latter when he was a fugitive from the Safavids in 909/1503. After the death of Sultan Alvand AÚq Qoyunlu@ in 910/1504, the province of D^a@r Bakr was occupied by the AÚq Qoyunlu@, Amir Beg II Mawsáellu@; ¿Ala@÷-al-dawla at once began making incursions and seized possession of some forts. ... C. E. Bosworth -AL-DAWLA ¿ALÈ B. H®OSAÚM-AL-DAWLA ˆAHRÈAÚR B. QAÚREN (511-34/1117-40), ruler of the Espahbad^ya line of the local dynasty of the Bavandids (see AÚl-e Ba@vand) in the Caspian region of Ma@zandara@n. Under his rule, the dynasty achieved an importance transcending the local Caspian scene, for at various times the weakness of the Great Saljuq dynasty and its internecine family succession disputes caused rival contenders to seek refuge at his court and military help from him. Ebn Esfand^a@r and other, later local historians of Ma@zandara@n recount that ¿Ala@÷-al-dawla ¿Al^ was a rival for power of his elder brother Naèm-al-dawla Qa@ren during the latter years of their father H®osa@m-al-dawla ˆahr^a@r's thirty-seven year reign. ... W. Madelung -AL-DAWLA H®ASAN B. ROSTAM B. ¿ALÈ B. ˆAHRÈAÚR, ˆARAF-AL-MOLUÚK, Bavandid ruler of Ma@zandara@n. According to the account of Ebn Esfand^a@r, he reigned from 558/1163 to 566/1171. For chronological reasons, it seems more likely that the date given by Ebn al-At¯^r for his accession, 560/1165, is correct and that his reign lasted until 568 or 569/1173. He was the second son of ˆa@h-GÚa@z^ Rostam, under whom the second branch of the Bavandid dynasty reached the peak of its power. Shortly after his father's accession in 533/1139, he fell into disgrace as he fled to Ray before an invading Khorasanian army; after his return, he was imprisoned for twenty months. ... C. E. Bosworth -AL-DAWLA ABUÚ ÔA¿FAR MOH®AMMAD B. ROSTAM DOˆMANZÈAÚR B. MARZOBAÚN (d. 433/1041), Daylam^ military leader and founder of the shortlived but significant Kakuyid dynasty, which existed independently in Ôeba@l and then survived subsequently, under Saljuq aegis, in Abarqu@h and Yazd. The sources frequently accord him the name of Ebn Ka@ku@ya or Pesar-e Ka@ku@, and usually explain the second term as a hypocoristic from a dialect word ka@ku@ (“maternal uncle,” cf. Kurdish ka@k(a) and Lor^ and New Persian ka@ka@, “brother, uncle,” used in a jocular, bantering sense like “old fellow”). ... J. Van Ess -AL-DAWLA SEMNAÚNÈ, ROKN-AL-DÈN ABU÷L-MAKAÚREM AH®MAD B. ˆARAF-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD B. AH®MAD AL-BÈAÚBAÚNAKÈ (b. D¨u÷l-háeèèa, 659/November, 1261, d. 21 or 22 Raèab 736/5 or 6 March 1336), famous mystic of the Il-khanid period, opponent of the growing influence of Ebn ¿Arab^ in Iran. He stemmed from a family of wealthy landlords at Semna@n (ca. 200 km east of Tehran). Through his grandmother he was related to the ¿Alid aristocracy; she had been the daughter of a descendant of H®osayn Aság@ar, the son of Zayn-al-¿a@bed^n (cf. ... C. E. Bosworth -AL-DÈN (or Z˜ÈAÚ÷-AL-DÈN) ¿ALÈ B. ˆOÔAÚ¿-AL-DÈN ¿ALÈ, Ghurid malek and later sultan, reigned in GÚu@r from F^ru@zku@h as the last of his family there before the extinction of the dynasty by the K¨úa@razmÞa@hs, 599-602/1203-96 and 611-12/1214-15. As Malek Z˜^a@÷-al-d^n, and also bearing the title “the Pearl of GÚu@r,” he acted as governor of the Ghurid conquests in Khorasan from 596/1199-1200, during the reign of his cousins ˆams-al-d^n or GÚ^a@t¯-al-d^n Moháammad and ˆeha@b-al-d^n or Mo¿ezz-al-d^n Moháammad; he had in fact married the daughter of the first of these two rulers. ... -AL-DÈN ¿ALÈ MOTTAQÈ. See ¿ALÈ MOTTAQÈ. C. F. Bosworth -AL-DÈN ATSÏZ B. ¿ALAÚ÷-AL-DÈN H®OSAYN, a late and short-reigned sultan of the Ghurid dynasty in Afghanistan (607-11/1210-14). He was still a child when his father, the great ¿Ala@÷-al-d^n H®osayn Ôaha@nsu@z died in 556/1161, and the succession in the Ghurid capital F^ru@zku@h went to his cousins, ˆams-al-d^n (later GÚ^a@t¯-al-d^n) Moháammad and ˆeha@b-al-d^n (later Mo¿ezz-al-d^n) Moháammad. He spent much of his life in the service of Sultan Mo¿ezz-al-d^n, and was widely recognized among the Ghurid chiefs as a candidate for the throne after that sultan's death. ... E. Baer -AL-DÈN ˆAMS-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD BÈRÔANDÈ, a metalworker who lived between the late 15th and the early 16th century A.D. His nesba suggests that either he or his family hailed from B^rèand, in the 8th/14th and 9th/15th centuries an important provincial town in Qu@hesta@n. Two bronze objects with his signature are recorded: a jug, dated 1 Ramazµa@n 908/28 February 1503 (sold at Christie's, October, 1972) and a jug now in the Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin (no. I 6052), dated ˆawwa@l, 910/February-March, 1505. ... C. E. Bosworth -AL-DÈN H®OSAYN B. ¿EZZ-AL-DÈN H®OSAYN, called ÔAHAÚNSUÚZ, Ghurid sultan and the first ruler of the ˆansaba@n^ family to make the Ghurids a major power in the eastern Islamic world (544-56/1149-61). By the early 6th/12th century the ˆansaba@n^ chiefs had acquired the main power in the mountainous region of GÚu@r in central Afghanistan (the modern GÚo@ra@t province). After the Saljuq sultan Sanèar had placed the Ghaznavid sultan Bahra@mÞa@h on the throne in GÚazna in 512/1118 as his prote‚ge‚, the suzerainty exercised by the Ghaznavids over GÚu@r since the time of Mahámu@d and Mas¿u@d in the early 5th/11th century inevitably weakened. ... N. H. Zaidi -AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD SHAH K¨ALÔÈ, sultan of Delhi (r. 695-715/1296-1316). Before gaining the throne, he had been governor of Kara under his uncle and father-in-law, king Ôala@l-al-d^n F^ru@z Shah K¨alè^. In 695/1295 he led a victorious campaign against the kingdom of Deogir (Deccan) and returned laden with plunder; King Ôala@l-al-d^n went to Kara to meet him, but ¿Ala@÷-al-d^n slew him treacherously on 17 Ramazµa@n 695/29 July 1296 (T. W. Beale, An Oriental Biographical Dictionary, London, 1894, p. ... -AL-DÈN KAYQOBAÚD. See KAYQOBAÚD. R. Quiring-Zoche -AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD, naq^b of Isfahan in the Timurid period and ancestor of prominent religious-legal dignitaries of the Safavid period. On his mother's side he was related to the Golesta@na sayyeds. In the reign of ˆa@hrokò (807-50/1405-47), son of T^mu@r, the officials of the Isfahan administration were unable to pay the sums due to the state treasury at Herat. ¿Ala@÷-al-d^n Moháammad sided with them and, together with some other notables, backed a move for annexation of Isfahan to the domain of ˆa@hrokò's grandson, Moháammad Soltáa@n, who had rebelled (Sáafar, 850/May, 1446). ... B. Lewis -AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD B. ÔALAÚL-AL-DÈN H®ASAN, chief of the Isma¿ilis of Alamu@t (d. 653/1255). When ¿Ala@÷-al-d^n succeeded his father in Ramazµa@n, 618/November, 1221, at the age of nine, at first Ôala@l-al-d^n's vizier remained as effective ruler of Alamu@t, continuing the policy of accommodation with the ¿Abbasid caliphate and with Sunni Islam. There was however some reaction against this policy; the observance of the Þar^¿a was no longer enforced, and even, according to some historians, actively discouraged in the Isma¿ili possessions. ... C. E. Bosworth -AL-DÈN ABU÷L-FATH® MOH®AMMAD B. TEKIˆ B. IL-ARSLAN, K¨úa@razmÞa@h who reigned in -AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD BOK¨AÚRÈ. See BOK¨AÚRÈ. -AL-DÈN MONAÔÔEM. See ¿ALȈAÚH BOK¨AÚRÈ. W. Madelung -AL-DÈN SAMARQANDÈ, ABUÚ BAKR MOH®AMMAD B. AH®MAD B. ABÈ AH®MAD, H®anaf^ jurist and Ma@tor^d^ theologian. The attribution of the konya Abu@ Mansáu@r to him by Ebn Abi÷l-Wafa@÷ and Ebn Qotlu@bog@a@ seems to be erroneous. There is very little information about his life. In his M^za@n al-osáu@l he mentions as his teacher Fakòr-al-Esla@m ¿Al^ b. Moháammad Bazdav^ (d. 482/1089), the foremost scholar of H®anaf^ law and legal methodology in Transoxiana, who taught in Samarqand. He thus cannot have been born much later than 465/1073. ... See ALAÚFRANK. H®. Mah®bu@b^ Ardaka@n^ -AL-MOLK, H®AÚÔÔÈ MÈRZAÚ ¿ABDALLAÚH KHAN (d. 23 Ôoma@da@ II 1308/4 February 1891), holder of various offices under Na@sáer-al-d^n Shah. The son of M^rza@ Nab^ Khan Am^r-e D^va@n Qazv^n^ and a daughter of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah, in 1275/1858 he was appointed a mosfawf^-e d^va@n, i.e. treasury accountant (E¿tema@d-al-saltáana, Ta@r^kò-e montazáam-e Na@sáer^, Tehran, 1298-1300/1881-83, III, p. 261). When ¿Abd-al-Sáamad M^rza@, a brother of Na@sáer-al-d^n Shah, was given the title ¿Ezz-al-dawla and made governor of Hamada@n in 1278/1861-62, H®a@èè^ M^rza@ accompanied him as his vizier and assistant (ibid. ... H®. Mah®bu@b^ Aardaka@n^ -AL-MOLK, MÈRZAÚ MAH®MUÚD KHAN DÈBAÚ, son of M^rza@ ¿Al^ Aság@ar Mostawf^, governor and minister in the later Qajar period (1258-1344/1842-1925). Born into a family of powerful ¿olama@÷, the T®aba@táaba@÷^ sayyeds of Tabr^z, he went to Tiflis after ten years of elementary and traditional studies in Iran. Upon his return to Tabr^z, he entered the provincial administration and served there for two years. After government positions in Tehran, Tiflis, and again in Tabr^z, he entered the foreign ministry and was sent to London for six months. ... H®. Mah®bu@b^ Ardaka@n^ -AL-SALT®ANA, MÈRZAÚ MOH®AMMAD-¿ALÈ KHAN, Qajar diplomat and minister (d. 14 Ramazµa@n 1336/23 June 1918). The son of the Iranian consul general in Baghdad, M^rza@ Ebra@h^m Khan, he was born in that city in 1254/1838. In 1276/1859-60 he became consul general in Bombay, a post he held until 1287/1870-71 (E¿tema@d-al-saltáana, Montazáam-e Na@sáer^, Tehran, 1298-1300/1881-83, III, pp. 267, 301). In 1288/1871 he was given the title Mo¿^n-al-weza@ra and appointed deputy governor of G^la@n by M^rza@ Sa¿^d Khan, the foreign minister, and in 1296/1877-78 he was consul general in Baghdad (ibid. ... or ALA-FIRENG, the eldest son of the Il-khan Geikòatu (r. 690-94/1291-95). His career is shrouded in a good deal of mystery. In December, 1303 a plot was allegedly hatched to overthrow the then reigning Il-khan, GÚa@za@n; according to RaÞ^d-al-d^n, Ala@frank himself was not an active participant. This would seem to be confirmed by the fact that GÚa@za@n, not one to spare princely blood unnecessarily, did not have him executed. The conspirators are alleged to have been “Mazdakites,” a not very informative but fairly common term of abuse for persons professing views deemed to be socially subversive. ... D. O. Morgan H. Javadi the game of tipcat, played for centuries in Iran, Afghanistan, and surrounding countries. Many variations are known; basically, a bat (dolak) is used to strike a wooden peg (alak), which fielders recover and then throw at the dolak placed on the ground. ¿A. A. H®ekmat suggests that the great variety of local names is one indication of the game's antiquity; these include ±alok-mosta (Shiraz), pel-±oftak, pel o ±ofta (Isfahan), ±afta-ba@z^ (Kerma@n), ar±a-kòolu@f (Ma@zandara@n), ala-±u@ (Boru@èerd and Hamada@n), lu@-±onba (MaÞhad), ga@l-±u@b (N^Þa@bu@r), pa@t^ma@r-ba@z^ (G^la@n), alak-ba@z^ (B^rèand), alu@-ka@n (Sanandaè), p^l-dasta (Tabr^z), am^-b^ (Behbaha@n), hala@ku@ta (Semna@n), ala@-±onbeÞ (Qazv^n), alka@n-±u@±aka@n (Kabul), ga@l-±onba (Herat), ±^l^, ±a@lak, and ±^la-ba@z^ (Tashkent, Bokhara, Samarkand). ... J. Calmard, J. W. Allan (Ar. ¿ala@ma), banner; more particularly, the banners carried in religious processions. For banners in the pre-Islamic period, sec DerafÞ. S. S. Alvi II, SHAH, Mughal emperor (1173-1253/1759-1806). Following the assassination of his father, ¿AÚlamg^r II, on 4 Ôoma@da@ I 1173/24 December 1759, M^rza@ ¿Abdalla@h ¿Al^ Gowhar claimed the throne and adopted the name Abu÷l-Mozáaffar Ôala@l-al-d^n Moháammad Shah ¿AÚlam II. He was heir to a declining empire that was challenged by various ethnic groups in northern India and by the British in the east. His defeat at the battle of Baksar in Rab^¿ II, 1178/October, 1764, in his third attempt to dislodge the British from Bihar and Bengal resulted in the unquestioned supremacy of the East India Company over the eastern provinces. ... -AL-DAWLA. See T¨AQAFÈ, K¨ALÈL KHAN. W. Madelung -AL-HODAÚ, ABU÷L-QAÚSEM ¿ALÈ B. AL-H®OSAYN AL-MUÚSAWÈ AL-ˆARÈF AL-MORTAZ˜AÚ, leading Imamite scholar, man of letters, and naq^b (syndic) of the Talibids in Baghdad. He was born in Baghdad in Raèab, 355/June-July, 965. His father Abu@ Ahámad al-H®osayn b. Mu@sa@ b. Moháammad b. Mu@sa@ b. Ebra@h^m b. Mu@sa@ al-Ka@záem (d. 400/1009) several times held the position of naq^b of the Talibids. Through his mother, Fa@táema bent al-H®asan b. Ahámad b. al-H®asan al-Na@sáer al-Kab^r (d. ... J. R. Perry ¿ARAB-E K¨OZAYMA, AMIR, viceroy of the Afsharid state of Khorasan, 1161-68/1748-54. The son of Esma@¿^l Khan, one of Na@der Shah's chief officers, ¿Alam Khan campaigned for Na@der Shah with his father at the head of the contingent of K¨ozayma Arabs (who had been settled in Khorasan since the 2nd/8th century). After Na@der's death in 1160/1747, most of his heterogeneous army broke up when the Afghan corps (under Ahámad Khan, later Shah) and the various tribal contingents from western Iran went home; thus ¿Alam Khan and the other local amirs with their Arab, Kurdish, and S^sta@n^ troops were the main, and finally the sole, military power in the province. ... L. P. Elwell-Sutton -E NESVAÚN, a magazine founded in M^za@n, 1299 ˆ./September, 1920, one of the earliest periodicals published by and for women. Started by Nawwa@ba K¨a@nom Sáafaw^, its principal contributors were members of the graduates' association of the American Women's College of Iran; throughout its life two members of the American staff, Mrs. Boyce and Miss Doolittle, were associated with its production. Other participants were T®ayyeba M^r Da@ma@d^, AÞraf Nabaw^, and ¿Abba@s Arya@npu@r Ka@Þa@n^. The magazine was published bi-monthly in an average size of eighteen pages; avoiding political questions, it concentrated on such matters as health and hygiene, care of children, domestic science, cookery, dress, and fashion. ... R. M. Savory -YE ¿ABBAÚSÈ, a Safavid chronicle written by Eskandar Beg MonÞ^ (b. ca. 968/1560, d. ca. 1042/1632). The work, which is of great length (1,116 pages in the two-volume, closely printed edition published in Tehran, 1334-35 ˆ./1955-56), comprises a moqaddama on the origins of the Safavid house and the reigns of Shahs Esma@¿^l I, T®ahma@sp I, Esma@¿^l II, and Moháammad K¨oda@banda, and a detailed history of the reign of Shah ¿Abba@s I. The bulk of the work (sáahá^fas I and II; alternately called sáahá^fa I and sáahá^fa II, maqsáad i) was completed in 1025/1616. ... R. McChesney -YE ˆAÚH ESMAÚ¿ÈL, an anonymous narrative of the life of Shah Esma@¿^l (r. 907-30/1501-24), the founder of the Safavid dynasty in Iran. The work, also published under the title ¿AÚlama@ra@-ye Sáafaw^, takes the form of an historical romance; compiled late in the 11th/17th century (the text contains the date 1086/1675-76), it is related to a group of biographies of Shah Esma@¿^l (e.g. those listed in Storey-Bregel, nos. 709-12, 721; Storey, nos. 375-77) and is rooted in a popular, probably oral, tradition of historical narrative. ... -E Z˜OHUÚR. See APOCALYPTIC. B. Hourcade a high, isolated valley in the Alborz thirty-five kilometers northeast of Qazv^n; the center of an autonomous Isma¿ili state, the valley was defended by numerous fortresses, one of which bears the same name. See QAZVÈN DIALECTS. V. I. Abaev, H. W. Bailey an ancient Iranian tribe of the northern (Scythian, Saka, Sarmatian, Massagete) group, known to classical writers from the first centuries A.D. (see, e.g., Seneca, Thyestes 630; Annaeus Lucan, Pharsalia 8.223, 10.454; Lucian, Toxaris 51, 54, 55, 60; Ptolemy, Geographia 6.14.3, 9, 11; and other sources below). Their name appears in Greek as Alanoi, in Latin as Alani or Halani. The same tribes, or affiliated ones, are mentioned as the Asaioi (Ptolemy 5.9.16), Rhoxolanoi, Aorsoi, Sirakoi, and Iazyges (Strabo 2. ... F. M. Kotwal and J. W. Boyd (plural of Arabic a@la), “utensils,” for Parsis the “sacred apparatus” employed in Zoroastrian rituals. Once consecrated, they function to effect contact between this physical (ge@t^g) realm and the holy, spiritual (me@no@g) realm. Appropriate a@la@t are used for each rite. E.g., in the purificatory bath (baraÞnu@m) the a@la@t are consecrated and unconsecrated bull's urine (n^rangd^n and go@me@z), consecrated water, ash (Gujarati bhasma) from an AÚtaÞ Bahra@m, sand, and a pomegranate leaf. ... D. M. Dunlop (or in T®abar^, III, p. 1149) AL-A¿SAR (“the Left-handed”), ABU÷L-H®ASAN ¿ALI B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. SAYF, a noted singer at the ¿Abbasid court under Ha@ru@n al-RaÞ^d and his successors, ca. 184-230/800-54. His grandfather, a captive from Sog@d, had been an Omayyad freedman (mawla@). ¿Alawayh was a pupil of Ebra@h^m al-Mawsáel^ and is often mentioned with the latter's son, Esháa@q, and with Mokòa@req, another singer of the time. ¿Alawayh favored the innovating “romanticist” school of Ebra@h^m b. ... W. Kadi the nesba used to denote descendants, political states, or sects connected with one or another ¿Ali (Ebn al-At¯^r, al-Loba@b, II, Cairo, 1357, p. 148; Ebn H®aèar, Tabsá^r al-montabeh, ed. ¿A. M. al-Beèa@w^, Cairo, 1964-67, III, pp. 1020-21); more particularly, it is employed to refer to a Shi¿ite sect centered today in Syria. The nesba is most commonly used to refer to ¿Al^ b. Ab^ T®a@leb, and with this meaning frequently is combined with a title of nobility such as Sayyed or ˆar^f. In this sense the term, often translated as “¿Alid,” has a wider application than “Fa@táem^” (since ¿Al^ had children by wives other than Fa@táema) and a narrower application than “T®a@leb^” (since Abu@ T®a@leb had other sons besides ¿Al^). ... ABD-AL-KARÈM. See ¿ABD-AL-KARÈM ¿ALAVÈ. AH®MAD. See AH®MAD ¿ALAWÈ. OF T®ABARESTAÚN, DAYLAMAÚN, AND GÈLAÚN. See ¿ALIDS. AL-A¿SAR. See ¿ALAWAYH. A. Parsa (or AÚLUÚBAÚLUÚ), sour cherry (Cerasus vulgaris), a tree of western Asia and eastern Europe. The fruits are light brown or dark red, resembling those of the common cherry. The kernels of the seeds have the odor of bitter almonds; tonic and nutritive, they are used in confections. The dried fruit, usually an ingredient of a@è^l-e Þ^r^n, is eaten, in particular by children during the winter. It is also used as a purgative for bilious disorders. In the past both cherry stones mixed with barley awns and cherry petioles (leaf stems) were given for gonorrhea. ... M. L. Chaumont (Iranian Aran, Arm. A¬uank¿), an ancient country in the Caucasus (for Albania in Islamic times, see Arra@n). It was bounded on the north by the Ceraunian mountains, an extension of the Caucasus, on the east by the Caspian Sea, and on the south by the lower course of the Araxes (Aras); on the west its frontiers were unstable: The frontier along the Kura (Kor), affirmed by Strabo (Geography 11.14.5), was repeatedly overrun, to the advantage sometimes of the Albanians, sometimes of the Armenians. At the eastern end of the Caucasus range a defile opens up along the shore of the Caspian; this is the Darband pass, called the Gates of Albania and the Caspian Gates by the ancients, Pahak Ùoray or Iuroy Pahak by the Armenians. ... W. Eilers, M. Boyce, M. Bazin, E. Ehlers, B. Hourcade (ELBORZ, ELBORS), modern Persian name for the Y. Armajani an American Presbyterian missionary institution in Tehran; starting as a grade school in 1873, it grew to a junior college in 1924 and an accredited liberal arts college by 1928. In 1940 it was closed and its property bought by the government of Iran. At first called the American College, it took the name of the Alborz mountains, at the foothills of which it was located, in the early 1930s in deference to the Persianization of foreign names. J. Aubin ALFONSO DE (ca. 1460-1515), admiral in the Indian Ocean (1504, 1506-08), second governor of Portuguese India (1509-15), a great conqueror, and the real founder of the Portuguese empire in the Orient. Appointed head of the “fleet of the Arabian and Persian sea” in 1506, Albuquerque resolved to conquer the island of Hormoz, a great international market; the conquest would permit control of an important commercial route, while Hormoz's treasure would provide the sums necessary to maintain Portuguese forces in the Indian Ocean. ... J. P. Asmussen a sectarian in the early Christian Church, 1st-2nd centuries A.D., in the time of Trajan. His historical existence is still disputed, but is certainly taken for granted by Manichean tradition. In Mesopotamia (Babylonia), then part of the Iranian empire of the Arsacids, Alchasai founded a Jewish Christian baptist community, a faction in the Ebionite movement. The baptists (Greek sobiai) were included, according to H. W. Bailey (Revue des e‚tudes arme‚niennes N.S. 4, 1980, p. 7), in the sect name mktk- (“washers,” from the Iranian root mak- “moisten, wash”) in the 3rd century inscription of the magupat and e@hrapat Karte@r at the Ka¿ba-ye ZartoÞt in Persepolis (Mid. ... D. O. Morgan (“sealer”), a Turkish term (from a@l “red seal”) designating an il-khanid chancery official. In RaÞ^d-al-d^n's account of GÚa@za@n's administrative reforms, a@l±^s occur in the section concerned with preventing the misuse of yarl^g@s (edicts) and pa@y^zas (tablets of authority); they are forbidden to receive anything from anyone for affixing the a@l to documents (RaÞ^d-al-d^n, Ôa@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò III, ed. A. Alizade, Baku, 1957, p. 501). The a@l±^ was one of the first four principal chancery officials, and was responsible for affixing the qara tamq@a@ (black seal) to chancery documents. ... S. Soucek Azeri Turkish title of a narrative by AÚkòu@ndza@da (q.v.; 1812-78). The original text, written in 1857 and published in Tiflis in 1859, was translated into Persian by M^rza@ Moháammad Qara@èada@g@^, who also translated AÚkòu@ndza@da's plays, and published in Tehran in 1291/1874 under the title H®eka@yat-e Yu@sof ˆa@h ya@ seta@raga@n-e far^b-kòúorda. It is based on an episode in the life of Shah ¿Abba@s I that took place in Qazv^n in 1002/1594 (Eskandar Beg, tr. Savory, pp. 648-49); a heretic (noqtáaw^) was made king for three days and then executed in order to ward off a danger to the shah predicted by the court astrologers. ... A. M. Piemontese VINCENZO DEGLI, d. after 1595, Venetian secretary and diplomat, author of an important report on Safavid Persia. Between 1560 and 1570 he was a member of the Venetian chancellery in Constantinople, where he studied Turkish and became acquainted with the country. Elected notaro estraordinario of the Council of the Venetian Republic, in October, 1570, he was charged with a secret mission to Persia. The Venetians were engaged in the Cyprian war against the Ottomans, and the mission aimed at an alliance with the Safavid kingdom, urging it to intervention with the promise of an anti-Turkish mobilization by “all the Christian princes. ... G. Bournoutian PRINCE (known in Persian as ESKANDAR MÈRZAÚ), pro-Persian member of the royal family of Georgia (b. 1770, d. after 1830). Following the death of his father, Heraclius (Irakli¥) II, king of Georgia (1798), Alexander, suspecting that the Russian presence in his country would lead to eventual annexation, was lured by Fathá-¿Al^ Shah Qa@èa@r into leaving Tiflis and joining the pro-Persian forces under ¿Omar Khan of the Avars in Da@g@esta@n (1799). During the next two years Alexander and his Persian allies invaded Kakhetia but were defeated. ... P. Briant THE GREAT (356-23 B.C.). Ascending the throne on the assassination of his father Philip II in 336, Alexander quickly took up Philip's grand scheme to land an army in Asia and “liberate the Greek cities from the Achaemenid yoke;” but from the first his territorial ambitions appear to have reached beyond the Mediterranean horizon (cf. his questioning of Darius' ambassadors, Plutarch, Alexander 5.1-3). Alexander lacked neither information nor informants; fugitive satraps had found asylum at the Macedonian court, and Macedonian troops had been engaged in Asia Minor since 336. ... G. Widengren OF LYCOPOLIS, apparently a Neoplatonic philosopher living in Egypt about 300 B.C. He is known exclusively from his Greek treatise, Against the Doctrines of Mani (ed. A. Brinkmann, Alexandri Lycopolitani contra Manichaei opiniones disputatio, Leipzig, 1895), an account of the Manichean system and a criticism of it based on Alexander's own views. His controlled arguments, with no outbursts of hatred like those found in Christian polemics, are not always profound and sometimes open to criticism, but he has well grasped both the essential structure of the system and its inherent weakness—its complete lack of a philosophical basis. ... P. Leriche general designation of cities whose foundation is credited to Alexander the Great (356-23 B.C.). Pseudo-Plutarch mentions seventy of these, which must have included purely military settlements; among those whose existence seems well attested, thirteen were in the Iranian territories. They were founded for administrative, military, or commercial purposes and most of them became important regional capitals. Some took the place of already existing towns, others were genuinely new creations. Beginning in the west, they were: Alexandria of Susiana (Pliny 6. ... P. Leriche name of a number of cities. According to certain historians, these cities were founded after Alexander's death; others call some of these same cities Alexandria. It is impossible to tell whether the name Alexandropolis is a mere variant or a new name given to reestablished cities. Three cities by this name in the Iranian territories are mentioned: Alexandropolis of Arachosia and Alexandropolis of Sacastene (see Alexandria) and Alexandropolis of Parthyene (Pliny 6.113). The last, which Pliny describes as “a city without a founder,” may perhaps be identified with the Parthaunisa of Isidore of Charax, in which case it should doubtless be sought for at the site of Nesa@. ... Ch. Pellat “One thousand nights and one night,” Arabic title of the world-famous collection of tales known in English as The Arabian Nights. The first published translation, by Antoine Galand (Les mille et une Nuits, contes arabes traduits en françois, Paris, from 1704), appeared gradually because of the author's difficulty in obtaining manuscripts (see E. Littmann, “Alf layla wa-layla” in EI2, and especially M. Abdel-Halim, Antoine Galland et son oeuvre, Paris, 1964); arabists and oriental publishers then proceeded to establish, according to their own discoveries and tastes, collections so different that a table showing the divergences is indispensable for research (see the table established by N. ... H. C. Puech PROSPER (1876-1955), French historian of religions. The son of a farmer, Alfaric was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1900 and taught in the seminaries of Bayeux, Bordeaux, and Albi. Drawn away from the faith by his philosophical and historical studies, he quietly left the church in 1910. In 1918 he defended two doctoral theses and the following year was named professor of the history of religions in the Faculty of Letters at Strasbourg. There he wrote numerous articles on the origins of Christianity; in 1925 he issued a translation of the Gospel according to Saint Mark, accompanied by Examen critique de l'E´vangile selon Marc. ... VA ˆALFÈYA, name given to illustrated books, in particular one by Azraq^, describing various kinds of sexual relationships between men and women. AMÈR SAYYED. See ¿ALÈ AL-A¿LAÚ. H. Horst K¨úAÚÔA, also known as SAYYED ¿ALÈ ¿AÔAMÈ (b. ca. 770/1368-69, d. 830/1427 or 832/1429), an ancestor of the Safavid royal family, the son of Shaikh Sáadr-al-d^n and grandson of Shaikh Sáaf^-al-d^n Ardab^l^. Trustworthy information about him is scarce, since almost all the sources date from the Safavid period and must be suspected of distortion. He succeeded his father in 794/1392 as leader of the Sufi order based at Ardab^l. He had a large following, and like his father was greatly respected, indeed venerated, by people in all walks of life. ... M. U. Memon MÈRZAÚ NUÚR-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD NE¿MAT KHAN, satirist, historian, and Persian poet of Mughal India (d. 1121/1709-10). Both his father, H®ak^m Fathá-al-d^n, and his son, H®ak^m H®a@dòeq Khan, were famous physicians. Born in India, ¿AÚl^ accompanied his father to their ancestral city of Shiraz (according to K¨úoÞgu@, MaÞhad; see Storey, I, p. 589), where he received his early education. He entered government service during the reign of Shah Ôaha@n (1037-68/1628-57). Ansáa@r^ (Fa@rs^ adab, p. ... L. Richter-Bernburg B. ¿ABBAÚS MAÔUÚSÈ ARRAÔAÚNÈ, physician from Fa@rs and author of an Arabic work on medicine (d. 384/994 [?]); probably the most important medical writer between Ra@z^ and Ebn S^na@. Except for his own al-Malak^, the only sources of information are short notices in Ebn al-Qeftá^'s Ekòba@r al-¿olama@÷ f^ akòba@r al-háokama@÷ and Ebn Ab^ Osáaybe¿a's ¿Oyu@n al-anba@÷ f^ táabaqa@t al-atáebba@÷, supplemented by H®a@èè^ K¨al^fa, who mentions the date of his death as given above. The information they furnish can be summarized as follows: ¿Al^ b. ... B. ¿ABDALLAÚH B. SAYF. See ¿ALAWAYH A¿SAR. I. K. Poonawala, E. Kohlberg B. ABÈ T®AÚLEB (b. ca. 600, d. 40/661), cousin and son-in-law of the prophet Moháammad, first Shi¿ite Imam, father of the Imams H®asan and H®osayn by Fa@táema, and fourth caliph (35-40/656-61). D. Pingree B. AH®MAD BALK¨È, ABU÷L-QAÚSEM NUÚR-AL-DÈN, post-3rd/9th century astronomer. Like his more famous fellow townsman, he was known as Abu@ Ma¿Þar. He wrote a Keta@b al-madkòal f^ ¿elm al-aháka@m al-falak^ya (“Book of the introduction to the science of astrological judgments”) in seventy-three chapters (Krause, 450), and a Keta@b al-madkòal f^ ¿elm al-noèu@m (“Book of the introduction to the science of the stars”) in sixty chapters (Krause, 514); there is said to be a Persian translation of the latter. ... ¿A. H®ab^b^ B. ASAD B. H®AÚRET¨ (second half of the 5th/11th cent.), the amir of BadakòÞa@n to whom Na@sáer(-e) K¨osrow dedicated his Ôa@me¿ al-háekmatayn; his titles, as given by Na@sáer K¨osrow, were ¿Ayn-al-dawla wa÷l-d^n, Abu÷l-Ma¿a@l^ Malekza@da Zayn-al-mella, and ˆams-al-d^n al-A¿la@ Fakòr-al-omma, or ˆams-al-a¿a@l^ Mawla@ Am^r-al-mo÷men^n. The local dynasty held sway from soon after the Islamic conquests down to the Timurid period, claiming descent from Alexander the Great (The Book of Marco Polo, tr. ... B. BUÚYA. See ¿EMAÚD-AL-DAWLA. C. E. Bosworth B. FARAÚMARZ, ¿ALAÚ÷-AL-DAWLA or MO÷AYYED-AL-DAWLA ¿AZ˜OD-AL-DÈN B. ABÈ MANS®UÚR FARAÚMARZ B. ¿ALAÚ÷-AL-DAWLA MOH®AMMAD B. DOˆMANZÈAÚR, member of the Deylam^ dynasty of the Kakuyids, d. 488/1095. In the middle years of the 5th/11th century, under ¿Al^'s father, Abu@ Mansáu@r Fara@marz, the Kakuyids of Ôeba@l had lost their former capital of Isfahan to the Saljuq leader T®og@rïl Beg. They had been compensated for this by the grant of the towns of Abarqu@h and especially Yazd, which became the family seat; according to Yazd's local historian, Ôa¿far b. ... B. H®AÚMED KUÚFÈ. See ÙAÚÙ-NAÚMA. C. E. Bosworth B. H®ARB (or ¿Al^ b. ¿Ot¯ma@n b. H®arb), ephemeral Saffarid amir of the so-called “third Saffarid dynasty” (described in the sources as the “molu@k of N^mru@z”); reigned briefly and died in 622/1225. In the early 7th/13th century, S^sta@n, along with all the eastern Islamic lands, seems to have fallen into disorder with the irruption of the Mongols in 614/1217 and after. An additional factor making for instability was the activity of the Isma¿ilis of Qu@hesta@n, the district of Khorasan immediately to the north of S^sta@n; their emissaries in 618/1221 assassinated the Saffarid Amir Yam^n-al-dawla Bahra@mÞa@h. ... B. H®ASAN. See ¿ALÈTIGIN. B. H®OSAÚM-AL-DAWLA ˆAHRÈAÚR. See ¿ALAÚ÷-AL-DAWLA ¿ALÈ. W. Madelung B. AL-H®OSAYN B. ¿ALÈ B. ABÈ T®AÚLEB, ZAYN-AL-¿AÚBEDÈN, the fourth Imam of the Ema@m^ Shi¿ites. His konyas are given as Abu÷l-H®asan, Abu÷l-H®osayn, Abu@ Moháammad, Abu@ Bakr, and Abu@ ¿Abdalla@h. According to most sources, he was born in 38/658-59 in Medina. Other dates mentioned are 33/653-54, 36/656-57, 37/657-58, and 50/670. His mother was a slave variously named GÚaza@la, Sola@fa, Sala@ma, ˆa@hzana@n, ˆa@hba@nu@ya, and otherwise. According to reports of a legendary character, she was a daughter of Yazdegerd, the last Sasanian king of Persia, captured in the Arab conquest; ¿Al^ was thus considered “the son of the two elect” (ebn al-kò^aratayn) among the Arabs and the Persians. ... B. H®OSAYN ANS®AÚRÈ. See ZAYN-AL-DÈN ¿AT®T®AÚR. B. AL-H®OSAYN AL-ˆARÈF AL-MORTAZ˜AÚ. See ¿ALAM-AL-HODAÚ. D. Sourdel B. ¿ÈSAÚ B. DAÚ÷UÚD B. AL-ÔARRAÚH® (245-334/859-946), vizier during the reign of the caliph Moqtader (295-320/908-32). His family was of Persian origin resident in Iraq, and many of its members held posts in ¿Abbasid administration; ¿Al^ himself entered the bureaucracy as a secretary when about twenty years old. In 286/899 he and his uncle Da@÷u@d were appointed respectively head of the western and of the eastern departments of the finance ministry (d^wa@n al-da@r). Conflict with the family of Ebn al-Fora@t culminated in ¿Al^'s involvement in a plot to depose the young caliph Moqtader in favor of ¿Abdalla@h b. ... Ch. Pellat B. ¿ÈSAÚ B. MAÚHAÚN (d. l96/812), officer in the service of the ¿Abbasids. He was commander of the guard under the caliph Mahd^ (158-69/775-85) and entrusted by Ha@d^ (169-70/785-86) with the functions of secretary of the army (though he does not seem to have been háa@èeb at the same time, as reported by ÔahÞ^a@r^, who may have confused háeèa@ba with command of the guard). At first, Ha@ru@n al-RaÞ^d (170-93/786-809) kept Ebn Ma@ha@n near himself; then, disregarding the advice of Yaháya@ b. ... C. E. Bosworth B. MA÷MUÚN, ABU÷L-H®ASAN, second K¨úa@razmÞa@h of the short-lived Ma÷munid dynasty in K¨úa@razm (reigned 387-ca. 399/997-ca. 1008-09). He was married to Mahámu@d of GÚazna's sister Kah-Ka@lè^ (¿Otb^, al-Ta÷r^kò al-Yam^n^, with commentary of Shaikh Man^n^, Cairo, 1286/1869, II, p. 151), and the latter was, after his death, taken over by his brother and successor Abu÷l-¿Abba@s Ma÷mu@n in 406/1015-16 (Gard^z^, ed. Nazim, p. 73, ed. H®ab^b^, p. 182; Bayhaq^, p. 668); this marriage link was soon afterwards to provide a convenient casus belli, provoking Mahámu@d's military intervention in K¨úa@razm, the extinction of the indigenous dynasty, and the incorporation of the region within the Ghaznavid empire (see AÚl-e Ma÷mu@n). ... C. E. Bosworth B. MAS¿UÚD I, BAHAÚ÷-AL-DAWLA ABU÷L-H®ASAN, Ghaznavid sultan, reigned ca. 440/1048-49. Mas¿u@d II b. Mawdu@d and then ¿Al^ b. Mas¿u@d I were the two ephemeral successors of Sultan Mawdu@d b. Mas¿u@d I (r. 432-41/1041-50). Little is known about their reigns; many later sources do not even mention their existence. Our main knowledge of ¿Al^'s brief reign derives from Ebn Ba@ba@ Qa@Þa@n^'s 6th/12th century adab work, the Keta@b ra÷s ma@l al-nad^m, from Ju@zèa@n^'s T®abaqa@t, and from FereÞta; these indicate that the dying Mawdu@d appointed his infant son Mas¿u@d as his heir, but he reigned only for a few days before the military commanders and great men of state in GÚazna deposed him and raised to the throne in his stead Mawdu@d's brother ¿Al^. ... B. MOH®AMMAD. See ABU÷L-QAÚSEM ¿ALÈ B. MOH®AMMAD. B. MOH®AMMAD B. ABÈ T®AÚHER. See ABUÚ T®AÚHER. B. MOH®AMMAD B. ¿ALÈ ASTARAÚBAÚDÈ. See ˆARÈF ÔORÔAÚNÈ. M. J. McDermott B. ¿OBAYDALLAÚH B. H®ASAN H®ASKAÚ B. H®OSAYN B. H®ASAN B. H®OSAYN (this last was a brother or a cousin of Shaikh Sáadu@q Moháammad b. ¿Al^ b. H®osayn b. Mu@sa@ b. Ba@bu@ya Qom^), ABU÷L-H®ASAN, called MONTAÔAB-AL-DÈN, a Shi¿ite traditionist and biographer (b. 504/1110-11, d. after 585/1189). He learned traditions in Baghdad, Qazv^n, and Isfahan and finally settled in Ray. His disciple, Shaikh ¿Abd-al-Kar^m Ra@fe¿^ Qazv^n^ (d. 623/1226), whose Keta@b al-tadw^n f^ ta÷r^kò Qazv^n (British Museum ms. ... C. E. Bosworth B. ¿OBAYDALLAÚH S®AÚDEQ, ABU÷L H®ASAN, called by Bayhaq^ and Ebn Ba@ba@ Qa@Þa@n^ ¿ALÈ DAÚYA (probably <day “maternal uncle,” bestowed by the ruler on a servant as a term of endearment or special confidence), Ghaznavid military commander under Sultan Mas¿u@d I b. Mahámu@d. The form of his name indicates a Tajik origin rather than a Turkish one, but nothing is known of his early career, which must have begun under Sultan Mahámu@d. It may be that he was one of the commanders who abandoned Moháammad for Mas¿u@d's side during the succession struggle of 421/1030; but the use of the simple name ¿Al^ or ¿Al^ H®a@èeb in the sources normally refers to ¿Al^ b. ... B. ¿OMAR KAÚTEBÈ QAZVÈNÈ. See NAÔM-AL-DÈN ¿ALÈ. B. ¿OT¨MAÚN B. H®ARB. See ¿ALÈ B. H®ARB. J. M. Smith, Jr. B. OWAYS, Jalayerid prince usually known as ˆa@hza@da Shaikh ¿Al^, one of the five sons of Oways I (r. 575-76/1356-74). In 776/1374 the dying Oways made his son H®osayn co-sovereign (on coins) and heir, condoned the murder of his eldest son, H®asan, and gave ¿Al^ Baghdad. Esma@¿^l, son of Oways' minister, Zakar^ya@÷, and governor of Baghdad, imprisoned ¿Al^'s atabeg and stayed in power until 780/1378-79, when ¿Al^ obtained Esma@¿^l's assassination. Threatened by Sultan H®osayn (whose Baghdad coinage was interrupted in 781/1379-80), ¿Al^'s associates summoned P^r-¿Al^ Ba@dak (Ta@r^kò-e goz^da, pp. ... W. Madelung B. ˆAMS-AL-DÈN B. H®AÚÔÔÈ H®OSAYN LAÚHÈÔÈ, author of the Ta@r^kò-e K¨a@n^. Nothing is known about the author except from his book, which he wrote at the order of Sultan Ahámad Khan, K^a@÷^ ruler of G^la@n (911-43/1505-37), and his vizier Sera@è-al-d^n Qa@sem. The writing began in Moháarram, 921/February, 1515 and was completed in Sáafar, 922/March, 1516. Throughout this time the author accompanied the sultan everywhere. Ahámad Khan supervised his work closely and formally approved each part of it. ... B. ˆOÔAÚ¿-AL-DÈN. See ¿ALAÚ÷-AL-DÈN ¿ALÈ. A. Welch B. SOLT®AÚN-MOH®AMMAD, MÈRZAÚ, a master painter of the early Safavid period. ¿Al^ Ùeleb^, writing in 995/1586, numbers him among the leading masters of the age and singles out his talent as a designer (Mana@qeb-e honarvara@n, ed. Ë. Mahámu@d Kema@l, Istanbul, 1926). As the son of the illustrious painter Soltáa@n Moháammad, he grew up in the keta@b-kòa@na of Shah T®ahma@sp and had access to royal favor and the finest training from an early age (Qa@zμ^ Ahámad, tr., p. 186). He was also connected by family ties with other members of the artistic elite at court. ... M. A. Nayeem B. T®AYFUÚR BEST®AÚMÈ, historian and litterateur at the courts of Sultan ¿Abdalla@h QotábÞa@h (1035-83/1626-72) and his successor Sultan Abu÷l-H®asan (1083-98/1672-86). As a youth he migrated from Bestáa@m in Iran to the Deccan, where he was greatly influenced by the Shi¿ite divine Shaikh Malek Moháammad Ansáa@r^. He lived in Golconda until the fall of the QotábÞa@h^ dynasty in 1098/1686, after which he returned to Iran. He translated four Arabic works into Persian and compiled two independent Persian works. ... B. ZAYD BAYHAQÈ. See BAYHAQÈ, ABU÷L-H®ASAN ¿ALÈ. See ¿ALÈ, K¨úAÚÔA. J. Calmard Imam H®osayn's eldest son, killed at the age of 18, 19, or 25 at the battle of Karbala@ on the day of ¿AÚÞu@ra@ (10 Moháarram 61/10 October 680). According to most historical sources, ¿Al^ Akbar was the first of the Talebites to go out to the battle-field and be killed (T®abar^, II, pp. 356ff.; D^navar^, al-Akòba@r al-táewa@l, Cairo, 1330/1912, p. 254; Mof^d, al-ErÞa@d, K. A. Nizami H®OSAYNÈ ARDESTAÚNÈ, Indo-Muslim tadòkera writer, remembered solely for his unpublished Maèma¿ al-awl^a@÷, an encyclopedia of Sufi saints compiled in 1043/1633-34 and dedicated to the Mughal emperor Shah Ôaha@n (1037-68/1628-58). Its twelve chapters recount approximately 1,500 lives, beginning with the companions of the Prophet and covering members of the main mystic orders (sala@sel) and their offshoots; thirty-six of the saints are poets and thirty-eight women. The introduction includes a list of authorities consulted and definitions of Sufi technical terms, such as wala@yat, qotáb, g@awt¯, and abda@l; a conclusion discusses the first four caliphs. ... (9th-10th/15th-16th Cent.), author of the Persian K¨etáa@y-na@ma or “Book of Cathay,” i.e., of China. Although his surname suggests that he was a native of China, he writes as if it were a foreign land, so it is likely that the name was given to him after the appearance of his book. Also incorrect is the description of him (ËA I, p. 318) as an Ottoman explorer. In his preface to the K¨etáa@y-na@ma (Süleymaniye Library, E¶ir Pa¶a, 249, fol. 3B) he mentions the names of Ottoman authorities in the manner of a visitor, thus showing that he had not been sent by the Ottoman government; nor is the book a travel report (s^a@háat-na@ma), since it gives no indications of the author's routes. ... M. Momen H®AÚÔÔÈ MOLLAÚ known as H®a@èè AÚkòund, a prominent Iranian Baha@÷^. Born in ˆahm^rza@d in 1258/1842, he was the son of Molla@@ ¿Abba@s; he pursued a formal religious education in MaÞhad, wher |