Hu@Þang A¿lam (Pers. kalam) Brassica oleracea L. vars. The word kalam (and its obsolete variant karam; see below) seems to be cognate with Greek kra‚mbe@, from which comes Arabic karanb/koronb (see Maimonides p. 92 n.; see also Kend^, p. 326 n. 262, where Levey refers also to Skt. karambha@ on the authority of Löw, I, p. 482; see also Mayrhofer, Dictionary I, p. 165). C. Edmund Bosworth (Ar. ˆa@Þ), the name of a district and of a town in medieval Transoxania; the name of the town was gradually supplanted by that of Tashkent (q.v.) from late Saljuq and Mongol times onwards. D. N. MacLean Persian translation of an early anonymous Arabic history of Sind compiled at Aro@r in the 3rd/9th century; it was translated some time after the year 613/1216 by ¿Al^ b. H®a@med b. Ab^ Bakr Ku@f^, an Arab scholar residing at the court of Qaba@±a (d. 625/1227) in northern Sind. For subsequent Indo-Persian historians the Ùa±-na@ma has been the major source for the history of pre-Islamic and Arab Sind. It comprises an account of the pre-Islamic Buddhist and Brahman dynasties (ed. Da@÷u@dpo@ta, pp. ... Kamran Eqbal Sir John (b. Silverdale, Staffordshire, England, 7 September 1877, d. Bletchley, Buckinghamshire, 31 May 1941), named first Baron Cadman of Silverdale in 1937, director and later chairman of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC) during the reign of Rezμa@ Shah (1344-60 = 1304-20 ˆ./1925-41). Cadman studied mining engineering at Durham University; his interest in oil was inspired by a stay in the British colony of Trinidad (1904-08), where he participated in development of a petroleum industry. He returned to England as a member of the Royal Commission on Mines in 1908, the year in which oil was first struck in Persia, at Masjed-e Solayma@n. ... Jean-Pierre Digard (or ±a@dar) “tent,” a portable dwelling characteristic of certain nomad groups. It consists of a canopy of cloth or skin supported by upright posts and anchored to the ground by means of pegs and ropes. The word ±a@dor refers to both the canopy and to the entire tent. Bijan Gheiby, James R. Russell, Hamid Algar a loose female garment covering the body, sometimes also the face. The etymology of the word is unknown; connection with Indian chattra “parasol” is uncertain (cf. ùatr). Rüdiger Schmitt (Lat.; Gk. Kadou‚sioi), an Iranian tribe settled between the Caspian and the Black seas according to Stephan of Byzantium and on the southwestern shore of the Caspian and south of the Araxes (Aras) between the Albani in the north and the Mardi in the east according to Strabo (11.6.1; 7.1), i.e., in the mountainous northern part of Media around the Parachoatras Range (cf. Ptolemy, 6.2.2: an enumeration of place names; and 5). It is mentioned together with the Gelae (Pliny, Natural History 6.46, erroneously refers to the “Gaeli, whom the Greeks called Cadusii”), Amardi, Vitii, Anariacae, and others (Strabo, 11. ... Ahámad Tafazμzμol^ È DAÚITÈ (or Da@itya@), lit. “summit of the law” (cf. Av. da@itiia- “lawful”), a peak of the mythical mountain Harburz (Pers. Alborz, q.v.), located in EÚra@nwe@è (q.v.) in the middle of the world (BundahiÞn , TD2, pp. 77.13-14, 199.3f., tr. Anklesaria, pp. 94-95, 256-57; Pahlavi Rivayat, ed. Dhabhar, p. 166.8; Da@dista@n ^ de@n^g, pt. 1.21.2; Persian Rivayats, ed. Unvala, II, p. 17). The various spellings of Da@it^ (d÷yty[y], -ydy, -yk, or -y÷) suggest an Avestan loanword (for final -k as an indicator of vowel length in words borrowed from Avestan, see Bailey, Zoroastrian Problems, p. ... second son of Ùeng^z Khan (q.v.). See CHAGHATAYIDS. H®osayn ¿Al^ Malla@há the name given to four types of musical instruments. This spelling is found in most dictionaries. Sachs' Real-Lexikon (p. 99) has ±aqa@na, and other forms are also found: ±ag@a@n (Enju@ ˆ^ra@z^, II, p. 1425; Borha@n-e qa@táe¿ ed. Mo¿^n, II, p. 643), ±ag@ana (ibid., p. 646), and ±ag@ba (Dehkòoda@, s.v.); in Arabic jag@a@na or jafa@na (Ebn ¿Ema@d, V, p. 148). The four types are: Moháammad Dab^rs^a@q^ T®AÚHER b. Abi÷l-¿Abba@s Fazμl b. Ab^ Bakr Moháammad b. Ab^ Sa¿d Mozáaffar b. Moháta@j (d. 381/991), prince and poet of the ancient Iranian AÚl-e Moháta@j (q.v.), ruler of Ùag@a@n^a@n (Ùag@a@n K¨oda@t). In a poem by Bad^¿ Balkò^, (or Bada@ye¿^ Balkò^, a poet in his service) his patronymic is given as Abu@ Yaháya@, whereas Gard^z^, in Zayn at-akòba@r (ed. H®ab^b^, p. 168), has given Abu÷l-H®asan. Some tadòkeras also call him Abu÷l-Mozáaffar, which is, however, more likely to have been the patronymic of Fakòr-al-Dawla Ùag@a@n^, who disputed the throne with T®a@her and was probably his cousin (see below). ... Chaghanids. See AÚL-E MOH®TAÚJ. C. Edmund Bosworth (Middle Pers. form Ùag^n^ga@n, Arabic rendering Sáag@a@n^a@n, with the common rendering of Iranian ± as sá; Marquart's speculation [1938, p. 93] of an origin in Mongolian ±agan “white” is baseless; attested in Sogdian writing as c©÷ny [Henning, pp. 8-9]), a district of medieval Islamic Transoxania substantially comprising the basin of the right-bank affluent of the Oxus, the Ùag@a@nru@d (q.v.), the modern Qaratag@ and Sorkòa@n Darya@ rivers, hence now falling mainly within the Uzbek SSR of the Soviet Union. ... C. Edmund Bosworth (Ùag@a@n^ru@d in Farrokò^, the seventh and last right-bank tributary of the Oxus or Amu Darya (q.v.), rising in what in medieval Islamic times were known as the Bottama@n mountains and flowing southwards through the principality of Ùag@a@n^a@n (q.v.) into the Oxus just above the important crossing-point of Termedò (modern Termez). Hence it flows from what is now the Gissarski (from H®esáa@r) Khrebet on the borders of the Tajik and Uzbek SSRs but has the greater part of its course in the Surkhandar'inskaya oblast of the easternmost part of the Uzbek SSR; its upper course is now known as the Qaratag@ Darya@ and its lower one (below Denau, from Deh-e Now, the medieval Ùag@a@n^a@n town) as the Sorkòa@n Darya@. ... See CHAGHATAY. Daniel Balland principal town and administrative capital of the province of GÚo@r (q.v.), in the mountains of central Afghanistan. Until the mid-14th/20th century the spellings Ùaq±ara@n and Ùakò±ara@n were also current, but Ùag@±ara@n is the prevailing usage today. The name has been attested since the 10th/16th century (Beveridge, p. 308). It originally designated an entire section of the upper Har^ru@d basin. At the end of the 13th/19th century the district (háoku@mat) of Ùag@±ara@n extended from Dawlatya@r, about 60 km upstream from the present town, to AÚhangara@n, about 20 km downstream. ... C. Edmund Bosworth BEG DAÚWUÚD b. M^kòa@÷^l b. Salju@q, Abu@ Solayma@n (b. in the 380s/990s, d. 452/1060), a member of the Saljuqs, the leading family of the Oghuz Turks, who with his brother T®og@rel (T®og@rïl) Beg (q.v.) founded the Great Saljuq dynasty in Persia in the 5th/11th century. All the subsequent rulers of this dynasty, as well as those of the Saljuqs of Kerma@n (descendents of Qa@vord b. Ùag@r^) and of Syria (descendents of TotoÞ b. Alp Arsla@n), derived from him. The name Ùag@r^ (Ùag@rï) is Turkish and literally means “small falcon, merlin” (Clauson, p. ... (Ùag@rï) KHAN ¿ALÈ. See QARAKHANIDS. Marcel Bazin well. Together with the well-known qana@t (subterranean water canals), wells (±a@h) play a great part in the mobilization of the groundwater resources of Persia (Issar, Kardava@n^). Beside the traditional man-operated and animal-operated wells, the multiplication of motor-operated deep wells has recently brought important change in many regions. -E NAK¨ˆAB. See MOQANNA¿. See AYMAÚQ. See ÙAHAÚRBAÚGÚ. Pierre Oberling (Dava@l^), or ÙAÚR DOWLÈ, a tribe of western Iran. According to tribal legend the Ùaha@r Dowl^s acquired their name by defeating a force consisting of four other tribes (Bent, p. 92). They are Turkicized Lurs who were transplanted to Fa@rs in pre-Qajar times. AÚqa@ Moháammad Shah Qa@ja@r (q.v.; r. 1193-1212/1779-97) allegedly moved them to the Qazv^n region. Later, ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.) settled them in the valley of the Zarr^naru@d (Jag@atu@ river), from M^a@ndoa@b to ˆa@h^n De` (formerly Sáa@÷^n Qal¿a). ... (Ùa@r) LANG. See BAK¨TÈAÚRÈ TRIBE I. WA BAK¨TÈAÚRÈ, second smallest province (osta@n) of Persia in area (Faraj^ et al., II, p. 533; after Ku@hg^lu@ya wa Boir Ahámad with 14,261 km2, ibid., p. 967), located in the Zagros mountains of southwestern Persia. It covers an area of 14,870 km2 (14,820 km2 acc. to Faraj^ et al., II, p. 533) between 31.14° and 32.47° N and between 49.49° and 51.24° E, bounded by the provinces of Isfahan on the north and east, K¨u@zesta@n on the west, and Ku@hg^lu@ya wa Boir Ahámad on the south. It was formerly included in Isfahan province and comprised the county (Þahresta@n) of ˆahr-e Kord (Razma@ra@, Farhang X, pp. ... GÚola@m-H®osayn Yu@sof^ QAÚLA, Persian prose work written in the 6th/12th century by Abu÷l-H®asan Nezáa@m-al-D^n (or Najm-al-D^n) Ahámad b. ¿Omar b. ¿Al^ Nezáa@m^ ¿Aru@zμ^ Samarqand^, originally entitled Majma¿ al-nawa@der. The authors of Haft eql^m (III, p. 352) and KaÞf al-záonu@n (ed. Yaltkaya and Bilge, pp. 621, 1604) are evidently wrong in considering Majma¿ al-nawa@der as a separate work (see Ùaha@r maqa@la, introd., pp. vii-ix). It consists of four discourses (maqa@las), hence the title, on four different subjects. ... Sharif Husain Qasemi (Four elements), an autobiographical work in prose by the poet and Sufi Abu÷l-Ma¿a@n^ M^rza@ ¿Abd-al-Qa@der B^del (q.v.; 1054-1138/1644-1720), who probably began work on it in 1094/1682 and completed it, according to the concluding chronogram, in 1116/1704 (Koll^ya@t, pp. 301, 588). The book consists of a short preface and four chapters (onsáors), each with a conclusion (kòa@tema). Although throughout the entire work autobiography is mingled with descriptions of B^del's mystical and metaphysical experiences and with approximately 18,000 of his verses (Gol-e ra¿na@, fol. ... David Stronach lit. “four gardens,” a rectangular garden divided by paths or waterways into four symmetrical sections. [This article deals with the origins of the ±aha@rba@g@ in the Achaemenid period. For the Sasanian and Islamic periods see baúgú and ùahaúrbaúgú in the Supplement. See also on individual ±aha@rba@g@s below.] Moháammad Dab^rs^a@q^ -E GARRUÚS, a park no longer in existence in the south of the town of B^ja@r, center of Garru@s Þahresta@n in Persian Kurdistan. Two intersecting avenues divided the park into four sections, hence the name. Roger M. Savory -E ESáFAHAÚN, the name of a broad avenue (maximum width 48 m/52 yards) which was a key feature of the city of Isfahan as replanned by Shah ¿Abba@s I after he had designated the city the new capital of the Safavid state in 1006/1597-98. The name Ùaha@rba@g@ (lit. four gardens) is probably a reference to the four vineyards which the shah is said to have first rented and then purchased in order to secure the necessary right-of-way (Curzon, II, p. 38). The avenue ran for 1,620 yards (Kaempfer, I, p. 173) or 1,751 yards (Le Bruyn, I, p. ... GÚola@m-H®osayn Yu@sof^ -E MAˆHAD. The term ±aha@rba@g@ (commonly contracted to ±a@rba@g@, lit. “four gardens”) must originally have denoted a garden made up of four parts or areas and is evidently due to the Timurid princes who, in the 9th/15th century, created parks or gardens and garden palaces with the name Ùaha@rba@g@, laid out on a pattern of beds, paths, and ditches. See DOBAYTÈ. Hamid Algar the fourteen inerrant or immaculate personages venerated by Twelver Shi¿ites, i.e., the Prophet Moháammad, his daughter Fa@táema, and the twelve imams. The ascription of inerrancy (¿esáma) to the imams is encountered as early as the first half of the 2nd/18th century, and it was soon extended to the prophets. Ebn Ba@bu@ya (d. 381/992), ˆaykò Mof^d (d. 413/1022), and ˆar^f Mortazμa@ (d. 436/1049) successively defined the inerrancy of the Prophet Moháammad and the imams in increasingly stringent form, until the doctrine came to exclude the commission on their part of any sin or inadvertence, either before or after their assumption of office. ... Bruno Nettl the name of one of the twelve dastga@hs (modes) of traditional Persian music in the 14th/20th century, evidently derived from its position among musical scales or the fret locating its fundamental tone or tonic (Malla@há, p. 200). The term was already known in the 9th/15th century, when it evidently referred to a maqa@m (Ar. “key”) of Persian music (e.g., Mara@g@^, p. 70). The maqa@m Ùaha@rga@h in 20th-century Arabic music ordinarily has a scale close to that of a Western major scale; the Turkish makam Çargah is similarly constructed. ... See AÚMOL (AÚMUÚYA). Jean During a genre of traditional rhythmic instrumental music. Its name suggests four (±aha@r) consecutive strokes of the plectrum (mezμra@b) on a string. The use of the plectrum in Persian stringed instruments is based on the opposition between right (ra@st, marked A in modern transcription) and left (±ap, marked V), or between up and down; the classical formulas of Ùaha@rmezμra@b based on this opposition consist of rhythmic patterns (also called pa@ya) performed at a fast tempo with specific combinations of ra@st and ±ap strokes, for example, A A V A A V, which is the pattern covering the widest span of those in common use. ... (usually pronounced Ùa@rÞamba-su@r^), the last Wednesday of the Persian solar year, the eve of which is marked by special customs and rituals, most notably jumping over fire. Variant local names include Gu@l Ùa@rÞamba (Ardab^l) and Gu@la-gu@la Ùa@rÞamba (G^la@n), Kola Ùowa@rÞamba (Kurdistan), Ùowa@rÞama-kol^ (Qorva, near Sanandaj), and Ùa@rÞamba-sorkò^ (Isfahan; Honar^, pp. 20-21, 28; Pu@r-Kar^m^, pp. 15, 19). Some scholars relate the word su@r^ to su@r (feast) and take it to mean “festive” (e. ... Dietrich Huff, Bernard O'Kane Jean During (lit. four-strings), a musical instrument belonging to the family of long-necked lutes. It is a variant of the modern Persian seta@r, which spread to Tajikistan sometimes in the past. Like the Persian, four-stringed seta@r it has two strings plus a doubled bass string in the upper octave. The term ±a@rta@r signifying a musical instrument occurs as early as the 8th/14th century in a poem by Salma@n Sa@vaj^ (Dehkòoda@, s.v. ca@rta@r), and Borha@n-e qa@táe¿ (ed. Mo¿^n, II, p. 609) defines ±arta@r/±a@rta@ra as a four-stringed tanbu@r or roba@b. ... Eckart Ehlers (in Western sources written Chahbar, Charbar, Chobar), name of a town and bay on the Makra@n coast of Persian Baluchistan facing the coast of Oman. The bay is a shallow (6-9 fathoms) semicircular inlet eleven by ten miles in area and accessible only to moderate-sized vessels. It is surrounded by lowlands except at the mouth, about eight miles wide, which is formed by two rocky points, Ra÷s-e Ùa@h-baha@r to the east and Ra÷s-e Ku@hlab (called Ra@s Puzim [Ra÷s Pozem] in Lorimer, IIA, p. 351) to the west, from which walls of rock extend along the shores of the bay for about four miles on each side; on the east side a sandy beach about a mile and a half long separates the rocks from the bay. ... Amir Hassanpour, Juan R. I. Cole a dehesta@n, village, and fortress in Salma@s (ˆa@hpu@r in the Pahlavi period) Þahresta@n in Azerbaijan between K¨úoy and Urmia. The fortress served as the place of imprisonment of the Ba@b. See ÙIˆPIˆ. Ronald E. Emmerick lit. “the song (Skt. ga@tha@) about circumambulating (Skt. pradaksáináa@) a holy place (Skt. caitya),” the title of a Buddhist text, a Khotanese version of which is extant. In this text S´a@riputra, one of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, asks him about the religious merit accruing from walking round a sacred place, usually a monument containing relics of the Buddha (Skt. stu@pa). The original Sanskrit text is no longer extant, but translations into Tibetan (Kanjur, Peking ed., vol. ... Willem Floor (< Middle Pers. ±ak “document”; Ma@daya@n, pt. 1, 73.14, 74.3), legal document, testament, money draft, check. The Middle Persian word gty, gtky, apparently meaning “testament,” is a loanword from Semitic, cf. Babylonian gitátáu, Syriac getátáa, also borrowed in Armenian as ktak, ktakaran (Back, p. 215; Gignoux, p. 22; Henning, p. 41 n. 3; Szemere‚nyi, p. 420). The Arabic form sáakk (plur. sáoku@k) must be a loan from Persian (with regular Ar. sá for Pers. ±) rather than from Aramaic/Syriac. ... Daniel Balland principal town of the large K¨a@Þru@d delta oasis in northeastern S^sta@n. Immediately downstream from the oasis the complex of S^sta@n^ playas begins with a large floodplain covered by a dense halophytic steppe, which provide seasonal pasturage after the spring floods: the aÞka@n (aÞken) of Ùakòa@nsu@r (Maitland, p. 80). Despite the long history of human occupation in the region, attested by abundant archeological remains and the traces of old irrigation networks, the toponym Ùakòa@nsu@r does not appear before the 13th/19th century. ... Mansour Shaki a Middle Persian legal term denoting a widow who at the death of her “authorized” (pa@dixÞa@y^ha@, q.v.) husband without issue was obliged (see ayoúkeún; buúdag) to enter into a levirate marriage (±akar^h) in order to provide him with male offspring (frazand). (The pa@dixÞa@y^ha marriage, as against stu@r^h/±akar^h, is cum manu marito, i.e., the legal union of a husband and wife enjoying the relevant rights and obligations of lawful wedlock.) The institution of ±akar^h was, therefore, a special case of stu@r^h (q. ... Hu@Þang A¿lam, Hu@Þang A¿lam (Mid. Pers. ±ako@k). Ehsan Yarshater (ˆa@l), a village in the Qazv^n province, where the Ùa@li subdialect of Southern Tati is spoken. Jens Kröger (Ùa@l Tarkòa@n-¿EÞqa@ba@d), a site about 20 km southeast of Ray with remains from the late Sasanian and early Islamic periods. In the 1920s clandestine excavations first brought to light a group of carved stuccoes said to come from the site, which was then called Ùaha@r Tarkòa@n or Ùa@l Tarkòa@n. Ùa@l Tarkòa@n-¿EÞqa@ba@d was partly excavated in 1936 by the Ray Expedition under the direction of Erich F. Schmidt; George C. Miles, who was a member of the expedition, incorporated the excavated coins with Ray mint marks into his The Numismatic History of Rayy. ... See ÙELEBÈ. Pierre Oberling a Turkicized tribe dwelling, for the most part, in the dehesta@n of Garma@du@z in Arasba@ra@n (q.v., formerly Qara@jada@g@) region of northern Azerbaijan. Its summer pastures are around H®u@rmoga@n (dehesta@n of Kaleybar), half-way between Ahar and the Aras river; its winter pastures are around K¨a@nba@g@^ (dehesta@n of Garma@du@z), some 40 kilometers northeast of Kaleybar (Oberling, pp. 65-66). But today nearly all the Ùalab^a@nlu@s are sedentary. According to Lady Sheil (p. 396), in 1849 the tribe comprised 1,500 “tents and houses. ... Michael J. McCaffrey battle of, an engagement fought near K¨úoy in northwestern Azerbaijan on 2 Rajab 920/23 August 1514 resulting in a decisive victory for the Ottoman forces under Sultan Sal^m I (r. 918-26/1512-20) over the Safavids led by Shah Esma@¿^l I (r. 907-30/1501-24). Antonio Panaino, Reza Abdollahy, Daniel Balland, Antonio Panaino See ÙAÚL. Hamid Algar AND THE CALIPHATE, as viewed by the Shi¿ites of Persia. Ernst Badian PEACE OF, peace made by Xerxes and/or Artaxerxes I (qq.v.) with Athens and her confederacy in the 5th century b.c. The stele recording it, destroyed in the Peloponnesian War, seems to have been reengraved and set up in Athens after the King's Peace (q.v.) imposed by the king on the Greeks of Europe in 387/6 b.c., to which it henceforth provided a glorious contrast. It is frequently mentioned in Greek and Latin literature, from Plato (Menexenus 241d f.) and Isocrates (first 4.118ff.) to Ammianus Marcellinus (17. ... GÚola@m-H®osayn Yu@sof^ (kòatátáa@tá^, kòúoÞnev^s^). Marie Louise Chaumont the name of a Greek historian of the period of Alexander the Great (q.v.). A History of Alexander of romantic and legendary character has been incorrectly ascribed to Callisthenes. It is now commonly referred to as “Pseudo Callisthenes” or the Alexander Romance. Bernard Hourcade , a small town in western Ma@zandara@n (Þahresta@n of NowÞahr, bakòÞ of Ùa@lu@s) located about 8 km from the Caspian coast at an elevation of 7 m. Its population was estimated at 29,000 in 1363 ˆ./1984 (Markaz-e AÚma@r-Èra@n, p. 49). The name of the bakòÞ of Ùa@lu@s, Kala@rosta@q, was formerly applied to the entire land on the west bank of the Ùa@lu@s river, although the town was built in the district of Koju@r on the east bank (Sotu@da, p. 100); it had four sections: Ku@hesta@n, Kala@rdaÞt, B^ru@nbaÞm, and QeÞla@q (Nu@Þ^n, p. ... James R. Russell KHARSHEDJI RUSTAMH (b. 11 November 1831, d. 20 August 1909), Parsi Zoroastrian scholar and community leader. His father Rustamji, who died when Cama was eight, was a China trader; his mother was Manockbai Gazdar. At the age of eight he was married to his first cousin, Awabai (d. 1863), by whom he had two sons, Rustam (b. 1860) and Jehangir (b. 1863); he was remarried in 1865 to Aimae (d. 1895), by whom he had seven children. M. F. Kanga, Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa (K. R. Cama Oriental Institute), a research institute in Bombay established in memory of the Parsi orientalist, teacher, and social reformer Kharshedji Rustomji Cama (q.v.), inaugurated 18 December 1916. A. Shapur Shahbazi Latin form of Old Persian Kamba(n)da (spelled ka-ba-da; Elamite ka-um-pan-tas; Babylonian URUka-am-pa-da-÷; Aramaic hánbn), the name of a region (dahya@uÞ) in ancient Media and present Persian Kurdistan. An older theory that the name derives from Elamite Hamban, a tribe living in a tributary basin on the left bank of the Upper D^a@la, has now been abandoned (see bèt hamban). The B^sotu@n (Behistun) inscription of Darius I implies that in the Achaemenid period Kambada controlled the Zagros road linking Mesopotamia with the Iranian lands (DB 2. ... Hubert S. G. Darke OF IRAN, a survey of the history and historical geography of the land which is present-day Iran, as well as other territories inhabited by peoples of Iranian descent, from prehistoric times up to the present in seven volumes (vol. III being a double volume), of which the first volume was published in 1968 and the last in 1989. Marie Louise Chaumont (Latin form of Gk. Kambyse@ne@), name of a region mentioned for the first time in Strabo's Geography as one of the northernmost provinces of Armenia, bordering on the Caucasus mountains (11.14.4), and also as a rugged and waterless region through which a road connecting Albania and Iberia passed (Strabo, 11.4.5; cf. 11.3.5; see also Fabricius, pp. 146, 160, and map; Trever, p. 113 and map). The Greek form of the name must have been derived in the Hellenistic period from an indigenous name, corresponding to Armenian K¿ambe@±an, with the common ending -e@ne@. ... Muhammad A. Dandamayev (OPers. Kambu@èiya-, Elamite Kanbuziya, Akkadian Kambuziya, Aram. Knbwzy), the name of two kings of the Achaemenid dynasty. According to some scholars (e.g., Hüsing, pp. 320-22; cf. Frye, p. 87), the name was originally Elamite. Others connect it with Kamboja-, the name of an Iranian people who lived in northwest India (Charpentier; cf. AirWb., col. 437). The latter etymology has been substantiated in detail by V. I. Abaev (pp. 266-68; cf. Eilers, p. 210; Herzfeld, pp. 344-46; Harmatta, pp. 6-7; Iranisches Personennamenbuch I/2, p. ... Abdollah Mardukh (Kurdish ±am “river” and Ùama@l/Jama@l, personal name; in the sources also written Jamjama@l), a fertile dehesta@n of Sáahána bakòÞ in Kerma@nÞa@ha@n (Ba@kòtara@n) province located to the south and west of Sáahána on the Kerma@nÞa@h-Hamada@n road and watered by Ga@ma@sb and D^navar rivers. The main products are grain, cereals, sugar beet, opium, and tobacco. Rice is produced in the villages on the D^navar river. Dairy products are also important. The population belongs mainly to the Kalhor, Ardala@n, and Zangana tribes, they speak So@ra@n^ Kurdish, and their religion is Twelver Shi¿ism. ... Richard W. Bulliet, Moháammad-Na@s®er GÚola@mrez˜a÷^, Eqba@l Yag@ma@÷^, Mahmoud Omidsalar Þotor. Hu@Þang A¿lam (Alhagi Adans. spp.), common name for wild thorny suffrutescent plants of the Papilionaceae family, called Þotor-kòa@r and kòa@r-e Þotor (lit. “camel's thorn”) in Persian. Gernot L. Windfuhr GEORGE GLENN, philologist and historian, b. 30 July 1905 in Washington, Pennsylvania, d. 14 September 1979 in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Cameron received the A.B. degree from Muskingum College in New Concord, Ohio, in 1927. After two years as a high-school teacher and principal he took A.M. and Ph.D. degrees from The University of Chicago in 1930 and 1932 respectively. Kamran Ekbal JOHN (1799-1870), British envoy to Persia, 1830-35. While a captain in the 2nd Madras Light Cavalry, Campbell joined the Persian mission of John Kinneir MacDonald as second secretary in 1826. During the second Russo-Persian war (1826-28) he functioned as liaison officer between MacDonald and the crown prince ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (1203-49/1789-1833; q.v.), who led the Iranian army, and helped to arrange peace negotiations with Russia (India Office Library, extracts from Campbell's diary, included in “MacDonald to Secret Committee, Tabreez, October 1827”; and Campbell's report on his negotiations at the Russian camp of ¿Abba@sa@ba@d, included in “MacDonald to Swinton, Tassooch 1 November 1827,” L/P & S 41). ... Hu@Þang A¿lam (NPers. ka@fu@r; Mid. Pers. ka@pu@r, perhaps directly from Malay ka@pu@r; but cf. Sogd. kpwr “camphor” < Prakrit kappu@ra-, Sims-Williams, p. 137, suggesting the parallel Middle Pers. derivation kappu@r > ka@pu@r; cf. Skt. karpu@ra; cf. Mayrhofer, Dictionary I, p. 175), a strong-smelling volatile white solid essential oil obtained from two genera of the camphor tree and used from ancient times in Persia as an aromatic with antiseptic and insect-repelling properties. The medicinal virtues of camphor were discovered later in the Islamic period. ... Alan V. Williams (or Ùinamru@s; Me@no@g ^ xrad, chap. 61.11), a mythical bird that in the Pahlavi books, of all birds of land and sky, is second only to the Se@n bird (Av. sae@na-m™r™©a-, Mid. Pers. se@n murw, Pers. s^morg@, q.v.) in worth, for “whoever performs a great deed, his worth is great” (BundahiÞn, TD2, p. 122.4-5; tr. Anklesaria, chap. XVII A, pp. 156f.). Ùamru@Þ's deed is to have completed the work of the Se@n bird, which sits on the “tree opposed to harm,” also known as “tree of all seeds. ... See ÙANDRA BHAÚN BARAHMAN. Mahmoud Omidsalar, J. T. P. De Bruijn (Pers.-Ar. Þam¿). The Arabic word (Ar. also Þama¿) literally means “beeswax” (Ebn Manzáu@r; Dehkòoda@), for which Persian uses mu@m (Dehkòoda@, Mo÷^n, s.v.). Linda Komaroff From the late 6th/12th through the early 10th/16th century the candlestick was one of the most common types of implement produced as a luxury metalware in Iran. Fabricated of bronze or brass, cast or raised from sheet, and inlaid with precious metal or tinned over to produce a silvery surface, the form, decoration, and epigraphic program of these illuminating devices reflect contemporary trends in Iranian metalwork. Despite variations in size, technique, form, and decoration, the candlestick is generally composed of a hollow, upward-tapering base, with a clearly articulated shoulder, from the top of which rises the socket and cylindrical candle-holder. ... Sharif Husain Qa@sem^ (or Ùandarbha@n) BARAHMAN, Indian poet and writer in Persian (b. Lahore, date unknown, d. Lahore 1073/1662-63; Fa@ru@q^, 1967a, p. 79) of a family of Brahmins (hence his pen name Barahman). His father, Dharam Das, was a government official (Ùaha@r ±aman, fol. 99). Barahman was probably the first gifted Hindu poet and writer in Persian, a product of the Indo-Persian culture that flourished under the Mughals. He knew Hindi (Ùaha@r ±aman, fols. 177-78) and may have studied Sanskrit. He mastered most of the standard works of Persian language and literature under the tutelage of ¿Abd-al-H®ak^m S^a@lkot^ (d. ... Sharif Husain Qasemi (La@l) ˆAÚDAÚN, Maharaja, statesman and poet in Persian and Urdu (b. 1175/1761-62, d. 7 Rab^¿ II 1261/15 April 1845 at Hyderabad). He was the son of Raey Nara@en Da@s, who came from Rai Bareilly (Nassa@kò, p. 237), and belonged to a famous family of Khatris (a Hindu caste) who served the Mughal court in India for a long time and included Ra@ja Todar Mal (d. 997/1589), the famous minister of Akbar the Great (Qa@der^, p. 750; MonÞ^, p. 2). ˆa@da@n had a chequered career. He entered the government service as a clerk of the vegetable market. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (Gk. ka‚ndys), name probably of Iranian origin used by Greek authors for a Persian garment; the name may be reconstructed as Old Persian *kandu- (beside Median *kanzu-ka-, in Elamite kan-su-ka, Parthian qnjwg, etc., “cloak”; cf. M. Schwartz apud I. Gershevitch, TPS, 1979, p. 149 n. 37) or as Old Persian *kantu- (lit. “covering” from *kan- “to cover” [H. W. Bailey apud G. Thompson, Iran 3, 1965, p. 122 n. 13] or from *kam- “idem” [O. Szemere‚nyi, Stud. ... H®osayn-¿Al^ Malla@há “harp”(Pahl. ±ang, mentioned in Xusro@ ^ Kawa@da@n ud re@dag, pars. 62-63), a musical instrument of the free-stringed family. According to Schaeffner (p. 128) the harp stems from the bowstring used by hunters and warriors in prehistoric times. The string or gut fastened onto the hollow cane of the hunter's bow vibrates when pulled, causing the cane to resonate. The oldest known harps are arched like a bow with a sound box added to the lower end. The oldest record of an arched harp in Persia is an engraving on a seal datable to 3400 b. ... Ûa@la AÚmu@zga@r a narrative work in Persian verse by ZartoÞt or Zara@toÞt, son of Bahra@m-e Pa`du@ (q.v.), a poet of the 7th/13th century. The work consists of 600 distichs (excluding the final passage) in the hazaj meter, 345 of which contain praises of God and the prophet ZardoÞt, a statement of the poet's reasons for writing, and a mention of his patron. The work ends with a lengthy passage in verse about the stories of Alexander and the Sasanian king ArdaÞ^r I. Antonio Panaino FRANCESCO ADOLFO (b. Messina, 13 July 1867; d. Rome, 24 April 1914), Italian autodidact of Oriental languages and translator of the Vide@vda@d. In 1887 he entered the University of Rome, where he divided his time between the study of law and pursuit of his philological and orientalist interests (attending a course in Sanskrit with Professor A. De Gubernatis) until 1893. In 1894 he received a degree in jurisprudence from the University of Catania. Although deeply involved in civic and political affairs (on the socialist side), he devoted considerable energy to the study of the Avesta, particularly the Vide@vda@d, which he translated almost completely in 1907 and 1908. ... Willem Floor “print, printing,” a Persian word probably derived from Hindi cha@pna@, “to print” (see Turner, no. 4994; cf. the terms ±ha@pa, ±ha@pagar^ [sic] used by Abu@ T®a@leb, p. 212). When printing with type was first introduced in Persia in the early 11th/17th century the Turkish term ba@sma (q.v.) “to stamp” was used. Although this term remained current, both ±a@p and the Arabic táab¿ and their derivatives gradually became more common in Persia. Willem Floor (or ±apar < Turk. ±apmak “to gallop”), post rider. Although the term ±a@pa@r was already used in this sense in the 7th/13th century (Ebn B^b^, 680/1281; cf. Köprülü, pp. 28-31), it was only in the 10th/16th century, under Safavid rule, that it became current in Persia, replacing the equivalent eastern Turkish term ^l±^ (q.v.; Doerfer, III, p. 12). A. Shapur Shahbazi, C. Edmund Bosworth Wolfram Kleiss in architectural terminology transitional elements between weight-bearing supports (see columns) and the roofs or vaults supported (Wasmuths Lexikon, p. 320). The development of the capital began in Assyria, when a tree trunk was inserted in the earth with another trunk or branch laid in the fork to carry the roof construction (Figure 57a). From this forked grip the transverse beam soon developed; in the course of time it came to be worked and richly decorated (Figure 57b-c). This ancient building technique is still widespread in rural construction in Iran; the trunks (columns) stand on stone bases, which are worked to a greater or lesser degree. ... Michael Weiskopf Anatolian Achaemenid satrapy, Hellenistic-era Iranian kingdom, and imperial Roman province. The Old Persian name of the satrapy was Katpatuka; the Sasanian inscriptions have Middle Persian kpwtky÷y/kpwtkyd÷y, Parthian kpwtky÷. In Greek sources we find the Cappadocians called Leukosurioi or Surioi (e.g., Herodotus, 3.90, 5.49.6, 7.72; Strabo, Geography 12.542, 544), a practice which probably reflects the imprecise western perception of regions some distance from mainland Greece. Francis Richard IN PERSIA. The mission of the Capuchins in Persia began with the arrival of two French monks, Father Gabriel of Paris (ca. 1595-1641) and Father Pacifique of Provins (1588-1648), at Isfahan late in 1628. It was to last for more than a hundred years. The two monks were sent out by their superiors and by the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide of Rome. The Capuchins were mendicant (i.e., propertyless) friars of a reconstituted branch of the Franciscan order. In France at that time the Capuchin order was in vigorous growth, and its religious and charitable ideals were attracting many young men of the nobility and bourgeoisie. ... G. A. Pugachenkova (lit. “four Bakrs,” possibly referring to descendants of Abu@ Bakr Ahámad b. Sa¿d, d. 360/970, who are buried there), family necropolis of the powerful Ju@yba@ri shaikhs (see bukhara iii) near the village of Sumitan (Samtin), about 5 km outside the ˆ^rgara@n Gate of Bukhara. It grew up around the venerated tomb of Abu@ Bakr, to whom these shaikhs traced their genealogy. In the l6th century the tomb was under the care of the influential K¨úa@ja Moháammad Esla@m, head of the K¨úa@jag^ order of NaqÞband^ shaikhs and a supporter of the Shaibanid ¿Abd-Alla@h Khan (q. ... Hu@Þang A¿lam (Felis caracal Schreber = Lynx caracal, Caracal caracal), also called “desert lynx” or “Persian lynx”; in Persian, s^a@hgu@Þ, lit. “black-eared,” so called because the back of its long, tufted, black-tipped ears is distinctively black (the name caracal itself comes—ultimately—from Turkish qara-qu@la@q/kara-ku@la@k, lit. “black-ear(ed),” as a calque of the Persian name). Erich Kettenhofen the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, known as Caracalla (Caracallus in Historia Augusta 9.7ff.) because of his hooded robe, b. a.d. 4 April 188, d. April 217, who conducted a campaign against the Parthians. The most important source on his career is Cassius Dio's Roman History, of which only the last two cited passages (79.3.1, 79.4.1) are from his Greek original, however (best edition: U. P. Boissevain, Cassii Dionis Cocceiani Historiarum Romanarum quae Supersunt III, Berlin, 1901, including the quotations in the 5th- and 6th-century Valesiana Excerpta [p. ... Ronald E. Emmerick the name of an Indian physician associated with one of the major works on Indian medicine (the Carakasam®hita@), as well as the name of King Kanisáka's physician according to the Chinese version of the Buddhist text Su@tra@lam®ka@ra. It has been suggested that this Caraka was the same person as the redactor of the Carakasam®hita@. The Carakasam®hita@ is Caraka's revision of an earlier work, the Agnive‚satantra. For a full discussion of the evidence for the identification of Kanisáka's physician with the author of the Carakasam®hita@ see G. ... GÚola@m-H®osayn Yu@sof^ (commonly pronounced Ùarand o parand), literally “fiddle-faddle,” the title of satirical pieces of social and political criticism in the form of short narratives, brief announcements, telegrams, news reports, etc., by ¿Al^-Akbar Dehkòoda@ (b. 1297/1879, d. 1334 ˆ./1956) published in the weekly paper Sáu@r-e Esra@f^l (q.v.; Tehran) from 17 Rab^¿ II 1325 to 20 Joma@da@ I 1326 (30 May 1907-20 June 1908) in 32 issues and again from 1 Moháarram 1327 to 15 Sáafar 1327 (23 January 1909-8 March 1909) in 3 issues of the paper's new edition prepared by Dehkòoda@ in Yverdon, Switzerland, and published in Paris, and in the newspaper Èra@n-e konu@n^ from the fourth issue on. ... Bert G. Fragner (Pers. ka@r(a)va@n, Mid. Pers. ka@rwa@n in Narseh's inscription at Paikuli, connected with OPers. ka@ra “(group of) people, army”), a form of collective transport of men and goods organized to ensure defense against armed attack, sufficient provisions for both travelers and animals, and adherence to predetermined routes and schedules. In the Near East the most common pack animals were camels (q.v.), but donkeys, mules, horses, and sometimes even oxen were also used; riding animals were also included to provide fresh mounts for the accompanying personnel. ... Moh®ammad-Yu@suf K^a@n^ and Wolfram Kleiss (also Caravansarai, Caravansaray, Pers. ka@rva@n-sara@/-sara@y “lodging for caravans,” from ka@r(a)va@n “caravan” [q.v.] and sara@y “house”; sometimes called kòa@n), a building that served as the inn of the Orient, providing accommodation for commercial, pilgrim, postal, and especially official travelers. The term ka@rva@n-sara@ was commonly used in Iran and is preserved in several place names. Mahdi Roschanzamir (ganjafa-ba@z^, waraq-ba@z^). Card games were invented in China in the 7th-8th centuries and via India were brought to Persia, whence they reached the Arab world and Europe. The Persian game of ganjafa, like chess, spread to the Arab west and was popular around 800 (around 1400) among the Mamluk rulers in Egypt (where it was called kenjafa or kanjefa). From an Arabic chronicle we learn that about 802/1399 an amir paid 2,000 drachmas for a slave, an amount that he had just won in a game called kanjafa (Rosenfeld, p. ... Hu@Þang A¿lam hel in modern Persian (earlier h^l; arabicized as ha@l; from Skt. ela@), the aromatic seeds of several plants of the family Zingiberaceae. See BAÚK¨TAR. Muhammad Dandamayev (Latin form of Greek Kardoûkhoi), warlike tribes that in antiquity occupied the hilly country along the upper Tigris near the Assyrian and Median borders, in present-day western Kurdistan. See BAÚZ. Michael Weiskopf Achaemenid satrapy in the area of southwestern Turkey. Caria was under Achaemenid rule first as a part of the satrapy of Sparda (Lydia; 540s-390s b.c.), then as a separate satrapy (390s-30s b.c.) under the Hecatomnid family. Daniel Balland (also Ùaha@r^ka@r), the main town of Ko@hda@man and the administrative capital of the Afghan province of Parwa@n, located about 63 km north of Kabul. See AÚMOL. Daniel Balland a common toponym all over the Iranian world. The following forms are attested in Iran and Afghanistan: Ùarkò-e B^nal (also known as Ùarkòa@b), a village about 26 km north of Ba@la@ Morg@a@b; Ùarkò-e Falak, a small village in Taba@dka@n district northeast of MaÞhad, a site 5 km east of Balkò (with remains of a stupa), and a tributary valley branching off from the K¨o@st valley on the northern slopes of the central Hindu Kush; Ùarkò Gawak, a village 7 km north of La@Þ Jo@wayn; Ùarkò-e Lo@gar, a large settlement 100 km south of Kabul (see below). ... Na@sáer GÚola@m-Rezμa@÷^ ¨-E ÙAÚH (lit. “well wheel”), also called ±arkò-a@b, du@l-a@b (especially the domestic kind), and ±arkò-e dalw, a device for drawing water from a well or river or for removing soil during the excavation of a well. It is a type of windlass, consisting of a hollow horizontal cylinder around which a rope is coiled or uncoiled to raise or lower a bucket attached to the end. Rods connecting two sets of projecting radial spokes at the ends of the cylinder provide paddles for turning it (Plates cii, civ). ... Beatrice Manz, Masashi Haneda (Cherkes), term used in Persian, Arabic, and Turkic for the Circassian people of the northwest Caucasus who call themselves Adyge¥ and speak a language of the Abazgo-Circassian branch of Caucasian (see caucasian languages). In Persian, however, the word is sometimes applied generally to peoples living beyond Darband/Derbent(Tadòkerat al-molu@k, tr. Minorsky, p. 163 n. 5). Hamid Algar Mawla@na@ Ya¿qu@b b. ¿Ot¯ma@n b. Mahámu@d (d. 851/1447), an early shaikh of the NaqÞband^ order and author of several works in Persian. Born in the Ùarkò area of the Lo@gar district near GÚazna, he studied first in Herat, where he drew a stipendium from the endowments attached to the kòa@naqa@h of K¨úa@ja ¿Abd-Alla@h Ansáa@r^, and then in Cairo, where he was a classmate of K¨úa@ja Zayn-al-D^n K¨úa@f^, founder of the Zayn^ order, and studied under ˆeha@b-al-D^n Sayra@m^. It was the desire to pursue formal learning that, in 782/1380-81, first drew Ùarkò^ to Bukhara, where he earned a license to deliver fatwa@s. ... Willem M. Floor (Av. ±ar™man-, OPers. ±arman-, Khot. tca@rman-, etc.; see Bailey, Dictionary, p. 140), skin, hide, and leather, which have had a variety of uses in Persia (Wulff, pp. 231-32). The earliest known use of the word ±arm in Persian is in the inscription of Darius at B^sotu@n (DB 4.90): “on clay tablets [?] and on parchment [or leather? carma@] it was composed” (Kent, pp. 130, 132). That leather documents were kept in the Achaemenid royal archives is confirmed by a report from Ctesias of Cnidos (apud Diodorus Siculus, 2. ... Rüdiger Schmitt region east of Fa@rs province, approximately equivalent to modern Kerma@n. The Old Persian form (k-r-m-a-n = Kráma@na- or Karma@na-, rendered as Elamite h.kur-ma-na [DSz 32], h.kur-ma-an [see now Hinz and Koch, pp. 525f. s.v.], cf. Mid. Pers. Krm÷n, NPers. Kerma@n [q.v.], Ar. Karma@n, Kerma@n) is attested only once in inscriptions, in DSf 35 (the corresponding passage is missing in DSz), where it is said that sissoo wood, or wood of the jag@ (OPers. yaka@-) tree, was brought from Gandhara and Carmania for Darius's palace at Susa. ... Farhad Daftary (Ar. Qara@metáa; sing. Qarmatá^), the name given to the adherents of a branch of the Isma¿ili movement during the 3rd/9th century. Originally, the term was evidently applied primarily to those Isma¿ilis who had been converted by H®amda@n Qarmatá b. AÞ¿at¯, the chief leader of the Isma¿ili da¿wa in the Sawa@d of Ku@fa and other parts of southern Iraq. H®amda@n succeeded in winning many converts, who were soon designated as the Qara@metáa. H®amda@n's surname Qarmatá, also reported as Qarmatáu@ya (Feraq al-Þ^¿a, p. ... Francis Richard IN PERSIA. In 1604 Pope Clement VIII, with the support of Sigismund III Vasa of Poland, dispatched a mission of Discalced Carmelite fathers (pa@dr^a@n-e [ < Portuguese padre] pa@-berehna-ye ku@h-e Karmel) to Persia; the embassy represented the culmination of a policy of seeking alliances against the Ottoman empire that had been initiated by Pius V when he had attempted to formalize relations with Shah T®ahma@sb (cf. Alonso). These first reformed Carmelites, whose vocation was both contemplative and missionary, had been recruited in Italy in order to evade the control of the king of Portugal, who had a monopoly on missions in Asia; they received a very warm welcome from Shah ¿Abba@s I (996-1038/1588-1629) and were permitted to settle at Isfahan in 1608 under the direction of Father Jean-Thadde‚e de St. ... See CLOTHING TERMINOLOGY. Roger Savory, Jasleen Dhamija, Annette Ittig, Annette Ittig, Sarah B. Sherrill, Karen S. Rubinson, Barbara Schimtz, Eleanor Sims, Daniel Walker, Layla S. Diba, Annette Ittig, Willem M. Floor, P. R. Ford, Siawosch Azadi (qa@l^; Ar. and Pers. farÞ, heavy textiles used as coverings for floors, walls, and other large surfaces, as well as for various kinds of furnishing. Richard E. Wright, Walter Denny A. Shapur Shahbazi (H®arra@n), town in Mesopotamia, where in May 53 b.c. a decisive battle was fought between the Parthians commanded by a member of the Su@re@n (Lat. Surena) family and the Romans under the triumvir M. Licinius Crassus, “without doubt the most celebrated episode of Parthian history” (Bivar, p. 49). Our main source of information on this event is an unknown historian, probably a hellenized Mesopotamian (Tarn, 1951, p. 50, bottom), who witnessed the event and wrote an account used extensively by Plutarch in his “Crassus. ... Hu@Þang A¿lam the taproot of Daucus L. subspp., etc. (family Umbelliferae), traditionally called gazar (arabicized as jazar) or zardak (lit. “the little yellow one”), and later also hav^j in Persian (see below). See BANG; HEMP; ˆAÚHDAÚNA. Richard W. Cottam (1977-81): POLICY TOWARD PERSIA. When the administration of President Jimmy Carter took office in January 1977, United States foreign relations overall were remarkably stable. A modus vivendi had been established with the Soviet Union, and the Soviet-American cold war, the primary source of disturbance of world tranquility, was on what would prove to be a temporary hold. The Middle Eastern region, often a secondary source of disturbance in world affairs, reflected the general tranquility. The decision of President Anwar Sadat of Egypt to shift sides in the cold war and to remove Egypt from the confrontation camp of Arab states facing Israel, was a major reason for producing regional tranquility. ... Fridrik Thordarson Imperator Caesar MARCUS AURELIUS (Augustus), Roman emperor (r. 282-83). A professional soldier, probably from Narbo (Narbona) in southern Gaul (rather than from Narona in Illyricum, a tradition found in Historia Augusta: Vita Cari 4.5), Carus was appointed pretorian prefect in 276 by Emperor Probus. After the murder of Probus by his army at Sirmium in the autumn of 282, Carus was pressed to assume the purple. The main object of his reign was the Persian war which had been prepared by his predecessor. Having defeated the Sarmatians and the Quadi, a Germanic people on the Danube, he marched against the Persians in early 283. ... Ehsan Yarshater village in the mountainous area of the Upper T®a@rom district (bakòÞ) in the Þahresta@n of Zanja@n, at 49° 1' E, 36° 52' N, 42 km north of the district center, S^rda@n (Razma@ra@, Farhang II, p. 78). In 1344 ˆ./1965, when the writer visited the area, Ùarza consisted of thirty-eight households (36 households or 145 souls according to Farhang-e a@ba@d^ha@-ye keÞvar XVI: Osta@n-e G^la@n, p. 15) subsisting mainly from cultivation of cereals and providing animal transport to and from neighboring areas. ... Antonio Panaino LOIS CHARLES (b. Manchester, 14 November 1852, to a Lombard family settled in England; d. Manchester, 18 January 1925), scholar of ancient Iranian languages and religions and particularly of Pahlavi literature. His doctoral dissertation at the University of Louvain, La philosophie religieuse du Mazde‚isme sous les Sassanides (see below) was for its time a remarkable synthesis of knowledge about Sasanian culture. Gernot L. Windfuhr forms and uses, in Iranian languages and dialects. See below. See below. Eckart Ehlers (spring). Although mainly characterized by dry and arid climatic conditions, Iran and Afghanistan, as well as wide parts of Central Asia, have a great variety of natural springs, especially in mountainous areas and along tectonic thrusts. On the whole, springs are of such a variety of forms that it is hard to present a comprehensive and systematic classification. A very general classification divides all springs into (1) those produced by gravity acting on the groundwater and (2) those that have their origins in tectonic volcanic forces within the earth's crust (see aúb-e garm). ... Abbas Alizadeh (-YE) ¿ALÈ, lit. “fountain of ¿Al^,” the name for various natural springs in Iran, the two best-known of which are located near Da@mg@a@n and Ray respectively. Sáa@deq Sajja@d^ ophthalmology. Ebra@h^m ˆaku@rza@da and Mahmoud Omidsalar (lit. “a blow by the eye”), the evil eye (±aÞm also occurs alone with the same meaning; cf. ±aÞm-e bad, ±aÞm-e Þu@r, ±aÞm-e háasu@d “envious eye”; nazáar zadan or ±aÞm zadan “to inflict with the evil eye”; MPers. duÞ±aÞm^h or su@r-±aÞm^h), the supposed power of an individual to cause harm, even illness or death, to another person (or animals and other possessions) merely by looking at him or complimenting him. In classical Arabic and Persian literature the evil eye is sometimes called ¿ayn al-kama@l “the eye of perfection” (Browne, Lit. ... C. Edmund Bosworth literally “taster” (Pers. ±a@Þn^ “taste”), the official who at the court of Turkish dynasties in Iran and elsewhere, from the Saljuq period onwards, had the responsibility of tasting the ruler's food and drink in order to ensure that it was not poisoned. Xavier de Planhol SEA, actually a lake, the largest in the world (estimated surface area in 1986 378,400 km2, volume 78,600 km3; Kasymov, p. 8), located approximately between 37° and 47° N and 46° and 54° E; it is bounded on the south by Persia and on the other three sides by the U.S.S.R. Iranian dialects spoken along the Caspian littoral, including T®a@leÞi, G^lak^, Ma@zandara@ni and related subdialects, and the extinct dialect of T®abaresta@n (qq.v.). John H. Hansman an ancient toponym identifying a ground-level pass that runs east and west through a southern spur of the Alborz Mountains in north central Iran. Rüdiger Schmitt (Gk. Ka‚spioi), name of an ancient people dwelling along the southwestern shore of the Caspian Sea, whether north or south of the river Kura is not clear. The name is not attested in Old Iranian (it may have been *Ka@spiya- or the like); it survives perhaps in the name of Qazv^n ( < *Kaspe@n “the Caspian”?), which lies at the junction of several roads leading into the region through the most easily negotiable pass across the Alborz mountains. The Caspian Sea (he@ Kaspia@ tha‚lassa); the Caspian mountain(s) (taà Ka‚spia o‚re@, i. ... Muhammad Dandamayev wife of Cyrus II (q.v.), an Achaemenian, sister of Otanes and daughter of Pharnaspes. She bore four children: Cambyses II (q.v.), Smerdis (see bardiya), Atossa (q.v.), and an unnamed daughter (see Herodotus, 2.1; 3.2, 3). According to Herodotus (2.1), Cyrus loved her dearly and, when she died, ordered all the subjects of his empire to observe “a great mourning.” There is a report in the chronicle of Nabonidus that, when “the king's wife died,” there was public mourning in Babylonia lasting from 27 Adar to 3 Nisan, that is, 21-26 March 538 (III. ... Hu@Þang A¿lam a genus of shrubs and trees of the family Leguminosae (or Caesalpiniaceae in some classifications). This article deals only with the fruit of the species C. fistula L. ( = Cathartocarpus fistula Pers.), variously called drumstick tree, Indian laburnum, purging cassia, etc. Marie Louise Chaumont Magnus Aurelius (b. ca. 485, d. after a.d. 580), Latin author of three historical works containing material on Iran. Wolfram Kleiss primarily fortified country manors but also permanently inhabited defensive installations, maintained by the authorities along important land routes, and urban citadels, which functioned as administrative centers and places of refuge for inhabitants under siege, particularly in prehistoric and early historic times. The Old Persian word for “castle, fortress” is dida@ (Kent, Old Persian, p. 191). Middle Persian has diz, whence New Persian dez, as well as the archaizing form de`. In New Persian kala@t “(mountain) fortress” (especially in Khorasan) and Arabic qal¿a “castle” are more commonly used. ... Michael Weiskopf a plain east of Sardis, site of the mustering of troops from the satrapy of Sparda (Lydia) during Achaemenid times (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.1.2, 1.9.7, Hellenica 1.4.3; cf. Anabasis 1.2.2-5; Plutarch, Artaxerxes 2; Diodorus, 14.2.8, 19.2.6). The site is attested in Achaemenid times only in connection with Cyrus the Younger's (son of Darius II) appointment as “karanos of those who muster at Castolus.” The practice of a yearly muster was not confined to Sparda, but is attested in other provinces (cf. ... See BEAVER. Lutz Richter-Bernburg (of men; kòasá^ kardan, kòa@ya keÞ^dan, kòúa@ja kardan). This article will focus on a discussion of castration in Islamic medical literature, on its legal status, and on its historical attestation in Islamic Persia (see also eunuchs and, for references to Arabic sources from the ¿Abbasid period, Brunschvig and Pellat). Mahmud Omidsalar IN MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE (Khot. susi; Buddh. So. mwÞkyÞ±h “wild cat,” Man. So. mwÞky±, mwÞkyn±h; Cl. Pers. po@Þak, Pers. gorba, pu@Þak; Pashto p^Þo@; in the local dialects p^Þ^, ma@l^, na@zu@, etc., see, e.g., Christensen, Contributions I, p. 183; II, p. 287). See BIBLIGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES. G. Kreyenbroek treatises for instruction in the fundamental tenets of a religious faith, cast in the form of questions and answers. In this article Zoroastrian catechisms are discussed. For Islamic “catechisms” in Persia see ˆar¿èyaút. Eleanor Sims parasol or umbrella, an attribute of royalty in Iran. The word ±atr, which is borrowed from Sanskrit chattra‚- “parasol, umbrella,” is found in classical Persian literature from Ferdows^ onward. In poetry it is frequently used in metaphors, such as ±atr-e ru@z/nu@r/zarr^n “the parasol of day/light, the golden parasol,” all meaning “sun”; ±atr-e s^ma@b^/s^m^n “the silvery parasol,” meaning “(full) moon”; and ±atr-e ¿ambar^n “the parasol of ambergris,” meaning “the (night) sky, darkness of night” (see Dehkòoda@, s. ... Jean-Pierre Digard, Mary Boyce The word “cattle” has no precise equivalent in Iranian languages, in which bovines are commonly designated by the words for “cow,” “bull,” and “calf,” for instance, Persian ga@v (cow), ga@v-e nar (bull), gu@sa@la (calf), varza@(v) (working ox) and Pashto ©wa@, fem. ©wa@ya. Pierre Thorez, Fridrik Thordarson AND IRAN. The Iranian world is bordered in the northwest by the high mountain barrier of the Caucasus, which separates it from the vast Russian plains beyond. In relief, structure, and ecology the Caucasus constitutes a clear frontier between eastern Europe and western Asia, though it is more closely related to the latter. Located on the peripheries of Persia, Turkey, and Russia, it has been for centuries an arena for political, military, religious, and cultural rivalries and expansionism; the resulting movements have influenced the ethnic composition of the population, which is extremely complex and rich in customs, languages, economic activities, and patterns of land use. ... William W. Malandra AND CAUTOPATES, the two dadophoroi or torch bearers who often flank Mithras in the bull-slaying scene and who are sometimes shown in the birth scenes of Mithras. They are normally shown with Cautes holding an upraised torch, Cautopates with lowered torch. Sometimes they both hold a pedum or shepherd's crook (for complete iconographic details, see Hinnells, pp. 36-67; Campbell, pp. 29-43). The etymology of the two names remains obscure. Apparently Cautopates is a compound containing the same initial element as Cautes. ... Peter Jackson (Ùao, from Chinese ch'ao “paper money, assignat”; Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary, no. 258), paper currency issued in Mongol Iran in 693/1294. The sources are agreed that the experiment was a response to a crisis brought on by soaring government expenditure under the extravagant il-khan Gaikòatu (Gaykòa@tu@; q.v.), though Wasásáa@f adds as a contributory factor the high mortality among livestock caused by yu@t (the freezing-over of previously thawed snow, rendering the pastures inaccessible) in regions as far afield as Iraq and Khorasan. ... See ASB; ASB-SAVAÚRÈ. Xin-jiang Rong OF THE THOUSAND BUDDHAS, Ch'ien Fo Tung (Qianfodong), a large group of grottoes and cave temples carved out of Ming-sha hill in the southeastern Tun-huang (Dunhuang) district of Kansu (Gansu) province, China. Between the 4th and 10th centuries Tun-huang was a gateway between China and the Silk Road across Central Asia (see, e.g., Haussig, pp. 74-75) and was visited by many Iranian travelers, especially Sogdian merchants. There was already a Sogdian presence there in about 312, the generally accepted date of the Sogdian Ancient Letters (q. ... Hu@Þang A¿lam kòa@v^ar in Persian, the processed non-fertilized roe of sturgeons (q.v.) and some other large fishes, highly valued as a gourmet delicacy. According to W. Eilers, the Persian name is the alteration or the variant of Pers. kòa@ya-da@r, lit. “having egg(s),” standing for ma@h^-e kòa@ya-da@r, lit. “egg-bearing fish” (i.e., sturgeon; cf. the current Persian name ma@h^-e kòa@v^ar, applied to any kind of sturgeon), and then, by synecdoche, designating the eggs themselves. GÚola@m-H®osayn Yu@sof^ or ÙAÚVUÚˆ, originally Turkish word (Ka@Þg@a@r^, I, p. 307; Radloff, III, col. 1935; Doerfer, III, pp. 35-38) used in classical Persian texts with the meanings of 1. army commander; 2. master of ceremony or person in charge of the servants; 3. caravan leader; or, more specifically, 4. a guide on the road to Mecca or holy shrines, and who would call on people to take him on as a guide on the pilgrimage. (For the first meaning see: Moháammad b. Monawwar, p. 378; Am^r Mo¿ezz^, p. 305; K¨a@qa@n^, p. ... town mentioned in the Avesta. See ÙARK¨. Daniel Balland and Marcel Bazin “tea” ( < Chi. ch'a; Mathews' Chinese English Dictionary, no. 101 ), shrub of the genus Camellia and beverage made from its leaves, probably the most popular drink throughout the Iranian world. Ahámad Tafazμzμol^ (Av. Ùae@±asta-), a mythical lake in eastern Iran, later identified in the Pahlavi and Persian sources with Lake Urmia (or Kabu@da@n “dark blue lake”) in Azerbaijan (BundahiÞn, TD2, p. 92.2, tr. Anklesaria, pp. 114-15; Nozhat al-qolu@b, ed. Le Strange, pp. 80, 85, 241; Ta@r^kò-e goz^da, ed. A.-H. Nava@÷^, Tehran, 1339 ˆ./1960, p. 90). In the Avesta the lake has the following epithets: “deep,” “created by Mazda,” and “with wide waters” (the last epithet, Av. ... James R. Russell GEORGIUS, twelfth-century Byzantine historian who edited the Synopsis Historio@n of John Skylitze@s (text ed. by I. Bekker, Georgius Cedrenus Ioannis Scylitzae ope, Bonn, 1839). He relates “Of his lineage [i.e., of Ninos, king of Assyria] was also Zo@roastre@s, the notorious astronomer, born amongst the Persians: he prayed to be thunder-stricken by the fire of the air and to be consumed, charging the Persians to pick up his bones after the burning and to guard and honor them. "And as long as you preserve them," says he, "sovereignty over your country will not be usurped. ... GÚola@m-H®osayn Yu@sof^ (Jekel), name of a Turkish people in Central Asia known in Persian poetry for the extraordinary beauty of their youths. The earliest reference to them in Islamic sources is found in H®odu@d al-¿a@lam, which gives a somewhat confused definition of their territory (cf. their location vis-aà-vis the Tokòs, ed. Sotu@da, pp. 81, 83, tr. Minorsky, pp. 98, 99) but describes the people as good-natured (n^k-táab¿), sociable (a@m^zanda), and friendly (mehrba@n). They were mostly nomadic, living in tents and felt hunts (kòarga@h), and breeding cattle, sheep, and horses. ... Pierre Oberling or Ùegan^, a tribe that originated in northwestern Persia but is now scattered in Luristan, the Qazv^n region, and Fa@rs. According to Bedl^s^ (p. 189) and Eskandar Beg (I, p. 141; tr. Savory, I, p. 227); it is a Kurdish tribe. However, O. Mann (p. xxiv) suggested that the name Ùeg^n^ might be related to the term for gypsy, ±inga@na (whence Fr. tsigane, Ger. Zigeuner, etc.) and, interestingly, Rabino (1928, p. 77) points out that the gypsies of Astara@ba@d are often called Chigini. Ingeborg Luschey-Schmeisser ISFAHAN, Safavid royal palace used for coronations and the reception of foreign embassies. It stands in the center of a large garden (formerly ca. 7 ha) extending between the Meyda@n-e ˆa@h and the Ùaha@rba@g@ (q.v.). The layout of these gardens, with three walks shaded by plane trees, dates from the period of Shah ¿Abba@s I (q.v.; 996-1038/1588-1629). According to Engelbert Kaempfer (in Isfahan 1096-97/1684-85), “It is said that, in designing the Ùaha@rba@g@, he ruled the lines with his own hands—in that respect proving himself a legitimate and praiseworthy follower of Cyrus the Great, who, as one can read in Xenophon, considered the designing of gardens as a royal pursuit” (1712, p. ... Nancy H. Dupree KABUL, palace on a small, terraced hill rising at the southern end of a 30-acre walled garden about six miles south of the city center. At the end of the 13th/19th century the garden was confiscated by the amir ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n (1297-1319/1880-1901; see afghanistan x. political history) from Lt. General Parvana Khan (Schinasi, p. 57); according to a commemorative marble plaque at the base of the hill the cornerstone of the palace was laid in 1305/1888, and the palace was completed as a seat for Prince H®ab^b-Alla@h three years later. ... Wolfram Kleiss QAZVÈN, a Safavid pavilion that stands amid gardens in the central meyda@n (square) of the old city and in which the Qazv^n museum is installed. Qazv^n was the capital of Persia between 955/1548, when Shah T®ahma@sb I settled the court there, and 1005/1596-97, when Shah ¿Abba@s I moved it to Isfahan. The Ùehel Sotu@n (lit. “forty columns,” a popular designation that has no meaning in reference to the building) was originally part of the early Safavid palace complex. The only other surviving part of the palace is a free-standing portal structure (¿AÚl^ Qa@pu@), which, owing to its function as police headquarters for Qazv^n, has never been properly photographed or studied. ... Kera@mat-Alla@h Afsar (“the forty dervishes,” popularly called Ùeltan), a minor tak^ya (monastery) situated in the northeastern section of Shiraz, a short distance north of the tomb of H®a@fezá and south of Haft Tana@n (“the seven dervishes”). This area was formerly an open plain known as Mosáalla@, but nowadays all three monuments are surrounded by private houses, public buildings, lanes, and streets. Ùehel Tana@n is a rectangular walled enclosure with a single entrance on the south side. ... GÚola@m-H®osayn Yu@sof^ (forty parrot [stories]), the designation of collections of entertaining stories about the wife of a merchant and a pair of parrots, several versions of which are current in Persia and which are derived from older collections called táu@tá^-na@mas (book of the parrots). Bruce Lincoln (Av. ±iƒra-; OPers. ciça; MPers., Parth. ±ihr). Following Bartholomae most scholars recognize two homographic neuter substantives ±iƒra- in Avestan, one meaning “face, appearance,” which is translated in Pahlavi as payda@g, and another rendered in Pahlavi as to@hmag and denoting “origin, lineage,” as well as “seed,” although the latter sense is attested only in compounds (AirWb., cols. 586-87; differently Duchesne-Guillemin, p. 98 n. 6). A similar distribution is found in the Middle Iranian languages, where one finds Pahlavi ±ihr “form, shape, appearance, face” and “seed, origin; nature, essence” (in the latter sense ±ihr or ±ihrag; MacKenzie, p. ... Nassereddin Parvin (lit. “mirror”), the name of an illustrated Persian newspaper and periodical published in Egypt (1322-1338 ˆ./1904-59, with interruptions), first in Alexandria (vols. 1-2/2) from 15 Moháarram 1322/2 April 1904 to 1 Joma@da@ 1323/3 August 1905, then in Cairo from 10 Ramazμa@n 1323/8 November 1905 to 1316 ˆ./March 1938. Ùehranema@ was published as a periodical from Farvard^n 1317 ˆ./March 1938 to Esfand 1338 ˆ./March 1959. Tahsin Yazici (Ùalab^), ¿AÚREF (670-719/1272-1320), the son of Baha@÷-al-D^n Soltáa@n Walad (q.v.) and the grandson of Mawla@na@ Jala@l-al-D^n Moháammad Ru@m^. His mother was Fa@táema K¨a@tu@n, daughter of Sáala@há-al-D^n Zarku@b, one of Ru@m^'s foremost kòal^fas, and he was born on 8 D¨u÷l-qa¿da 670/7 June 1272. His original name, Fer^du@n, as well as the laqab Jala@l-al-D^n, was given him by his grandfather, who also gave instructions that he was to be known as Am^r ¿AÚref, a designation that came to supplant his original name (Afla@k^, II, p. ... Tahsin Yazici (Ùalab^), FATH®-ALLAÚH ¿AÚREF or ¿AÚref^, 10th/16th-century poet and author of a ˆa@h-na@ma (Solayma@n-na@ma) extolling the Ottoman rulers. All contemporary sources agree that he was of Persian origin, but none furnish reliable information on his exact place of origin or that of his father. Some sources ascribe either to ¿AÚref or to his father an origin in Shiraz or Qazv^n, but this is probably as a result of confusion with the father of Moháy^ GolÞan^ (q.v.), who was also called Fathá-Alla@h and had connections with both cities. ... Mahmoud Omidsalar, Hamid Algar term referring to any forty-day period. Sáog@ra@ Ba@zarga@n a popular Persian dish which consists of cooked rice (±elow; see berenj) and a variety of broiled (kaba@b, see below) mutton or veal (though less popular) and is served with butter, egg yolk, powdered sumac, raw onions, broiled tomatoes, and fresh sweet basil. It is served in the form of a mound with some butter buried inside. Different ±elow-kaba@bs are usually named after the type of kaba@b served with it (for examples see below). The drink traditionally served with ±elow-kaba@b is du@g@, a beverage made with yogurt and water; in the past two decades, however, beverages such as Coca Cola have also become popular. ... Mahmoud Omidsalar (qabresta@n, gu@resta@n) in Persian folklore. Cemeteries are found both inside and outside cities and villages, usually close to a holy shrine, or ema@mza@da, in order to partake of its blessing. Throughout Persian history we are told that the bodies of the dead are brought to their home towns (see, e.g., ˆa@h-na@ma, Moscow, II, pp. 247ff., VI, pp. 313ff.) or to sacred shrines, especially Qom, to be buried. One of the first to be carried to Qom was Moháammad ¿Az^z^ (ca. 3rd/9th cent.), a native of Qom from the line of Imam Ja¿far al-Sáa@deq, who was killed at Nahrawa@n near Baghdad (H®asan Qom^, pp. ... See ESFÈJAÚB. Hu@Þang A¿lam the “Oriental plane (tree),” Platanus orientalis L. (fam. Platanaceae). David O. Morgan (Mong. Chinggis) KHAN, probably born in 562-63/1167 in northeastern Mongolia, the founder of the Mongol empire, the most extensive land empire known to history. For our knowledge of his early life we are dependent on a single Mongolian work, the Secret History of the Mongols, most of which was written probably in 1228 or 1240, within a short time of Ùeng^z Khan's death. This is supplemented by the account in RaÞ^d-al-D^n's Ja@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò, which is based on a lost Mongolian official chronicle, the Altan debter (Golden book). ... Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak (sa@nsu@r) in Persia. Censorship has been exercised in most societies, including Persia, by the religious establishment, by the political authority, and by unofficial groups (see, e.g., Abraham, pp. 634-41; Anastaplo, pp. 634-41; and McKeon, pp. 1082-90). In the Islamic countries good conduct as a manifestation of individual morality was considered central to the ideal of social justice, and the notion of guidance, embodied in the precepts of “ordering good and forbidding evil” (al-amr be÷l-ma¿ru@f wa÷l-nahy ¿an al-monkar; see amr be ma¿ruúf), rested with the person in charge of the affairs of the Moslem community. ... F^ru@z Tawf^q, Daniel Balland (Pers. sar-Þoma@r^) Eir., Richard H. Rowland, Richard N. Frye, C. Edmund Bosworth, Bertold Spuler, Robert D. McChesney, Yuri Bregel, Abbas Amanat, Edward Allworth, Peter B. Golden, Robert D. McChesney, Ian Matley, Ivan M. Steblin-Kamenskij, Gerhard Doerfer, Keith Hitchins, Walter Feldman Gernot L. Windfuhr designation of a number of Iranian dialects spoken in the center of Persia, roughly between Hamada@n, Isfahan, Yazd, and Tehran, that is, the area of ancient Media Major, which constitute the core of the western Iranian dialects. They are most closely related to 1. the band of T®a@leÞi and Tati dialects that stretches from the areas of Vafs and AÚÞt^a@n (TafreÞ) in the northwestern center of Persia to northern Azerbaijan (area of ancient Media Minor) and T®awa@leÞ, and 2. the now largely extinct dialects of the Tehran-Ray area (ancient Raga), and the dialects of Semna@n and surrounding villages to the east of Tehran (area of ancient Qu@mes). ... Mark J. Gasiorowski (CIA) IN PERSIA. Joseph A. Kechichian (CENTO), a mutual defense and economic cooperation pact among Persia, Turkey, and Pakistan, with the participation of the United Kingdom and the United States as associate members. CENTO replaced the Baghdad Pact (q.v.) Organization, after Iraq withdrew from it in Farvard^n 1338 ˆ./March 1959. The pro-Soviet Iraqi “revolutionary” government that was established after the coup d'e‚tat of T^r 1337 ˆ./1958 rejected the “defensive” strategy of the pro-Western Baghdad Pact and accused Britain, the United States, and Turkey of imperialist designs in the Persian Gulf region (Hadley, p. ... Mahmoud Omidsalar lamps (Man. Mid. Pers. cr÷h, Man. Parth. cr÷©, Pahl. ±ira@©, So. cr÷(÷)©, Khot. cärau, etc., see Bailey, Dictionary, p. 103, as well as the etymological speculations in Bailey, 1959, pp. 120-25; loanword in Aramaic Þrg÷, see Telegdi, p. 255). Various kinds of lamps were used in Persia before the introduction of electric light (see barq), some of which are still in use. The simplest and cheapest was the ±era@g@-e mu@Þ^ (lit. “mouse lamp,” so called probably because of its small size and poor light; according to Polak (I, p. ... Sharif Husain Qasemi -E DEHLÈ (b. at Avadh, ca. 675/1276-77; d. at Delhi, 18 Ramazμa@n 757/14 September 1356), the title of Shaikh Nasá^r-al-D^n Mahámu@d, the last of the five great early saints of the Indian ÙeÞt^ order (see ùeÞtèya). He was the son of Shaikh Yaháya@ b. ¿Abd-al-Latá^f Yazd^, a prosperous wool merchant (Kerma@n^, p. 238), who had emigrated from Khorasan to Lahore. Later the family settled down at Avadh. Ùera@g@-e Dehl^ was only nine years old when his father passed away (H®am^d, p. 282), and his mother supervised his education (Kerma@n^, p. ... Roger M. Savory KHAN ZAÚHEDÈ b. Shaikh ˆar^f, a descendant of Shaikh Za@hed G^la@n^ (q.v.), the celebrated morÞed (spiritual director) of Shaikh Sáaf^-al-D^n, the eponymous founder of the Safavid order (Sáafaw^ya); hence Ùera@g@ Khan was also known as P^rza@da (Haneda, p. 196, quoting the K¨ola@sáat al-s^ar of Moháammad Ma¿sáu@m Esáfaha@n^, pp. 109-10). His father had been the motawall^ of the Safavid shrine in Ardab^l, but the ˆaykòa@vand tribe is said not to have held him in much respect (Haneda, p. 196 n. ... Denis M. MacEoin KHAN SERAÚJ-AL-MOLK ZANGANA (d. after 1281/1864-65), a leading government official during the early reign of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah. Originally a prominent member of the Zangana tribe, Ùera@g@-¿Al^ began his government career as a secretary (monÞ^) in the provincial administration of Azerbaijan. He was a member of the Persian delegation at the Erzurum conference of 1259/1843 and on Na@sáer-al-D^n's accession came to Tehran in the entourage of M^rza@ Taq^ Khan Am^r-e Kab^r, the Am^r-e Nezáa@m (q. ... Mahmoud Omidsalar (also ±era@g@a@n, ±era@g@ba@n^, ±era@g@ba@ra@n), the decoration of buildings and open spaces with lights during festivals and on occasions like weddings, coronations, royal birthdays, circumcision ceremonies, and so on. It may have originated in the tradition of lighting large fires to celebrate Nowru@z (new year) and Sada (festival of fire), attested in Persia as early as the 4th/10th century. Ebn al-At¯^r (VIII, pp. 298-99) described the festival of fire in Isfahan in the year 323/935, and NarÞakò^ (p. ... Pierre Oberling or ÙORUÚM, a small tribal confederacy (^l) inhabiting the dehesta@n of Ùera@m, in the Ku@hg^lu@ya region, in southwestern Persia. The residence of its chiefs is at Talgerd, some 50 kilometers northeast of Behbaha@n. Today the Ùera@ms are almost all sedentary. In 1362 ˆ./1983 only 786 families were nomads (ku@±row; AfÞa@r, I, p. 583, citing Sa@zma@n-e Barna@ma o Bu@dja-ye Osta@n-e Ku@hg^lu@ya o Boir Ahámad). In the past their winter quarters were in the Bela@d-e ˆa@pu@r and their summer quarters in the Raven region. ... Robert H. Dyson, Mary M. Voigt, Peder Mortensen, Elizabeth F. Henrickson, Thomas W. Beale, William M. Sumner, Robert C. Henrickson, Elizabeth Carter, Serge Cleuziou, Robert C. Henrickson, Remy Boucharlat and Ernie Haerinck, Remy Boucharlat and Ernie Haerinck, David Whitehouse, Ernst J. Grubs, Yolande Crowe Rüdiger Schmitt (Gk. Khaare@ne@´), in Achaemenid times one of the easternmost Iranian provinces and the one closest to India (Strabo, 15.2.11). It must have been part of Ariana (see aria 2). Arachosia and the mountain ranges of eastern Afghanistan separated it from Aria (not Ariana, as in Strabo, 15.2.11). It may thus have been located in what is now the Pakistani province of Baluchistan (q.v. for map), near modern Quetta, Sibi, or Loralai. In the summer of 325 b.c. Alexander the Great sent Craterus with parts of the army from the river Hydaspes to Carmania via Arachosia and Drangiana (Strabo, 15. ... Gerhard Doerfer LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Peter Jackson name given to the descendants of Ùeng^z Khan's second son Ùag@atai, who reigned in Transoxania until ca. 771/1370 and in parts of Turkestan down to the 11th/17th century. Ùag@atai accompanied his father on his first campaigns against north China and subsequently on the great expedition to the West (616-22/1219-25). According to Jovayn^ (ed. Qazv^n^, I, pp. 31, 226-27), when Ùeng^z Khan allotted an ulus, that is, pasturage and subject peoples, to each of his sons Ùag@atai's share extended from the borders of the Uighur territory as far as Samarkand and Bukhara, and his seasonal residences lay on the river Ili, not far from Almalïg@ (Alma@l^g@/q); though the fiscal administration of his lands was in the hands of civil officials directly responsible to the great khan. ... See AÚL-E AFRAÚSÈAÚB. ERA in Persia. Chalcolithic (< Gk. khalkos “copper” + lithos “stone”) is a term adopted for the Near East early in this century as part of an attempt to refine the framework of cultural developmental “stages” (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages) and used by students of western European prehistory (E. F. Henrickson,1983, pp. 68-79). In Near Eastern archeology it now generally refers to the “evolutionary” interval between two “revolutionary” eras of cultural development: the Neolithic (ca. ... Muhammad Dandamayev (Kaldu), West Semitic tribes of southern Babylonia attested in Assyrian texts from the early 9th century b.c. By the middle of the 8th century they had lost their political and ethnic identity and became a constituent element in the population of Babylonia. Following Berossus, classical authors referred to Babylonians as Chaldeans and also used the name Chaldaioi as a synonym for astrologers and magicians. Ahmad Ashraf OF COMMERCE, INDUSTRIES, AND MINES OF PERSIA (Otáa@q-e ba@zarga@n^ wa sáana@ye¿ wa ma¿a@den-e Èra@n; also called Otáa@q-e Èra@n), a national federation of local chambers and syndicates created in Esfand 1348 ˆ./March 1970 through the merger of various local chambers of commerce and the national chamber of industries and mines of Iran. The purpose was to facilitate the functioning of the ministry of economy in its dealings with big traders and industrialists. The chamber is a legal entity consisting of a representative body (hay÷at-e nama@yandaga@n) which is formally elected by the constituent members (big traders and/or industrialists), and the chamber's board of directors (hay÷at-e ra÷^sa). ... Ahmad Ashraf OF GUILDS (Otáa@q-e asána@f, a federation of various guilds formed in 1350 ˆ./1971 under the “guild-organization act” (Qa@nu@n-e nezáa@m-e sáenf^) in most urban centers. The purposes were to provide a single organization for managing the guilds' affairs, to establish state control over numerous guilds, to collect information and statistics of guild activities, and to use its network as a vehicle to control inflation. Until the early 14th/20th century, though members of each craft in the ba@za@r were organized into a guild (sáenf; see asánaúf), the guilds were not federated on either the local or the national level. ... See H®AÚJEB. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak and Estelle Whelan JOSEPH, ESQ. (b. London?, ca. 1750, d. London?, ca. 1813), English poet and translator of selections from the ˆa@h-na@ma and other Persian poetry. Champion was the son of Joseph Champion, of a Bristol Quaker family, by his second wife (Owen, pp. 38, 40, 41-42); he was thus a younger half-brother of Richard Champion (1743-91), merchant, porcelain manufacturer, and prominent supporter of Edmund Burke. Champion attended Trinity Hall, Cambridge University, for at least a year in 1769-70 and may have remained there until 1773, though there is no record of his having taken a degree (Venn, p. ... Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal an eminent Parsi layman who lived in the 15th-16th centuries a.d. at Navsari in Gujarat. In a passage in the Qesásáa-ye Sanja@n (text in Unvala, ed., II, pp. 352.18-353.11; tr. in Hodivala, pp. 114-16) he is given the traditional Iranian titles of dahyvad (Pahl. dahibed, OIr. dahyupati-), which presumably renders Gujarati desai (approximately “squire”), and da@var “magistrate, judge.” There he is praised for being active in religious matters and very liberal, providing poor Zoroastrians with sacred shirt and girdle (sudra and kusti) and helping them in other ways. ... John Hansman and CHARAX (Spasinou) in pre-Islamic times. Characene is the name Pliny gives for the later region of Mesene (called Me@Þa@n or Me@Þu@n in Middle Persian, Maysa@n/MayÞa@n in Syriac, and Maysa@n in Arabic) in southernmost Mesopotamia, which formed a political district of that name in the Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods. The toponym Characene is derived from the Greek name for its chief city Charax, which was also called Me@Þa@n in Middle Persian, but Karkò Maysa@n in Arabic (see EI1 IV, p. 146, on the various forms of this word). ... A. Shapur Shahbazi town in the Seleucid and Parthian province of Rhagiana, the area around modern Ray. To judge from its Greek name, which probably means palisade, Charax was a fortified town. It was founded by one of the early Seleucids and, according to Ptolemy (Geography 6.5.4), was situated next to Apameia (cf. Ammianus Marcellinus, 23.6.43), the Seleucid name for the city of Rhaga (modern Ray). According to Isidore of Charax, who is our main source, it was one of the five cities of Rhagiana, the chief town being Rhaga, and was located “at the foot of a mountain called Caspius [i. ... Willem Floor (dòog@a@l-e ±u@b, zog@a@l-e ±u@b), carbonized wood and other vegetal material, an important household and industrial fuel in Persia and Afghanistan. John Emerson Sir JOHN (born Paris, 6 Julian = 16 November 1643, died Chiswick, London?, 25 December 1712 Julian = 5 January 1713 (the date of his death is uncertain; he was buried on 29 December 1712 Julian = 9 January 1713], an Huguenot jeweler who traveled extensively in Asia and wrote the most detailed foreign account of the Persia of his time. Rüdiger Schmitt OF MITYLENE (or Mytilene, as in Athenaeus, 7.4; 10.49, and Pliny, Natural History 1.12), Greek historiographer, who participated in Alexander's expedition and wrote “Stories about Alexander” (Perì Ale‚xandron historíai) in ten (or perhaps eleven) books of which only nineteen fragments are now extant in citations and excerpts, mainly in Athenaeus's Deipnosophistai (q.v.) and Plutarch's Alexandros. These fragments, which are generally of little historical interest, have been edited with a commentary by F. ... William W. Malandra (Av. raƒa, va@Þa-, Mid. Pers. rah, wardyu@n, etc.). Chariots in ancient Iran were light horse-drawn, two-wheeled vehicles designed for speed and maneuverability in battle and races. Originally developed in Mesopotamia in the third millennium, chariots were built and driven with superlative skill by Indo-Iranian peoples beginning sometime during the first half of the second millennium. The earliest datable evidence comes in the form of Indo-Aryan loanwords for chariot racing terms in the Kikkuli treatise in Hittite from the 14th century b. ... Maria Macuch, John R. Hinnells, Mary Boyce, and Shahrokh Shahrokh (MPers. ruwa@naga@n lit. “relating to the soul”), pious endowments to benefit the souls of the dead, as specified by the individual founders. Mahmoud Omidsalar (< Lat. carmen “song, verse, incantation”; Pers. afsu@n, “incantation,” damdam < Ar. damdama “disturbance”; Pers. and Ar. do¿a@ “prayer,” ta¿w^dò “charm, amulet,” háerz “protection,” verd [a section of the Koran or other spoken charm], táelesm < Gk. telesma “talisman”), originally verbal formulas recited to prevent or ward off potential harm by magical power but now also denoting written and even talismanic magic (Christensen). ... Rüdiger Schmitt OF LAMPSACUS (Gk. Kha‚ro@n ho Lampsake@no‚s), Greek historiographer, son of Pythocles (Suda, s.v.) or Pythes (Pausanias, 10.38.1). There is very little evidence about his life and literary production. Accounts differ especially over the precise dates at which he lived. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (De Thucydide 5) only lists him among authors who wrote earlier than Thucydides (ca. 455-ca. 400 b.c.) and before the Peloponnesian war (431-404 b.c.). But according to the biographical sketch in The Suda (s. ... Bo Utas JARL (Hellen Robert Toussaint; b. 17 December 1884, d. 5 July 1935), Swedish Indologist, Indo-Europeanist, and Iranist, born in Gothenburg as the son of an army officer. Charpentier matriculated at Uppsala University in 1902 and in 1908 earned his doctor's degree there with the dissertation Studien zur indischen Erzählungsliteratur. I. Paccekabuddhageschichten. In 1927 he was appointed professor ordinarius of Sanskrit and comparative Indo-European philology at the same university, where he taught until his premature death in 1935. ... See HUNTING. Moojan Momen thornton (b. Springfield, Mass., 22 February 1847), regarded by Bahais as the first American Bahai and the first Bahai of the West. He was educated at Brown University and was a veteran of the American Civil War. After being attached to the Swedenborgian Church for a time, he became a Bahai through the lessons given by Ibrahim Kheiralla (Ebra@h^m K¨ayr-Alla@h; q.v.) in 1895. Although three others became Bahais before him, they later left the religion and so Chase is regarded as the first Bahai. He was a leading figure in the Chicago Bahai community until he moved to Los Angeles in 1909. ... Werner Sundermann emmanuel-édouard (b. Lyons, France, 5 October 1865, d. Fontenay-aux-Roses, 29 January 1918), French sinologist who also contributed to the study of Iranian history and religions. After completing his education at the Ecole Normale Supe‚rieure in Paris, where he became interested in China, Chavannes joined the French delegation to Peking as attache‚ at large in 1889 (Cordier, pp. 198-99). While there he began work in two main areas that were to occupy most of his attention for the rest of his life: translation of ancient texts and archeological investigations. ... Daniel Balland (Pers. pan^r), with milk and other dairy products a significant part of the diet in Persia and Afghanistan (e.g., in the Qom area, where in 1348 ˆ./1969 they supplied between one-eighth and one-quarter of average daily calories, depending on season, type of residence, and economic status; Bazin, 1973). Cheese is far less important than yogurt (ma@st) and butter, either solid (kara, maska) or clarified (rowg@an), though its consumption has been steadily growing among urban dwellers for the past decades (author's own observations). ... See k^m^a@ Bo Utas, Moháammad Dab^rs^a@q^ a board game known in Sanskrit as catur-anμga- (“having four members,” a common designation for an army of four divisions); in Middle Persian as ±atrang; in Persian as Þatrang, Þatranj, or Þatáranj; and in Arabic as al-Þatáranj or al-Þetáranj (whence Sp. ajedrez, OFr. eschez, Fr. e‚checs, Eng. chess, possibly It. scacchi, Ger. Schach, etc., the latter two forms also under the influence of Persian Þa@h “king”). Wilfrid Lockwood, J. T. P. De Bruijn, Michel Tardieu a collection of manuscripts, printed works, and artifacts, predominantly Oriental, assembled by Alfred Chester Beatty and opened to the public in Dublin in 1954. Edwin G. Pulleyblank (Qian Han shu) “History of the Former Han Dynasty,” a historical work which includes information on Iran. It was originally simply called the Han shu and is often still referred to by that name. It is the second of the series of Twenty-four Standard Histories. Its author, Pan Ku (Ban Gu), revised and continued a work begun by his father Pan Piao (Ban Biao; d. a.d. 54), and his own work was completed by his sister, Pan Chao (Ban Zhao), after his death in 92. It covers the period from the founding of the dynasty in 206 b. ... Karl Jettmar township in the upper Indus valley in Pakistani-controlled Jammu and Kashmir, almost directly south of Gilgit and located on the new Karakorum highway between Pakistan and China. In late antiquity there was a considerable Iranian presence in the surrounding area. Jenny Rose, Mahmoud Omidsalar, Mansour Shaki, ˆ^r^n ¿Eba@d^, Erika Friedl, Janet Kestenberg Amighi, EIr. Philippe Gignoux Greek title of one of the chief offices of state in Achaemenid Persia, presumably translated from Old Persian haza@rapati-, attested in Greek as azarapateîs (plur.; Hesychius, ed. K. Latte, Copenhagen, 1953, I, p. 52), explained as eisaggeleîs, that is, announcers or ushers. In Parthian the corresponding title was haza@rpet or haza@ruft, borrowed in Armenian as hazarapet and hazarwuxt respectively; in Middle Persian it was haza@rbed or haza@ruft (Gignoux, pp. 24: Mid. Pers. hz÷lwpt, 54 Parth. hzrwpt; in ˆKZ, see below, the Greek version has hazaropt and azariptou). ... Edwin G. Pulleyblank, J. M. Rogers, Liu Yingsheng and Peter Jackson, J. M. Rogers, Parviz Mohajer, Daniel Balland, Chen Da-Sheng, Huang Shi-Jian and Ibrahim Feng Jin-Yuan, EIr., EIr., Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh, Oliver Watson, Toh Sugimura EIr., Victor Mair and Prods Oktor Skjærvø, Prods Oktor Skjærvø, Isenbike Togan, Morris Rossabi, Isenbike Togan, Kim Ho-Dong, Samuel N. C. Lieu, Gerhard Doerfer (Sinkiang, Xinjiang), IRANIAN ELEMENTS IN See ÙENGÈZ KHAN. Khushal Habibi (Gazella bennetti, Indian gazelle) is a small antelope of slender build; its tawny coat has poorly marked facial and body stripes. A full-grown male measures about 65 cm at the shoulder and weighs about 23 kg. In body size and weight the chinkara resembles Gazella gazella and Gazella dorcas, with which it has frequently been confused. The horns of the male appear straight when seen from the front. In profile the horns of an adult male are S-shaped. Females also have horns, though they are much slenderer and smaller than those of males. ... Wolfgang Felix (Lat. Chionitae, probably from Pahl. Xyo@n/Hyo@n [cf. Werner, pp. 525-29; Bailey, 1930-32a, p. 945], Av. X'iiaona [Hyaona]), a tribe of probable Iranian origin that was prominent in Bactria (q.v.) and Transoxania in late antiquity. The first mention of the Chionites is by the 4th-century Greek historian Ammianus Marcellinus (q.v.; 16.9.4), the chief authority on the events of the early history of the Chionites, in connection with the Sasanian emperor ˆa@pu@r II (309-79 c.e.), who spent the winter of 356-57 c. ... See clothing i. median and achaemenid periods, iii. sasanian period. Nigel J. R. Allan, Georg Buddruss (Ùitra@l), river valley in the upper Indus system. Philip Kohl (Pers. sang-e sabz), a mineral consisting of a group of closely related hydrous magnesium aluminum silicates of exceedingly varied chemical compositions owing to isomorphous substitutions (particularly the heavy atoms Fe, Mn, Cr for the lighter atoms Mg, Si, Al). Because it is widely available in Persia and easily worked, chlorite has been used for millennia in the production of objects ranging from small beads and cylinder seals to large tombstones. The complex cell structure of chlorites consists of layers resembling those of mica and brucite in alternation. ... Rüdiger Schmitt name of an eastern Iranian tribe (perhaps located in western Bactria, q.v.), mentioned only by Pomponius Mela (1.13; ca. mid-1st century c.e.) in an enumeration of the inhabitants of the interior lands (interiora terrarum): Gandari et Pariani et Bactri, Sugdiani, Pharmacotrophi, Chomarae (i.e., the Bactrian Chomaroi; Ptolemy, 6.11.6), Choamani, Ropanes, Dahae super Scythas Scytharumque deserta. W. Tomaschek identified the Ropanes with the Paropanisadae (Pauly-Wissowa, III/2, col. 2353, s.v. “Choamani”), an identification that was, however, rejected by [M. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (attested only as Gk. Kho‚ana; etymology in dispute), the name of two Iranian towns mentioned by Ptolemy. Rüdiger Schmitt and CHOARENE (Latin forms of Gk. Kho‚ara, Khoare@ne@´, possibly from Ir. *hu„a¡ra- or *x„a¡ra-, for which numerous etymologies might be constructed). Choara was a town or village in Parthia mentioned by Ptolemy (6.5.3) and called “the most attractive place of Parthia” by Pliny (Natural History 6.44). It was apparently the center of the district of Choarene, mentioned by both Ptolemy (6.5.1) and Isidore of Charax (Parthian Stations 8). It is identical with the Kho@re@ne@´ referred to by Strabo (11. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (or Coaspe@s; Lat. form of Gk. Khoa‚spe@s, rarely Kho‚aspis, probably from OIr. *h„-aspa- “possessing good horses”; Late Av. huuaspa- or Huuaspa@- [Yt. 19.67], river flowing into Lake Ha@mu@n identified as the modern Ru@d-e K¨ospa@s north of K¨a@Þru@d in Baluchistan [Stein, p. 22]; OPers. uvasa-, hybrid Pers. and Median uvaspa-), ancient name of three rivers. Charles Melville and ¿Abba@s Zarya@b (Chupanids, Pers. Ùu@pa@n^a@n), a family of Mongol origin descended from the amir Ùoba@n (q.v., or Ùu@pa@n, Ar. Ju@ba@n) Noyan. Its members ruled over Azerbaijan, Arra@n, and parts of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and west central Persia from the death of Abu@ Sa¿^d (q.v.) on 13 Rab^¿ II 736/30 November 1335 until the death of Malek AÞraf, grandson of Ùoba@n, in 758/1357. Although at first the Chobanids maintained the fiction that they were vassals of the ruling house of Hülegü (Hu@la@gu@), after the collapse of Il-khanid authority they became effectively independent rulers of the areas that they were able to seize. ... Jean Calmard ALEKSANDER BOREJKO (b. 30 August 1804, in Krzywicze, Poland [now in the Lithuanian S.S.R.], d. Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris, 19 December 1891), Polish poet and diplomat, the first European scholar to work on Persian folklore. Between 1820and 1823 he studied at the university of Wilno/Vilna, the main center for Oriental languages and literatures in Poland. After being arrested in 1823 for membership in the Society of Philarets, a secret association of student patriots dedicated to Polish independence from foreign rule, he went to St. ... Xavier De Planhol, Daniel Balland (Cholera asiatica, Cholera indica), epidemic intestinal disease of Indian origin caused by infectious bacteria. Yuri Aleksandrovich Rapoport, C. Edmund Bosworth, D. N. MacKenzie (Gk. Chorasmie@ < OPers. (H)uwa@razmiÞ, Av. Xúa@iriz™m, later K¨úa@razm [Khwa@razm], generally derived from *hwa@ra-zam/zm^-, either “nourishing land” [Burnouf, p. cviii; Sachau, p. 473; Geiger, p. 29; Pauly-Wissowa III/2, cols. 2406-08] or “lowland” [Lerch, p. 447; Veselovski¥, p. v; Kiepert, no. 60; MacKenzie, Camb. Hist. Iran III/2, p. 1244; Bogolyubov, p. 370, has suggested “land with good cattle enclosures,” but this interpretation has not found wide acceptance), region on the lower reaches of the Oxus (Amu Darya) in western Central Asia. ... Marie Louise Chaumont Sogdian nobleman and opponent of Alexander. According to Arrian (Anabasis 4), when Alexander reached Nautaca in Sogdiana on his way to India, early in 327 b.c.e., he found the whole region well prepared for defense and the road ahead protected by strong fortresses. His first task was to make himself master of the “Rock of the Sogdians,” where a chief named Ariamazes was in command and the family of Oxyartes, one of the great nobles of the country, had taken shelter. Eventually Ariamazes surrendered. ... Jes P. Asmussen ARTHUR EMANUEL (b. Copenhagen 9 January 1875, d. Copenhagen 31 March 1945), Danish orientalist and scholar of Iranian philology and folklore. Apart from periods of travel and study abroad he spent his entire life in Copenhagen. He passed his secondary-school examinations (studentereksamen) in 1893 and in 1900 received from the University of Copenhagen the master's degree in French, history, and Latin, having also studied Persian and Arabic with A. F. van Mehren, Avestan with Edvard Lehmann, Sanskrit with V. ... James R. Russell, see deportations, Judith Lerner, Nicholas Sims-Williams, Nicholas Sims-Williams, Werner Sundermann, protestant, Qamar AÚrya@n, Annemarie Schimmel, Yahya Armajani Kamran Ekbal Captain CHARLES (d. 1812), of the Bombay Regiment, an Anglo-Indian officer under the command of Sir John Malcolm. In 1810, following Malcolm's instructions, Christie and Lieutenant Henry Pottinger undertook an exploratory journey from Bombay to Baluchistan, S^sta@n, and the previously unexplored territories north of Makra@n, which were thought to provide a possible overland route by which a European army might invade India. Disguised as horse dealers, the two men made their way north from the Makra@n coast to Nushki (Nu@Þk^), where they separated in March. ... Rahámat-Alla@h Ostova@r FeCr2O4, a dark-brown or black mineral from which chromium is refined. It may be found in conjunction with deposits of nickel, gold, and platinum. There is no available documentary evidence that chromite was extracted or exploited in ancient Persia; it was probably not used in metalworking because of its high melting point (2,300-2,600° F.), compared with those of copper (q.v.) and lead. In the Middle Ages, however, Abu÷l-Qa@sem ¿Abd-Alla@h Ka@Þa@n^ (d. 738/1337-38; pp. 340, 345; tr. Allan, p. ... Peter Kawerau OF ARBELA, a Syriac church history of Adiabene (q.v.), written in the 6th century by Me¡Þ^háa@-Ze¡kòa@ under the title Ke¡tabòa@ dò-e¡qlisyast^q^ dòa¡-Me¡Þ^háa@-Ze¡kòa@, chosen in conscious imitation of the Ekkle@siastike@` historía by Eusebius of Caesarea. It takes the form of a liber pontificalis of the metropolis Arbela (modern Erb^l), northeast of Mosul. For the Parthian period Me¡Þ^háa@-Ze¡kòa@ drew primarily on the only Syriac writer to have an exact knowledge of Parthian history, Habel the Teacher, whose reports reveal that Christianity had spread east of the Tigris, in Adiabene, before 100, earlier than had previously been believed (Kawerau, tr. ... Sebastian P. Brock OF EDESSA, a short local history of Edessa (modern Urfa), written in Syriac by an anonymous author and covering chiefly the period from 201-540 c.e. The author of the chronicle, which is preserved in a single 7th-century manuscript, devoted particular attention to damage caused by flooding of the local river in 201, 303, 413, and 525. On the other hand, such external events as incursions by the Huns (403-04, 531) and relations between the Byzantine and Sasanian empires (Kava@d's siege and capture of Amida [modern Diyarbakér] and his unsuccessful siege of Edessa in 502-03; the peace treaty of 532; K¨osrow I Ano@Þ^rava@n's invasion of Byzantine territory in 540) are noted only briefly. ... J. T. P. De Bruijn Pers. ma@dda(-ye) ta@r^kò, dates incorporated into Persian texts in disguised form, especially those in which the letters of the alphabet have numerical value. The indication of dates in this way can be found in Persian poetry from the very beginning. Only in the 9th/15th century did the construction of chronograms become a very popular genre, however, cultivated both for practical purposes (especially in epigraphy) and as an exercise of poetic skills. The attention paid to chronograms in rhetorical theory is also comparatively recent. ... See CALENDARS. (Quan-zhou, formerly Jin-jiang; in Islamic sources Zaytu@n), Chinese city located at 118' 35" E and 24' 54" in southeastern Fu-jian (Fukien) province on the lower reaches of the Jin-jiang river. See china viii. persian settlements in southeastern china. See CHOBANIDS. OF ENGLAND IN PERSIA. See england, church of, in persia. Marcel Bazin and Christian Bromberger AND CHURNING (Pers. kara-sa@z^), devices and associated techniques for processing milk into butter. The populations of Persia and Afghanistan are major consumers of dairy products, which, with bread, constitute the basis of their traditional diet. Milk is rarely consumed in raw form but is processed in various ways, depending both on the nature of the animals from which it comes and on ethnic and regional traditions. See CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY. Rüdiger Schmitt (OPers. ±-i-ç-t-x-m, Elamite Zi-iÞ-Þa-in/an-tak-ma, Babylonian ˆi-it-ra-an-taª-ma, ˆ^-tir-an-taª-mu), an Iranian personal name signifying “brave in lineage” (originally from the phrase *±iƒram taxmam “the lineage [is] brave”); aside from this hybrid form, it is also attested in pure variants in both Median *Çiƒrantaxma- (Elamite Zi-ut-ra-an-tak-ma; see Hinz and Koch, p. 1306; cf. Greek Tritantaíchme@s, derived from *Titranta‚chme@s via *Titrantaíchme@s) and Persian *Ùiçantahma- (Elamite Ti-iÞ-Þa-an-tam-ma; Hinz and Koch, p. ... See ÙEÚÙAST. Michael Weiskopf as a source for Parthian history. In 51 b.c.e., two years after the Parthian destruction of the Roman legions at Carrhae, the Roman statesman and political philosopher Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 b.c.e.), was chosen governor (formal title proconsul) of the province of Cilicia and unwillingly took up the post for a one-year term. Letters that he exchanged with friends and colleagues preserve a virtually unique contemporary extra-Iranian source on Parthian military and diplomatic activities and the Roman response to them, particularly during the military-campaign season of 51-50 b. ... Mansour Shaki (Selected precepts of the ancient sages), a post-Sasanian compendium of apothegms intended to instruct every Zoroastrian male, upon his attaining the age of fifteen years, in fundamental religious and ethical principles, as well as in the daily duties incumbent upon him. It is also called Pand-na@mag ^ ZarduÞt (Book of the counsels of Zoroaster), but the attribution to ZarduÞt son of AÚdurba@d ^ Mahraspanda@n (q.v.) is incorrect. The text is preserved in codex MK II, copied by Mehraba@n Kaykòosrow in 1322 c. ... See DOK¨AÚNÈAÚT. D. N. MacKenzie one of the lost nasks of the Avesta (q.v.). In the first chapter of book VIII of the Pahlavi De@nkard (q.v.) it is listed as one of the legal (da@d^g) nasks, possibly in error because of the second element of its name, but said to be “made for the Law with different propitiation” (pad èud-Þnu@man^h). This seems to be an evasion, as the list of its contents in chapter 13 of the same book shows it to have been a history of mankind, with genealogies of the leaders of Iran from the beginning down to the revelation of Zoroaster and beyond. ... Michael Weiskopf (3rd-cent. c.e. Mid. Pers. klky÷y, Parth. kylky÷), the southeastern portion of the present Turkish coast, a satrapy of the Achaemenid empire (6th-4th centuries b.c.e.), subsequently incorporated into the Macedonian and Roman empires. See DROÚN. See KUSTÈG. Sergei R. Tokhtas'ev a nomadic people, most likely of Iranian origin, who flourished in the 8th-7th centuries b.c.e. Peter Jackson (Ùin Temür; d. 633/1235-36), the first governor of Khorasan and Ma@zandara@n on behalf of the Mongols. According to Jovayn^ (II, p. 218), he was a Qarakhitayan; RaÞ^d-al-D^n (Ja@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò, Moscow, I, p. 313) ascribes him to the Öngüt (UÚnku@t), though elsewhere (Ja@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò II, ed. Blochet, p. 37; II/1, ed. Alizade, p. 105) he reproduces Jovayn^'s version. Ùin Temür first appears in attendance on Ùeng^z Khan's eldest son Jo±i (Ju@j^), who in 616/1219 sent him on an embassy to Jand. ... Farrokh Gaffary, Jamsheed Akrami, Jamsheed Akrami, EIr. in Persia. John Carswell (lit. “Chinese”; borrowed in Arabic as sá^n^), generic term for Chinese ceramic wares, including porcelain, a translucent, white-bodied ware fired at very high temperatures. From at least as early as the Tang period (618-907 c.e.), ceramics were being fired at high temperatures in China; that they were also exported to Persia is clear from both literary sources and archeological finds. See DAÚRÙÈN. Marie Louise Chaumont (< Gk. kinnamon or kinnamo@mon “cinnamon tree,” a word borrowed from the Phoenician, according to Herodotus, 3.111; cf. Hebrew qinna@mo@n), putative rival of Artabanus (q.v.; Ardawa@n) II (12-38 c.e.) as king of the Arsacids (q.v.; Flavius Josephus, 20.3.2). During his reign Artabanus faced a succession of challenges to his authority. After the failure in 36 of Tiridates II's revolt, instigated by the Romans in league with Parthian nobles who feared the king's power, Artabanus came to terms with the Roman governor of Syria, Vitellius, on a bridge of boats across the Euphrates in 37 (Josephus, 18. ... Priscilla Soucek the “wish-fulfilling jewel,” a motif consisting of either a single globe with a pointed extension at the apex or three such globes; either version could be surrounded by a flaming halo. In Persian art this motif was borrowed from the art of Mahayana Buddhism, where it was particularly associated with such divinities as Cinta@manáicakra Avalokites‚vara (Avalokites‚vara with the cinta@manái in the wheel) and Ksáitigarbha and symbolized both compassion for worshipers and a desire to aid them in attaining salvation. ... Ahámad Tafazμzμol^ (Av. ±inuuato@ p™r™tu-), traditionally thought to mean “the bridge of the separator” but recently shown to be “the bridge of the accumulator/collector” (Kellens, with references to earlier translations), the name of a bridge that, according to a Mazdayasnian/Zoroastrian eschatological myth, leads from this world to the next and must be crossed by the souls of the departed (Vd. 19.29, 19.30). It is mentioned already in the Gathas (Y. 46.10, 46.11, 51.13). The bridge lies on the peak of the cosmic mountain Harburz (Alborz), called Ùaga@d ^ Da@it^ (q. ... See ÙARKAS. Joseph Wiesehöfer (Gk. Kirke@sion), a Roman border fortress in Mesopotamia (cf. Papyrus Dura, no. 60), on the spit of land formed where the K¨a@bu@r (Lat. Abora), the present-day al-Bosáayra, flows into the Euphrates (see maps in Kettenhofen). In the inscription of ˆa@pu@r I on the Ka¿ba-ye ZardoÞt at NaqÞ-e Rostam (ˆKZ) the town is listed among those taken by ˆa@pu@r from the Romans in the second campaign, against Philip the Arab, in 256 c.e. (?; Kettenhofen, p. 81); here the Greek version (l. 17) has Korkousio@na and the Parthian (l. ... Ebra@h^m ˆaku@rza@da and Mahmoud Omidsalar Pers. kòatna, sonnat (formally also tatáh^r or kòeta@n), kòatnakona@n, and sonnatkona@n; the last two terms also refer to the festivities associated with the circumcision ritual. In Persia all Muslim and Jewish boys were and still are circumcised. The age of circumcision has varied from a few days after birth to the thirteenth or, less commonly, fifteenth year of life. In modern Persian cities the operation is carried out in the hospital where the boy is born two or three days after birth, but in villages and rural areas there is a greater variation in the time of the operation. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (OPers. ±-i-Þ-p-i-Þ, Elamite Zi-iÞ-pi-iÞ, Babylonian ˆi-iÞ-pi-iÞ), Old Persian personal name. The incorrect reading ÙaiÞpiÞ is still occasionally seen (e.g., W. Hinz and H. Koch, Elamisches Wörterbuch, Berlin, 1987, p. 1293). The Greek form of the name is given by Herodotus (7.11.2) as Teíspe@s or Tíspe@s. The name is probably Iranian, but its etymology has not yet been established (see Iranisches Personennamenbuch I/2, pp. 17-18). It does not seem to be connected either with the name of the old Hurrian storm god TeÞup, with that of the Cimmerian sovereign TeuÞpa, or with the (Elamite) byname Za-iÞ-pi-iÞ-Þi-ya of a certain IrdumaÞda (i. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (Gk. Kíssioi), a name for the Susians, the Elamite inhabitants of Susiana (Strabo 15.3.2; Stephanus Byzantius, s.v. Soûsa); the Cissians were mentioned by several Greek authors, the earliest of whom was Aeschylus, who called Susa (me‚g÷ a‚stu Sousídos “the great city of Susiana”) toà Kissío@n po‚lisma “the town of the Cissians” (Persae 120; cf. 17). Jean Kellens and Ùisti, Avestan derivatives of the verb cit “to notice, to understand.” Ùista@ is in many respects an enigmatic term. It designates a minor goddess mentioned only in Yt. 16, which is dedicated to her although it is known as the De@n yaÞt, and once in Yt. 10.126. Her various epithets, the circumstances in which she is invoked, and her association with the dae@na@ (q.v.) seem to indicate that she is closely related to the concept of the path, both the ritual path and the path of the hereafter, although the exact relationship eludes us (Benveniste and Renou). ... See RIDDLE. Jennifer M. Scarce (borrowed from Indian, where it occurs in many dialects with the meaning “spotted cloth,” probably of non Indo-Aryan origin; Turner, no. 5036; cf. Irwin and Brett, p. 1), cotton cloth decorated with block-printed or painted designs in multiple colors. The term ±^t passed into English as “chintz,” now the common designation for any cotton or linen furnishing fabric printed with floral designs in fast colors. Conversely, in India Persian qalam-ka@r^ was used to distinguish painted from printed cotton textiles. ... Xavier De Planhol, Ann K. S. Lambton, Eckart Ehlers, Erwin Grötzbach Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Mansour Shaki, Qajar and Pahlavi Periods, Naser Yeganeh See ÙEHR. Rüdiger Schmitt (Elamite Zi-ut-ra-bar-na, Assyrian ˆi-dir-pa-ar-na/ni, Gk. Tetraphe‚rne@s), Iranian personal name meaning “with shining splendor” (Iran. farnah-), also attested in a variant with the first element Persianized, *Ùiçafarnah- (Gk. Tissaphe‚rne@s, S(e)isiphe‚rne@s, Aramaic ˆÞprn, Lycian Kizzaprñna, Zisaprñna; see Iranisches Personennamenbuch V/4, pp. 22, 28; Schmitt, pp. 83-84; Hinz and Koch, p. 1306). See BAÚLANG; CITRUS FRUITS. Hu@Þang A¿lam (Pers. morakkaba@t). As far as Persia is concerned, only the citrus trees and fruits of the genus Citrus L. (family Rutaceae, subfamily Aurantioideae) need be considered. Only the following three species and one hybrid of citrus fruits are mentioned in classical sources: Citrus medica L., Citrus aurantium L., and Citrus limon (L.) Burn. f. (and/or C. aurantifolia Swing., etc; for the indeterminate nature of the latter species, see below). H®osayn Farhu@d^ (anjoman-e Þahr) in Persia. Naser Yeganeh (qa@nu@n-e madan^) of Persia, a series of regulations controlling all civic and social relations between individuals in the various circumstances of their lives. The basic text is the law of 1307 ˆ./1928, according to which the Civil Code is divided into three parts: Title I on property, Title II on personal status of individuals, and Title III on the law of evidence. It is preceded by an introduction dealing with the promulgation of law and such general principles as the nonretroactive nature of law, freedom and sovereignty of will, and the status of foreign subjects residing in Persia. ... (táabaqa@t-e ejtema@¿^). In the following articles the term “social class” is used as a generic term referring to various types of social group, including castes, estates, status groups, occupational categories, and economic classes. Beatrice Forbes Manz and Margaret L. Dunaway RUY GONZA´LEZ DE (d. 2 April 1412), ambassador from King Henry III of Castile and Leon (r. 1390-1406) to T^mu@r (Tamerlane; 771-807/1370-1405) in the years 805-08/1403-06 and author of an important travel account. Mary Boyce, Hamid Algar Rüdiger Schmitt (b. ca. 390 or 410 b.c.e., the latter date based on Memnon's report of his age as fifty-eight years at his death in 352), tyrant of Pontic Heracleia (modern Ereg¡li) in 363-52 b.c.e. As a young man he studied for four years with Isocrates and Plato in Athens (Memnon, in Jacoby, Fragmente III/B, pp. 337-38, frag. 1; Suda, s.v. “Kle‚arkhos”). After his return home he became involved in factional struggles and was banished; he then led a band of mercenary troops in the service of the Persian satrap of neighboring Pontic Phrygia, Mithridates (son of Ariobarzanes, q. ... Rüdiger Schmitt OF SPARTA (b. Sparta ca. 450 b.c.e., d. Babylon 401 b.c.e.), son of Rhamphias, Greek general in the service of Cyrus the Younger (q.v.; Thucydides, 8.8.2; cf. Xenophon, Anabasis 2.6.15). In 412 b.c.e., during the Peloponnesian war, he commanded a Lacedaemonian naval operation in the Hellespont, during which Byzantium was taken (Thucydides, 8.8.2, 8.39.2, 8.80.1-3), and from that time he was in close contact with Pharnabazus, satrap of Dascylium (q.v.; Diodorus, 13.40.6). In the battle of Cyzicus in May 410 Clearchus, in command of parts of the Lacedaemonian land forces and the Greek mercenaries of Pharnabazus's army, was defeated by the Athenian generals Thrasybulus and Theramenes (Diodorus, 13. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (Gk. Kleítarchos), Greek historian of the 4th century b.c.e., son of the historian Dinon (q.v.) of Colophon and author of a history of the exploits of Alexander the Great. Almost nothing is known about Cleitarchus' life, though, according to Pliny, he was a “celebrated writer” (Natural History 10.136); it is not even clear whether or not he accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns. He may have attended the lectures of the Megarian philosopher Stilpon (Diogenes Laertes 11.13; cf. ... Rüdiger Schmitt CARL CHRISTIAN (b. Sommerfeld, near Leipzig, 30 March 1865; d. Bonn, 8 July 1940), German Protestant theologian and historian of religions who compiled the classical passages on Iranian religion. Clemen studied at the universities of Leipzig, Tübingen, Halle, and Berlin and received his habilitation from Halle in 1892. He remained there, teaching New Testament studies, until 1903, when he went to Bonn; he was appointed to a full professorship of the history of religions at the university of Bonn in 1920. ... Marie Louise Chaumont of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens, probably b. Athens ca. 150 c.e., d. Cappadocia ca. 215), Greek convert to Christianity who became the leading theologian of his time, a polemicist particularly noted for his attempts to reconcile Greco-Roman thought with Christian teachings. He studied at the Christian catechetical school in Alexandria, where in about 180 he succeeded his teacher Pantaenus as president. Persecution of Christians by Septimius Severus (193-211) in 201-02 forced him to take refuge with Alexander, bishop of Caesaria (later of Jerusalem), in Cappadocia, where he died some years later. ... Marie Louise Chaumont , the unknown author of a work of fiction falsely ascribed to Pope Clement I (88-97 c.e.) and now generally known as the Pseudo-Clementines, which contains passages reflecting myths and teachings of Persian origin. The text has survived in two versions, a collection of homilies, purportedly missionary preachings of Saint Peter, and the Recognitiones (Anagno@rismoí, Reconsiderations), preserved in a Latin translation by Ruffinus (before 400 c.e.) in the guise of a Roman book of “investigations. ... , in Roman sources a designation for a Parthian armored cavalryman. See asb; asb-savaúrè. Eckart Ehlers Both the climate of Persia as a whole and the differences in weather among its various regions are determined primarily by its location within the arid belt of the eastern hemisphere. The general dryness and barrenness of the country result from its position in relation to the planetary circulation system and are further heightened, as well as internally differentiated, by the mountain ranges encircling much of its perimeter, specifically the Alborz (q.v.) and the Zagros. On one hand, these high barriers prevent moist Mediterranean and Caspian winds from reaching the Persian plateau and thus ensure the extreme dryness of the greater part of central Persia; on the other, the outer flanks of the mountains are subject to sometimes heavy precipitation, so that they differ fundamentally from the plateau in their ecology and prevailing forms of human activity and land use. ... Ahámad Tafazμzμol^ (keÞvar), ancient division of the earth's surface. According to Iranian mythology the earth consists of seven concentric climes. In the Gathas they are referred to as bu@mya@ haptaºúha- “a seventh part of the earth” (Y. 32.3), with which one may compare Pahlavi bu@m ^ haft kiÞwar “the earth of seven climes” (Aya@dga@r ^ Ôa@ma@sp^g 4.25), and in the later Avesta as karÞva…n ya@iÞ hapta “the seven climes,” which is the common expression in later times, comparable to Pahlavi haft kiÞwar and Manichean Parthian haft kiÞfar zambu@d^g/Þahr “the world of seven climes” (Mir. ... Willem Floor (Pers. sa@¿at), devices for measuring and registering time. Lutz Richter-Bernburg LOUIS-ANDRÉ-ERNEST (b. Paris, 11 October 1818, d. Tehran, 1855 [exact date unknown]), French anatomist and, from 1262/1846 to 1271/1855, French minister to the court at Tehran, serving as personal physician to Moháammad Shah (1250-64/1834-48) and Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah Qa@ja@r (1264-1313/1848-96). EIr., A. Shapur Shahbazi, Trudy S. Kawami, Elsie H. Peck, Gerd Gropp, Aleksandr Naymark, S. A. Yatsenko, Elsie H. Peck, Eleanor Sims, Layla S. Diba, ¿Al^-Akbar Sa¿^d^ S^rja@n^, Nancy Hatch Dupree, Klaus Ferdinand, Guzel' Ma¥tdinova, Shirin Mohseni, P. A. Andrews, Ora Shwartz-Beeri, Iran Ala Firouz, Mehremon^r Jaha@nba@n^, Pamela Hunte, H®osayn-¿Al^ Beyhaq^, P. A. Andrews And M. Andrews, Christian Bromberger, R. Shahnaz Nadjmabadi, Lois Beck, Jean-Pierre Digard, P. A. Andrews, GÚola@m-H®osayn Yu@sof^, EIr. (Ar. and Pers. leba@s, Pers. pu@Þa@k, ja@ma, rakòt). Eckart Ehlers (Skt. abhra‚-, Av. a£ra-, Sogd. ÷£r, Khot. pyaura@- [< *pari-abra@-, but aura@- “sky”], Pashto wryaj fem. [< *abra±^], Pers. abr, etc.; see Bailey, Dictionary, pp. 47a, 256b), masses of condensed water vapor. Four general categories are differentiated: high clouds, clouds at medium elevations, low clouds, and clouds with marked vertical development. Each category includes three basic variants: cirrus (Lat. “lock, tuft of hair”), almost transparent clouds formed of tiny ice crystals at altitudes of 6,000-12,000 m; cumulus (Lat. ... See ˆABDAR. See DALQAK. Willem M. Floor (zog@a@l-e sang), carbonized organic material used as a solid fuel. Although Persia and Afghanistan are rich in coal deposits (Harrison, pp. 492-96; Research Group, pp. 58-149; Arens, pp. 126-28), these deposits have only recently come to be exploited. In Transoxania coal was used for fuel as early as the 10th century, however. Esátáakòr^ (p. 334; and following him Ebn H®awqal, II, p. 515; tr. Kramers, II, p. 492) mentioned a mountain in Asbara, a region of Farg@a@na, that was “of black stone, which burns like charcoal (fahám)”; the ashes were used for bleaching clothes. ... See BALUCHISTAN, FAÚRS. Elisabeth West FitzHugh and Willem M. Floor (sang-e la@javard “blue stone,” also applied to lapis lazuli and ultramarine; la@javard-e ka@Þ^ “ceramic blue”; la@javard-e solayma@n^ “Solayma@n blue”), a chemical element that imparts a blue color to glass and glazes and to certain pigments. The term la@javard actually refers to lapis lazuli (e.g., la@javard-e asál “genuine lapis lazuli,” la@javard-e badakòÞ^ “lapis lazuli from BadakòÞa@n”) but was applied to cobalt ores and smalt (see below) because their blue color is close to that of lapis lazuli; la@javard-e farang^ (“European blue”) refers specifically to smalt. ... Charles Melville (Ùu@pa@n, Ar. Ju@ba@n; ca. 660-727/1262-1327), eponymous founder of the Chobanid dynasty (q.v.) and the leading Mongol amir of the late Il-khanid period. He effectively ruled Persia from 716/1316 until his fall in 727/November 1327, when he was in his sixties (ˆaba@nka@ra÷^, p. 283; Sáafad^, XI, p. 222). See BAHRAÚM ÙOÚBÈN. James R. Russell, Mahmoud Omidsalar the male of the subfamily Phasianinae (pheasants), usually having a long, often tectiform tail with fourteen to thirty-two feathers. The thirteen genera (twenty-nine species) of this subfamily all originated in Asia (Raethel, p. 49); one species, the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), the ancestor of the domestic chicken, lives in a variety of habitats in the wild, which probably facilitated its domestication (Raethel, p. 52), some time in antiquity. It was being exported from India to China in the 14th and 15th centuries b. ... See BOSTAÚNAFRUÚZ. Hu@Þang A¿lam (na@rg^l < Mid. Pers. ana@rge@l < Skt. na@r^kel/ra; cf. Hindi and Urdu na@riyal “coconut”), the fruit of the palm Cocos nucifera L., which grows in the East Indies, as well as in most other humid tropical regions. Copra (mag@z-e na@rg^l, lit. “coconut kernel”) and in recent times coconut oil (rowg@an-e na@rg^l) are the only products of the coconut palm that are used in Persia. C. Edmund Bosworth (romu@z, sg. ramz), including the use of secret writing and cryptanalysis, in Persia. The use of codes in communications and diplomacy goes back to classical Greece, and an interest in codes and secret writing was carried into early Islamic times, not only for diplomatic purposes but also for magic and the concealment of trade secrets and esoteric religious views. Specific information for the Persian world is very sparse, but Ebn al-Nad^m (ed. Tajaddod, p. 16; tr. Dodge, pp. 25-26) mentioned two secret scripts said to have been used by the Sasanian kings. ... D. N. MacKenzie a manuscript of eighty-two paper leaves, measuring approximately 20 x 14 cm, preserved in the Biblioteca Nazionale of the cathedral of San Marco in Venice and comprising principally vocabularies and texts of the Northwest Middle Turkic language of the Cumans, or Komans, recorded in Latin script. The Cumans (Russian Polovtsy) were a nomadic Turkish tribe who in the 12th and 13th centuries, together with the Petchenegs (Pe±enegs), established a state in southern Russia, north of the Black Sea, which was destroyed by the Mongols. ... Jes P. Asmussen forty-three Avestan and Pahlavi codices acquired by Rasmus Kristian Rask (1787-1832) in Bombay, India, and Niels Ludvig Westergaard (1815-1878) in Persia, all originally deposited in the library of the University of Copenhagen but later transferred to the Royal Library. They include some of the oldest and most valuable such manuscripts in the world (Geldner, Grundriss II, p. 12 n. 3). See DARIUS III. ¿Al^ AÚl-e Da@wu@d (Ar. qahwa, Pers., qahva, etymology uncertain), a drink made by steeping in boiling water the dried, roasted, and ground berries (Pers., Ar. bonn) of the coffee tree (Coffea arabica); a related drink, sometimes confused with coffee in the early sources, is qeÞr, brewed from the husks of the coffee beans. The beverage probably originated in Ethiopia and was introduced in the 14th or 15th century to Yemen, whence it spread throughout the east and eventually to Latin America (Zargar^, pp. 58-61; Golgola@b, p. ... ¿Al^ AÚl-e Dawu@d (qahva-kòa@na), a shop and meeting place where coffee (q.v.) is prepared and served. In Persia tea replaced coffee as the most popular beverage in the late 19th century (see ùaúy), but the term qahva-kòa@na continued to be used interchangeably with ±a@y-kòa@na for any establishment supplying tea, soft drinks, and sometimes even light meals. It used to be common for qahva-kòa@nas to provide facilities for smoking the water pipe (qalya@n), but few still do so today. See PAINTING. Helene J. Kantor (Chogha Mish), the largest prehistoric and protohistoric site (ca. 17 ha) in the area below the Zagros foothills between Dezfu@l and ˆu@Þtar. It was excavated by the Oriental Institute of The University of Chicago for eleven seasons between 1340 ˆ./1961 and 1367 ˆ./1978, under the direction of P. P. Delougaz (q.v.; d. 1975) and Helene J. Kantor; in the fourth through the tenth seasons the University of California at Los Angeles was cosponsor of the excavation. Ùog@a@ M^Þ was occupied continuously, except for one or two presumably short breaks, from approximately the late 6th millennium to the late 4th millennium b. ... Frank Hole (Chogha Sefid), site in K¨u@zesta@n. Ùog@a@ Saf^d is a prehistoric site on the Dehlora@n (Deh Luran) plain, dating back to the 8th millennium b.c.e. Excavation of a step trench in 1348 ˆ./1969 uncovered six archeological phases representing some 1,500 years of occupation (Hole, 1977), but there remain deposits as yet unexcavated, which continue to the end of the 4th millennium. Elizabeth Carter (Chogha Zanbil), ancient AÚl UntaÞ dNapiriÞa (Elamite) or Du@r UntaÞ (Assyrian), a city founded by the Elamite king UntaÞ NapiriÞa (formerly transcribed UntaÞ dGal; r. ca. 1275-40 b.c.e.; Hinz and Koch, pp. 116-17) about 40 km southeast of Susa at a strategic point on a main road leading to the highlands. The city, which was centered around a ziggurat, stood on a previously unsettled plateau above the banks of the Dez (Hithite) river. Construction was begun early in the reign of UntaÞ NapiriÞa, but the intended dynastic center was never finished (Ghirshman, 1966, pp. ... See BEET. Jean During (also ±og@or, ±ogu@r, more commonly called sa@z in former Soviet Azerbaijan), is the typical pyriform lute of the ¿a@Þeq (q.v.), the professional minstrel of Azerbaijan. The ancestor of this instrument was probably the táanbu@r of ˆ^rva@n, described by ¿Abd-al-Qa@der b. GÚayb^ Mara@g@^ (p. 200) in 809/1405, which was very popular in Tabr^z. It was pear-shaped and had two strings tuned a second apart (as are the lowest and highest strings of the ±og@u@r). With the passage of time these strings were probably doubled and tripled. ... Stephen Album, Michael L. Bates, and Willem Floor (Arabo-Pers. sekka), standardized units of metal used as a medium of exchange, first introduced into Persia by the Achaemenid Darius I (q.v.; 521-486 b.c.e.) Fridrik Thordarson ancient Greek name of the region at the eastern end of the Black Sea and south of the Caucasus mountains, corresponding to the Georgian provinces of Imeretia, Mingrelia (Samegrelo), Guria and A±'ara and the Pontic regions of northeastern Turkey. Adriano Rossi Alessandro (b. Trieste, 1928, d. Rome, 1985), Italian scholar of Iranian languages and general oriental subjects, co-author with his wife, Hanne Grünbaum, of the most comprehensive Persian-Italian dictionary (1978) published in modern times. Coletti was trained in law at the University of Bologna, then taught literature in Italian secondary schools in Egypt, where he also learned classical Arabic. In 1973-74 he served as joint attache‚ at the Italian Cultural Institute in Tehran, where he improved his knowledge of modern and classical Persian and Kurdish; the first two fascicles of his comparative dictionary of the Kurdish Mokr^ dialect appeared in 1984-85. ... a term used to designate the American College, founded by Presbyterians and later renamed Alborz College, q.v. For important individual colleges, see Education; Faculties. Werner Sundermann (Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis), a lump of parchment fragments the size of a matchbox, containing a portion of the life and teachings of Mani, discovered in 1969 at an indeterminate spot in the area of Asyu@tá (ancient Lycopolis) in upper Egypt (Koenen, 1973, pp. 240-41), the smallest ancient codex known to date. In the same year it came into the possession of the Institut für Altertumskunde at the university in Cologne. The seemingly hopeless task of restoring the codex was successfully completed a few months later by A. ... Annemarie Schimmel, Priscilla P. Soucek (Pers. rang). Wolfram Kleiss one of several kinds of upright, load-bearing architectural members encompassed, along with piers, in the term sotu@n (Wasmuths Lexikon, p. 485). Throughout history, wherever man has sought to enclose space, supports have been a major element in buildings, from stilted huts to great monuments. In the Near East, as in other parts of the world, the development of supports began when largely unworked tree trunks were driven into the ground and used to support roofs of twigs, thatch, or turf (Figure 8.a). Already in prehistoric times it was recognized that such supports were less likely to collapse in bad weather if they were inserted into flat stones and that, if the clefts were left at the top, they would provide more stable carriers for the ceiling or roof (Figure 8. ... See KUÚMEˆ. Michael Weiskopf the portion of southwestern Asia Minor (modern Turkey) bordered on the east by the Euphrates river, on the west by the Taurus mountains, and on the south by the plains of northern Syria. It was part of the Achaemenid empire and its successor kingdoms and did not achieve status as an independent kingdom until the mid-2nd century b.c.e. Commagene is unique in that indigenous documentation is more extensive than the notices in Greek and Roman sources; nevertheless, that documentation, which consists of official inscriptions in Greek, is skewed: The royal monuments of Antiochus I (ca. ... Oscar White Muscarella, Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Richard N. Frye, Bertold Spuler, Willem Floor, Vahid Nowshirvani (Pers. ba@zarga@n^, Arabo-Pers. teja@rat) within Persia and between Persia and other regions; in the following articles foreign trade is emphasized. See also baúzaúr. Annabelle Sreberny-Mohammadi and ¿Al^ Mohammadi in Persia. Cosroe Chaqueri, Sepehr Zabih, Tora@b H®aqÞena@s, Anthony Arnold Willem Floor, Mansoureh Ettehadieh [nez®a@m ma@f^] (emt^a@za@t), grants by a state to citizens, aliens, or other states of rights to carry out specific economic activities and of capitulatory rights on its territory. See KANGAÚVAR. Afshin Matin-Asgar (Konfedera@s^u@n-e jaha@n^-e moháasásáel^n wa da@neÞju@ya@n-e ^ra@n^ etteháa@d^ya-ye mell^), an organization purporting to be the political and corporate (sáenf^) representative of Persian students abroad, as well as in Persia, during the 1960s and 1970s. The roots of the Confederation lay in Persian student circles formed in West Germany, England, and France in the late 1950s. After the coup d'etat (q.v.) that overturned the secular nationalist government of Moháammad Mosáaddeq in 1332 ˆ./1953 the relatively democratic atmosphere that had prevailed in Persia since the end of World War II was gradually transformed under the increasingly autocratic rule of Moháammad-Rezμa@ Shah Pahlav^ (1320-57 ˆ. ... Richard Tapper A discussion of tribal confederations in the Iranian world must begin with recognition that there is a problem in defining the terms “tribe” and “confederation.” The concept of tribe is notoriously inexact, not least in the context of Iranian history, where groups defined by a wide range of different criteria have been referred to as “tribes.” Tribal groups, moreover, commonly comprise several levels of organization, from a nomad camp to (sometimes) a nation-state, with different criteria defining membership of groups at each level. ... Jes P. Asmussen, Jes P. Asmussen Ûa@la AÚmu@zga@r (Pers. Þa@d-ba@Þ, Ar.-Pers. tabr^k), the custom of conveying congratulations on such happy occasions as the birth of a child, a birthday anniversary, a marriage, a coronation, or a national or religious festival. During the Sasanian period the term a@fr^n was probably used to express congratulations (e.g., a@fr^n of mobeda@n mobed in the Nowru@z-na@ma, p. 18, and recitation of (a@fr^n in the ˆa@h-na@ma; Moscow, I, p. 135 v. 703). The terms do¿a@ and tahn^a in later sources seem to be translations of a@fr^n. ... See DERAK¨T. See QERAÚN. Rüdiger Schmitt OF ATHENS (b. Athens before 444 b.c.e., d. Cyprus after 392 b.c.e.), son of Timotheus (Pausanias, 3.9.2, 8.52.4), a leading Athenian admiral during the Peloponnesian and Corinthian wars and one of twenty commanders considered worthy of biographies by the notoriously unreliable Roman author Cornelius Nepos (1st century b.c.e.). In 414-13 he was appointed strate@go‚s “commander-in-chief” in Athens (Thucydides, 7.31.4), in which capacity he experienced both victories and defeats. In 405, when the Athenian navy was destroyed in the decisive battle of Aegospotami, he escaped with eight ships to Cyprus, where he was warmly received by King Evagoras of Salamis (r. ... See ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION. Eugenio Galdieri and Kera@mat-Alla@h Afsar In almost every historical period some restoration of Persian monuments has been undertaken either by state authorities or through the efforts of charitable individuals. The concept of restoration has generally involved repairs, resurfacing, and even complete renewal of a monument, usually without knowledge of its original context or concern with its subsequent history. In Islamic Persia, until quite recently, such projects were usually carried out by Persian architects (me¿ma@rs), artisans (osta@da@n), and decorators, whose efforts are often recorded in inscriptions on the restored monuments. ... Ahmad Ashraf in Persia, a complex of beliefs attributing the course of Persian history and politics to the machinations of hostile foreign powers and secret organizations. In contemporary social psychology such theories are defined as elaborate and internally consistent systems of “collective delusions,” often tenaciously held and extremely difficult to refute (Groh, pp. 2-5; Graumann, pp. 151-90, 245-51; Kruglanski, p. 228). Many conspiracy theories are based on a simple dualism in which the world is viewed as divided between good and evil forces, with the latter determining the course of history. ... See ˆAÚPUÚR II. D. N. MacKenzie Although several of the constellations visible in the northern hemisphere were recognized and named by the Sumerians already in the 3rd millennium b.c.e., there is no evidence that this feature of Mesopotamian astronomy was shared by the ancient Iranians. Nowhere in the Gathas of Zoroaster or the Old Persian inscriptions of the Achaemenids are even individual stars mentioned. The first and only two constellations to be named in Old Iranian sources are Ursa Major and the Pleiades, in the Younger Avesta. Their names, hapto@iringa (Pers. ... Said Amir Arjomand The supplement (motammem) to the Constitution (Qa@nu@n-e asa@s^, lit. “fundamental law”) adopted in 1325/1907 had represented a compromise, in which some features of European constitutional law that were obviously inconsistent with traditional Shi¿ite religious law were modified (see constutional revolution of 1323-29/1905-11 iii). There was, however, no attempt at that time to create an Islamic constitution or a system of public law rigorously based on Shi¿ite law. M. H®assan Ka@kará When Amir ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n Khan (r. 1297-1319/1880-1901) acceded to power (see afghanistan x), he established a centralized monarchy in Afghanistan for the first time. Previously the political structure had been based on the notion that the ruler's authority was derived from and therefore limited by the jergas, or councils, of tribal leaders. The ¿olama@÷ (religious scholars) provided legitimization for the new concept, constructing from koranic passages and Hadith a doctrine according to which monarchs professing the religion of Islam were viewed as vicars of the Prophet Moháammad, the shadow of God on earth, and the shield against unbelief and rebellion (Gregorian, p. ... Abbas Amanat, Vanessa Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Mansoureh Ettehadieh [Nezáa@m Ma@f^], Mansoureh Ettehadieh [Nezáa@m Ma@f^], ¿Al^-Akbar Sa¿^d^ S^rja@n^, ¿Al^-Akabr Sa¿^d^ S^rja@n^, Sorour Soroudi (Enqela@b-e maÞru@táa) of 1323-29/1905-11, during which a parliament and constitutional monarchy were established in Persia. Wolfram Kleiss AND TECHNIQUES in Persian architecture. AND CONSUMPTION. See ECONOMY Filippo Bertotti AMBROGIO (1429-99), Venetian merchant and diplomat, author of a noteworthy report on Persia under the AÚq Qoyunlu@ Uzun H®asan. He was descended from a patrician family, and in his youth he lived in Constantinople as a merchant until the Turco-Venetian war began in 1463. In 1470, aboard the Aegeus, he participated in sea battles against the Ottoman fleet of Moháammad (Mehmet) I (848-86/1444-81, with interruption). The Venetian Republic sought to open a new front and charged Contarini with a diplomatic mission to Uzun H®asan, at that time allied with the Venetians, in order to plan a simultaneous attack on the Ottomans. ... Paola Orsatti NICOLO` DE' (1395-ca. 1469), Venetian merchant who traveled in the east from 1414 until 1438. He first learned Arabic at Damascus, then visited Baghdad and Basra, traveling by sea from there to Bandar-e ¿Abba@s, Hormoz, and Qalha@t on the ¿Oma@n coast, where he learned Persian. Conti then traveled to many places in India, Southeast Asia, and the Sunda Islands. He returned via the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and Egypt. See KEˆVAR. Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Mansour Shaki (usually ¿aqd), legally enforceable undertakings between two or more consenting parties. Contract law is concerned with such questions as definition of contract, how a contract is drawn up, when it is or is not enforceable, how it may be broken, and the results of failure to comply with its terms. Gherardo Gnoli, Elton L. Daniel, Juan R. I. Cole, Amnon Netzer, Juan R. I. Cole, Paul S. Seto, Pargol Saati the act of adopting another religion. Mohammad R. Ghanoonparvar classical, in Persian. Relatively few books in Persian exclusively devoted to the preparation of food are known, even though references to a highly developed cuisine in Persia in premodern times are found in medical, religious, historical, and poetic texts (e.g., Ebn Qotayba, III, pp. 203-05). The poet Abu@ Esháa@q (Bosháa@q) ˆ^ra@z^ (q.v.; d. 827 or 830/1423 or 1427) used culinary vocabulary and terminology in his satirical imitations of the works of the great masters of Persian poetry, including Ferdows^, Sa¿d^, Mawlaw^, and H®a@fezá. ... Sáog@ra@ Ba@zarga@n (kolu@±a, na@n-e kolu@±a, kol^±a) in Persia. Cookies were already mentioned in such early Persian works as Moháammad b. Monawwar's Asra@r al-tawhá^d (p. 150), Moháammad Záa@her^ Samarqand^'s Sendba@d-na@ma (p. 104), H®alla@j ˆ^ra@z^'s D^va@n-e atá¿ema (pp. 19, 20, 27, 73, 80, 152, 154, 182), Nezáa@m^'s Layl^ o Majnu@n (pp. 248, 278), and the poetry of Su@zan^ Samarqand^ (see Dehkòoda@, s.v. kol^±a; B. Foru@za@nfar's annotations to Baha@÷-e Walad, Ma¿a@ref, II, pp. 208-09), as well as in the dictionaries Borha@n-e qa@táe¿ and Farhang-e AÚnand Ra@j. ... Rüdiger Schmitt, Ûa@la AÚmu@zga@r, Mohammad R. Ghanoonparvar, Nancy Hatch Dupree Robert H. Dyson, Jr. CARLETON STEVENS (b. Wakefield, Massachusetts, 23 June 1904, d. Gloucester, Massachusetts, 4 June 1981), American anthropologist and educator. Coon was educated at Harvard University, where he took his Ph.D. degree in anthropology in 1928 and also taught anthropology from 1927 to 1948. Between 1925 and 1934 he conducted fieldwork in North Africa, the Balkans, Ethiopia, and Arabia. In 1948 he left Harvard to become professor of anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania and curator of general ethnology at the University Museum. ... Amir I. Ajami (Þerkat-e ta¿a@won^), economic organizations owned jointly by and operated for the benefit of groups of individuals. Such cooperatives were first introduced and recognized in Persia under the Commercial code (Qa@nu@n-e teja@rat) of 1303 ˆ./1924, which provided for both production (tawl^d) and consumer (masáraf) cooperatives. Since the 1940s the state has been actively involved in the development of different forms of cooperatives through special legislation, technical and financial aid, and actual formation and supervision. ... Willem Floor (< Turk. ±obuq < Pers. ±u@bak “wood” < Mid. Pers. ±o@bag “wand, arrowshaft,” ±o@b “wood, stick”), a long-stemmed pipe with a small bowl for smoking tobacco, distinct from the g@/qalya@n, or water pipe. Tobacco was reportedly introduced to Persia by the Portuguese in 999/1590-91 (Pu@r-e Da@wu@d, pp. 199, 212-13), during the reign of Shah ¿Abba@s I (996-1038/1584-1629), who was generally opposed to it and eventually made trade in tobacco and the use of it illegal (see dok¨aúnèyaút). ... James W. Allan and Willem Floor (Pers. mes, Ar. naháa@s, sáofr), the metallic element Cu. In this article copper in Islamic Persia is discussed (for earlier periods, see bronze). Although copper is mentioned in geographical texts much less often than the precious metals, it appears to have been mined over wide areas of Persia in early Islamic times. Copper ores occur abundantly around the edges of the Persian plateau, and mines were probably worked seasonally until local supplies of fuel ran out (Allan, 1979, pp. 34-35). In the 10th century geographers reported copper mining in the mountains of Ferghana (Farg@a@na) and elsewhere in Transoxania (Ebn H®awqal, pp. ... See AÚB-E DEZ. Aloïs van Tongerloo Until the turn of this century Manicheism (see chinese turkestan vii; Ries, 1988; van Tongerloo, 1991) was known exclusively from secondary sources, mainly Christian, Zoroastrian, Buddhist, and Islamic heresiological writings by opponents of Mani (216-76 c.e.). At the beginning of the 20th century discoveries along the Silk Road provided new primary source material; these text fragments, written in previously undeciphered or little-known languages and scripts—that is, Tokharian, Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, Bactrian, and Old Uighur—or in Chinese and Persian, considerably changed the interpretation and appreciation of Manicheism, which was revealed as a complex mosaic, to which pieces are continually being added. ... Kar^m Ema@m^ (háaqq-e mo÷allef, a direct translation of the French droit d'auteur), the exclusive right to reproduce, publish, and sell the matter or form of a created work, for example, a novel or musical composition. In Persia this right is regulated by two laws dating from the last decade of the Pahlavi period and still in force: Qa@nu@n-e háema@yat-e háoqu@q-e mo÷allefa@n (Copyright law) of 3 AÚdòar 1348 ˆ./24 November 1969 and Qa@nu@n-e tarjama wa takt¯^r-e kotob wa naÞr^ya@t wa a@t¯a@r-e sáawt^ (Law concerning the translation and reproduction of books, publications, and audio recordings) of 6 Dey 1352 ˆ. ... Hu@Þang A¿lam the skeletal deposit of marine polyps, often treated as a gem material. In classical Persian it was called bossad (< Mid. Pers. wassad; cf. the variant vossad, recorded in some old dictionaries, e.g., Borha@n-e qa@táe¿, ed. Mo¿^n, s.v.; cf. H®amza Esáfaha@n^ [10th century], quoted by B^ru@n^, 1936, p. 191: “[Persian] w/vassad was arabicized as bossadò”) concurrently with marja@n, which has superseded the former in modern Persian. Marja@n is the arabicized form of Iranian *marga@n, from which Persian morva@r^d (Mid. ... Robert D. McChesney ˆAÚH-MAH®MUÚD b. M^rza@ Fa@zμel, historian of the 17th-century Chaghatay khanate (see chinese turkestan v) in Mog@u@lesta@n and hagiographer and staunch supporter of the “Black Mountain” khojas. Ùora@s (Jara@s in H®aydar Du@g@la@t, tr., p. 308) was the name of a Mongol tribe, attested from the mid-14th century; through the 15th and 16th centuries it played a small role in Chingizid politics and then, at the beginning of the 17th century, was restored to prominence at the court of Yarka@nd, where M^rza@ Fa@zμel Ùora@s held the positions of qoÞbeg^ (on which see Bregel) and governor under ¿Abd-Alla@h Khan b. ... Daryush Shayegan HENRY (b. Paris 14 April 1903, d. Paris 7 October 1978), French philosopher and orientalist best known as a major interpreter of the Persian role in the development of Islamic thought. Hu@Þang A¿lam Coriandrum sativum L. (Mid. Pers. k/giÞn^z, NPers. geÞn^z, Kurd. keÞneÞ, Taj. kaÞn^j/z, Bal. k^n^± and ge@n^±, R^Þahri, geÞn^, Azeri geÞn^z and gaÞn^Þ), an herb indigenous to the Mediterranean area, the Caucasus, and Persia (Levey, in Kend^, pp. 326-27 no. 263) and valued for its aromatic leaves and seeds. Peter Jackson (Mongol Ùormag@un; in Pers. also written Ju@rma@g@u@n), Mongol general and military governor in Persia, d. ca. 639/1242. His name, sometimes encountered as Ùormag@an, is a diminutive form of Ùorman (see Cleaves). According to RaÞ^d-al-D^n (Ja@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò, Moscow, p. 150), he was a quiver bearer (qor±^) to Ùeng^z Khan and belonged to the Sönit (Su@n^t) tribe; the designation “Ötegedei” found in the Secret History of the Mongols (par. 260) is apparently derived from ötegü bog@ol “tribal slave” and is not strictly speaking an ethnicon (see Pelliot and Hambis, p. ... Kamran Ekbal and Lutz Richter-Bernburg JOHN (sometimes erroneously identified as Charles; d. Maya@mey, near N^Þa@pu@r, October 1833), one of the first English surgeons to work in Persia and personal physician to the crown prince ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.). Cormick, who came from County Tipperary in Ireland, qualified as a member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1800. He was appointed assistant surgeon in the Madras Medical Service in January 1800 and surgeon in February 1807. He went to Persia in 1225/1810 as the second surgeon attached to Major General John Malcolm's third mission, ostensibly dispatched under provisions of a preliminary agreement negotiated by Sir Harford Jones in 1224/1809; he remained as an employee of the East India Company after Malcolm's departure later that year (Lorimer, Gazetteer I/2, p. ... Moojan Momen WILLIAM (b. Tabr^z 1822, d. Tabr^z 25 D¨u÷l-háejja 1294/30 December 1877), a British physician in Tabr^z. Cormick was the son of the Irish physician John Cormick (q.v.) and an Armenian woman of Tabr^z. When he was ten years old his father sent him to England to be educated. He studied medicine at University College, London, qualifying as a member of the Royal College of Surgeons on 17 July 1840 and as licenciate of the Society of Apothecaries in 1841; in 1841 he also received the degree of doctor of medicine from St. ... Hu@Þang A¿lam the male cornel tree, a dogwood shrub with edible berries. Three species of cornel (genus Cornus L., fam. Cornaceae) are native to Persia: C. australis C.A.M., the female cornel tree (s^a@h-al, etc.); C. sanguinea L., the “red dogwood” (Þaft; ±ap±ap^; and C. mas L., the male cornel tree, or “cornelian cherry,” commonly called zog@a@l-akòta, a term that is properly applied only to its ripe berries (Sa@¿^, I, pp. 259-60; Parsa, II, pp. 872-73, VIII, p. 52; T¨a@bet^, 1326 ˆ. ... A. Shapur Shahbazi (Pers. ta@j-godòa@r^) in ancient Iran, the ceremonial act of investing a ruler with a crown, is mainly known from a few references by Western classical and Armenian authors, statements by Ferdows^ and other early Islamic writers, and iconographic implications of monuments (e.g., rock reliefs) and artifacts (especially coins and vessels). Only a sketchy picture can thus be attempted. Mary Boyce disposal of, in Zoroastrianism. In Zoroastrianism the corpse (Av. nasu-, Pahl. nasa@) of a righteous believer was held to be the greatest source of pollution in the world, as the death of such a one represented a triumph for evil, whose forces were thought to be gathered there in strength. In particular the corpse demon (Av. Nasu-, Pahl. NasuÞ, NasruÞt) was believed to rush into the body and contaminate all that came in contact with it. Rules for disposing of the corpse as rapidly and safely as possible are found in the Vide@vda@d (see avesta). ... Nicholas Sims-Williams (C.I.I.), an association devoted to the collection and publication of Iranian inscriptions and documents. The C.I.I. was founded in 1955, in response to a resolution of the 22nd International Congress of Orientalists at Cambridge, with W. B. Henning as its first chairman and Sayyed H®asan Taq^za@da (Taqizadeh) as its honorary president. The first secretary was Mary Boyce. The activities of the C.I.I. are directed by a council and an international committee of up to forty members; it is registered in England as an educational charity and as a nonprofit company limited by guarantee. ... Ah®mad Tafazμzμol^, Fath®-Alla@h Mojtaba@÷^, Hashem Rajabzadeh, Momin Mohiuddin Yah®ya@ D¨oka@÷ (or ±ortaka, ±otka < Russ. schëty “abacus”), an ancient calculation device, a rectangle strung with parallel metal wires along which clay, metal, or wooden beads can be moved. It is still used in the Middle East. There appears to be no reference to such abacuses in surviving early Persian writings, but H®amd-Alla@h Mostawf^ (13th-14th centuries; Nozhat al-qolu@b, p. 42) made reference to a calculating device called takòta-ye farang^ that may have been similar to the ±ortka. According to him, it was Avicenna (q. ... See ÙERAÚM. See BÈGAÚR, BÈGAÚRÈ. See CROW. (Pers. bazak “makeup” < Azeri bäzäk “ornamentation”; Doerfer, II, p. 291), preparations for personal beautification, in Persian tradition used mainly by women on special occasions. A Persian girl brought up in a traditional home was not allowed to wear most cosmetics, but before her wedding she underwent a long process of preparation, including the application of makeup, usually under the direction of a close relative or a professional bride dresser (maÞÞa@táa). ... Philip G. Kreyenbroek, Roger Beck, Werner Sundermann, Werner Sundermann, Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, Wilferd Madelung, Denis M. MacEoin, Moojan Momen theories of the origins and structure of the universe. Muriel Atkin (Ber^ga@d-e qazza@q), a cavalry unit in the Persian army established in 1296/1879 on the model of Cossack units in the Russian army. It began as a regiment but within a few months was expanded to a brigade composed of two regiments; it was expanded still further during World War I and, as a consequence, in 1334/1916 was redesignated a division. Although it remained primarily a cavalry force, it acquired additional components over time: In 1301/1884 the brigade received four pieces of surplus artillery from Russia, and a small artillery unit was established to man them; later a small infantry unit was incorporated as well. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (Lat. Cossaei, Gk. Kossaîoi), a tribe of mountain people settled in western Iran; their land was called Cossaea/Kossaîa (attested in Diodorus, 17.111.5; Strabo, 16.1.17; Stephanus Byzantius, s.v.). Although this ethnonym is frequently mentioned in classical sources, the ancient ethnographers, geographers, and historians seem to have had only a very limited knowledge of these people and their land, customs, and culture, for the information they provided is vague and contradictory. Stephanus Byzantius (following Strabo, 16) reported that the land of the Cossaeans was part of Persia (Strabo, 16. ... Eckart Ehlers and Ahmad Parsa, Hassan Hakimian, Daniel Balland Niloofar Shambayati the military coup that eventually led to the founding of the Pahlavi dynasty. The coup was directed not at the Qajar monarchy as such but at the cabinet of Sepahda@r-e A¿záam Fathá-Alla@h-e Akbar and the oligarchy of landowners and bureaucratic officials that controlled the regime. It was led by Sayyed Z˜^a@÷-al-D^n T®aba@táaba@÷^ and Colonel Rezμa@ Khan M^r Panj—the future Rezμa@ Shah Pahlav^. Mark J. Gasiorowski The appointment of Moháammad Mosáaddeq (q.v.) as prime minister of Persia on 9 Ord^beheÞt 1330 ˆ./29 April 1951 and the nationalization two days later of Persia's British-owned oil industry initiated a period of tense confrontation between the Persian and British governments. It lasted until the overthrow of Mosáaddeq in the coup d'etat of 28 Morda@d 1332 ˆ./19 August 1953, which was “conceived by MI6 [the British Intelligence Service] and delivered by CIA” (Wright, p. 259). Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Philippe Gignoux, C. E. Bosworth, Peter Jackson, Monika Gronke, Roger M. Savory, Abbas Amanat, A. Reza Sheikholeslami, J. T. P. De Bruijn See JUDICIAL SYSTEM. See LORESTAÚN. See CATTLE; GOÚˆURWAÚN. See POLO. Floreeda Safiri SIR PERCY ZACHARIAH (b. Herongate, near Brentwood, Essex, England, 20 November 1864, d. Bedford, England, 20 February 1937), officer of the political service in the British Indian government who held several diplomatic posts in the Persian Gulf region in 1893-1923 and played a leading role in negotiating the Anglo-Persian Agreement (q.v.) of 1919. Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa SIR JEHANGIR COOVERJI (b. Bombay, 11 September 1875, d. Bombay, 14 July 1943), Parsi economist and student of ancient Iranian mythology. The son of Rajkot Cooverji Coyajee, he studied at Elphinstone College, Bombay, and Caius College, Cambridge. After his return to India in 1930 he taught economics at Presidency College in Calcutta, which he served as principal in 1930-31. His erudition and skill as a teacher helped to make Calcutta a leading Indian center for economic study and research. He was knighted in 1928. ... (sáana@ye¿-e/honarha@-ye dast^), categories of hand work in which utilitarian objects of artistic quality are produced. In this article the crafts of 20th-century Persia will be discussed; for the historical development, see individual entries on media and crafts, for example glass, metalwork, and others cited throughout the article. The modern crafts of Persia encompass such media as textiles, ceramics, metalwork, carving, and inlay work of various kinds (for details of the techniques and terminology of a wide range of 20th-century crafts, see Wulff, Crafts). ... HuúÞang A¿lam (kolang < Mid. Pers. kulang; Orm. and Par. kolang; Morgenstierne, pp. 266, 398; cf. Kurmanji Kurdish [g@a@z] qoleng, qoreng, etc.; Mokr^, pp. 102-03; ˆ^ra@z^ g@a@z qolang; dorna@ < Turk. turna; Doerfer, Elemente III, pp. 199-200), any of the large migratory wading birds of the family Gruidae. See CARRHAE. See COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY. See FUNERARY PRACTICES. See JUDICIAL SYSTEM. Parviz Saney the study of the causation, prevention, and correction of crime. In Persia before the Constitutional movement in the early 20th century (see constitutional revolution i) and again since the establishment of the Islamic Republic in 1358 ˆ./1979 the concept of crime has been closely linked with that of sin; it is viewed and treated in accordance with Islamic principles of punishment. In the intervening decades, which were characterized by modernization and westernization of Persian law and other social institutions, the prevailing concepts of crime and punishment were borrowed from the French penal code; in fact, the Persian penal code of 1304 ˆ. ... S. C. Anderson (nahang, Baluchi gandu@), Crocodylus palustris, the marsh crocodile. The marsh crocodile has been little studied in Persia and did not enter the zoological literature until 1971 (Honegger). Ama@n-Alla@h Jaha@nba@n^ (p. 133) has made reference to the existence of crocodiles in Baluchestan, but the only recorded scientific observations of crocodiles in Persia are those of Wayne Kinunen and Steve Bullock and Marc Bosch and his colleagues (in unpublished reports made to the Iran Division of Research and Development) in 1970 and of the present author in 1979 (pp. ... generic name of a large number of hardy bulbous flowering plants of the family Iridaceae. Per Wendelbo and Brian Mathew have reported and fully described nine wild species of Crocus L. from Persia and some adjacent areas (pp. 2-11; see also Parsa, pp. 114-21; Wendelbo, pp. 60-63; Matine, pp. 3-4; Ghahreman, pls. 61, 93, 540, 541, 542, 1176; cf. Schlimmer, pp. 168-69). A. Shapur Shahbazi last king of Lydia (r. ca. 560-46 b.c.e.) and brother-in-law of Astyages (q.v.). When the Achaemenid Cyrus the Great (559-29 b.c.e.) defeated Astyages in 549 Croesus found a casus belli against the Persians (Herodotus, 1.74-75). He made an alliance with Babylonia, Egypt, and Sparta against Persia, but, without waiting for their aid, he occupied the Median province of Cappadocia (q.v.) and enslaved its people. Cyrus countered swiftly and confronted Croesus at Pteria, where a fierce but indecisive battle was fought (Herodotus, 1. ... Ronald E. Emmerick OSCAR TERRY (born Ponchatoula, Louisiana, 21 April 1861, d. Warrenton, Virginia, 2 January 1947), collector of an important group of Khotanese texts. He began his career as an electrical engineer, having a particular interest in high-speed electric locomotion. He became the first president of the Potomac Electric Power Company in Washington, D.C., and was later president of the Washington Traction and Electric Company, the Trenton (N.J.) Street Railway Company, and the Wilmington-Philadelphia Traction Company. ... HuúÞang A¿lam a bird of the family Corvidae, represented in Persia and Afghanistan by six genera (Garrulus, Pica, Nucifraga, Podoces, Pyrrhocorax, and especially Corvus) including fourteen species, of which the jay (Garrulus glandarius) and Pleske's ground jay (Podoces pleskei) occur only in Persia and the black-throated jay (Garrulus lanceolatus) only in Afghanistan (for details, see Hüe and Étche‚copar, pp. 511-34; Scott et al., pp. 255-57, 261-64). Except for the magpie (Pica pica) za@g@±a/za@g@^, the rook (Corvus frugilegus) kala@g@(-e) s^a@h (lit. ... Peter Calmeyer, Elsie H. Peck, Elsie H. Peck, A. Shapur Shahbazi, Yah®ya@ D¨oka@÷ (Pers. and Ar. ta@j), royal and divine headdress. Patricia Jellicoe of Persia, the assemblage of jewels collected by the kings of Persia, kept now in the Ba@nk-e markaz^-e Èra@n (Central bank of Iran) in Tehran. Approximately fifty of the larger gems are engraved with the names and dates of particular rulers. A. Shapur Shahbazi the officially recognized heir apparent to the throne. The position of crown prince was attested in the Median and early Achaemenid periods (Herodotus, 1.74: Astyages, 1.208: Cambyses II), when kingship was becoming institutionalized, under the influence of Mesopotamian, Urartian, and Elamite traditions. The Avestan term v^so@ puƒra (AirWb., cols. 1455-56) “son of the clan” was adopted to denote “prince royal,” translated by Aramaic BR BYT÷ (Bailey, p. 953; Schaeder, pp. 740-43); ultimately, through a vráddhi adjective and duplication of puƒra > pus, the term pus ^ va@spuhr “crown prince” evolved (Su@r saxvan, par. ... Mahmoud Omidsalar by the French orientalist Henri Masse‚ (q.v., b. Lune‚ville, France, 2 March 1886, d. Paris, 9 November 1969), published in 1938, one of the most comprehensive and reliable texts on general Persian folklore in a Western language. Masse‚ believed that the rapid modernization of Persia was bound to lead to the disappearance of popular beliefs and prevalent customs from the countryside (I, p. 13). Early in the 1920s he therefore embarked on a research trip, in order to collect data on Persian folklore. ... Peter Jackson in relation to Persia. The term “crusade” refers to a series of Christian holy wars fought in the Middle Ages against the Muslims in Syria and Palestine and subsequently elsewhere in the Near East and, by extension, to wars against other enemies, both within and outside Christendom, that were put on the same spiritual footing by the popes. In this article the Near Eastern conflicts are considered only insofar as they affected Persia. Layla S. Diba (bolu@r “crystal, rock crystal”; see crystal, rock; also a@bg^na, lit. “like water”; Þ^Þa “glass”), originally a type of fine glass developed in England in the 17th century and owing its special clarity and brilliance to the high refractive index of lead oxide in the metal; the term is often applied to fine glass in general. Beginning in the mid-19th century crystal objects were imported in quantity to Persia. Brigitte Musche, Jens Kröger (bolu@r, bolu@r-e ku@h^), a pure, transparent variety of quartz (SiO2 Rüdiger Schmitt (Gk. Kte@sías), Greek physician at the Achaemenid court and author of Persika‚, who belonged to the Cnidian school of physicians, which claimed to originate with the god Asclepius himself (Galen, XVIII.A, ed. Kühn, p. 731); he was the son of a certain Ctesiarchus or Ctesiochus (Suda, s.v.; cf. Lucianus, Verae Narrationes 1.3; Tzetzes, Chiliades 1.82ff.; cf. Jacoby, Fragmente, p. 516 no. 68, where he mentions his father and grandfather). Jens Kröger (T®^sfu@n), ancient city on the Tigris adjacent to the Hellenistic city of Seleucia, ca. 35 km south of the later site of Baghdad. The origin and meaning of the name is unknown (for the forms, see Honigmann, cols. 1102-03; Markwart, Provincial Capitals, pp. 60-61). In the Greek sources it appears as Kte@siphôn, in Latin Ctesiphon/Ctesifon from the Greek and T(h)esifon or Et(h)esifon, reproducing local forms. In the Aramaic Talmud (÷)qtáyspwn (in Syriac qtáyspwn) occurs. From Iranian texts of the Sasanian period Manichean Parthian tyspwn (or *tysfwn; Henning, pp. ... Robyn C. Friend -BAÚZÈ (“stick game”; also raqsá-e ±u@b “stick dance”), a category of folk dance found all over Persia (Hamada) and distinguished from other types of folk dance by the fact that the dancers carry sticks, which they strike together. Some writers have suggested that these dances may all have originated in stylized combat (Al-Faruqi); they may also be related to the sword dances or jang^ dances described by Medjid Rezvani (pp. 189-90). GÚola@m-H®osayn Yu@sof^ -K¨AT®T® (or ±u@kòatátá; var. ±u@b-qatátá; Dehkòoda@, s.v.; in ˆu@Þtar, Ka@zeru@n, and other parts of southern Persia kana; N^ru@mand, pp. 150, 382; Behru@z^, pp. 224-25, 486), a stick 20-30 cm long formerly used by neighborhood shopkeepers, especially butchers and bakers, to keep individual charge accounts. In Afghanistan it was also used to keep track of profits (Afg@a@n^nev^s, p. 194). It was in common use in both cities and villages until the early decades of this century, when illiteracy was still widespread. ... Hu@Þang A¿lam Cucumis sativus L. (of the family Cucurbitaceae), in Persia generally called kò^a@r (with occasional slight variants), a term that is also employed to designate the fruit of certain other plants (see below). See CUCUMBER. Hu@Þang A¿lam (Pers. z^ra, Ar. kammu@n; Cuminum cyminum L.), an umbelliferous plant of the Old World and its aromatic seeds. In Persia the word z^ra/`^ra (cf. Hindi/Urdu j^ra@ < Sk. j^raka “cumin seed”) also designates caraway seeds (Ar. kara@w^a@, with variants), Carum carvi L., another umbellifer. The two species are usually distinguished by the epithets s^a@h (black) or kerma@n^ (from Kerma@n) for caraway and sabz (green) for cumin. In early medico-pharmacological texts and in some dictionaries the (now obsolete) terms z^ra-ye ru@m^ (Anatolian cumin), Þa@h-z^ra (royal cumin), and qoronba@d also refer to caraway (Borha@n-e qa@táe¿, ed. ... See FARHANG. Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin FRANZ VALÉRY MARIE (b. Aalst, Belgium, 3 January 1868, d. Brussels, 20 August 1947), classical philologist and historian of religions, whose research resulted in a substantial contribution to the understanding of Mithraism and other oriental religions in the Roman empire. After studying in Ghent, Bonn, Berlin, Vienna, Rome, and Paris Cumont was appointed professor of classical philology at the University of Ghent (and curator at the Muse‚e du Cinquantenaire, Brussels), where he remained until 1910. ... A. Shapur Shahbazi the Greek form (attested only in Plutarch, Artoxerxes 8) of the name (< Aram. keniÞta “synagogue”; Barnett, p. 16) of a village located some 50 miles north of Babylon, where a decisive battle was fought on 3 September 401 b.c.e. between Cyrus the Younger and his brother Artaxerxes II (qq.v.; for discussion of ancient sources on the battle, see Pancritius; Kromayer; Lendle; Gugel). It was witnessed by both Ctesias, the great king's Greek physician, whose garbled account was reported by Plutarch (Artoxerxes 9-16), and by Xenophon, who fought on the side of Cyrus and whose narrative (Anabasis 1. ... Rüdiger Schmitt the conventional name for a system of writing ultimately derived from the pictographic script developed by the Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia (Uruk) around 3000 b.c.e. Cuneiform was written with a reed stylus, which left wedge-shaped impressions on soft clay tablets; the tablets were then dried in the sun or baked in a kiln. The term “cuneiform” was introduced by Thomas Hyde (1700), although he disputed the claim that the wedge-shaped symbols had functioned as a writing system; Engelbert Kaempfer also used the term, in 1712. ... See DANCE. Jean-Pierre Digard (or ±o@ba@n “shepherd”; Mid. Pers. and NPers. Þoba@n; Orm. Þáwan, ±upa@n, Þpo@n; Yid. ±upa@n, x™Þ(u)wa@n; Shugh., Þáibo@ne, ±upa@n; Par. xuwa@n; Pashto Þp™; Wakhi Þpün; Chr. Sogd. xwÞp÷n; see Morgenstierne, I, pp. 301, 392, 409, II, pp. 202, 270, 542; Bailey, Dictionary, p. 434; Horn, Etymologie, pp. 171, 287; Doerfer, Elemente III, pp. 108-10; Rahmeti Arat, p. 69; cf. NPers. cu@bda@r “sheep dealer,” Þu@-ba@za@r, name of an old sheep market just outside Shiraz; cf. ... See CHOBANIDS; ÙOBAÚN. James R. Russel Parthian tkrpty, loanword in Armenian takar@apet (cf. Pers. tag@a@r “trough,” Arm. takar@ “barrel”; Hübschmann, Armenische Grammatik, p. 251 no. 639). The Parthian form is attested as the title of one *Zødkirt in the inscription of Narseh at Paikuli (ca. 293 c.e.), in a list of officials, following the scribe of accounts of the realm and preceding various lords and knights (Frye, p. 376; Humbach and Skjærvø, III/1, p. 128). In Achaemenid times, under Cambyses (q.v.), the son of a high noble served as cupbearer; the cupbearer of Artaxerxes I (q. ... See BLOODLETTING Philip Huyse QUINTUS (probably fl. 1st century c.e.), author of the only extant Latin monograph on Alexander the Great (q.v.), usually called Historiae Alexandri Magni, in many respects the most complete and liveliest account of Alexander's exploits in Asia. Although virtually nothing of Curtius Rufus' life is known, literary parallels, as well as linguistic, stylistic, and other internal evidence, suggest that he lived in the 1st century c.e. and that this work may have been written in the early Claudian period (for the most thorough discussion of the problem of dating and additional literature, see Atkinson, pp. ... Denis Wright GEORGE NATHANIEL, 1st Marquess of Kedleston (b. Kedleston, Darbyshire, England, 11 January 1859, d. London, 30 March 1925), statesman, traveler, and writer. The eldest son of the fourth Baron Scarsdale of Kedleston, Derbyshire, where the family owned land and had been settled since the 12th century, Curzon, like others of the British upper class and aristocracy, was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford; at both places he achieved academic distinction. At Balliol Abu÷l-Qa@sem Khan (later Na@sáer-al-Molk), who subsequently became regent for the last Qajar shah, was among his friends and contemporaries. ... Willem Floor (ba@j-e ra@h, ra@h-da@r^), a tax levied on the movement of trade. Barbara Schmitz (qetá¿a “decoupage,” also monabbat-ka@r^ “filigree work”), a type of applied ornament documented in Persian manuscripts and sometimes on bookbindings from the approximate period 895-1060/1490-1650; in Turkey the art of qetá¿a (katé) continued into the 19th century and included a greater variety of subjects (Çig¡; Rogers, pp. 18-23, 34; Türkische Kunst II, pp. 119-21; Duda, I, pp. 119-20, 145, II, figs. 361, 379). In Persian manuscripts qetá¿a was devoted to calligraphic passages (see calligraphy), especially in nasta¿l^q script. ... I. M. Diakonoff (Gk. Kyaxa‚re@s, Herodotus' transcription of OIr. *hUvaxÞtra, a name rendered in Akkadian as mU´-ak-sa-tar, mUk-sa-tar, mU´-ma-ku-iÞ-tar, in Elamite as Ma-ki-iÞ-tur-ri, Ma-ak-iÞ-tar-ra [-m- to be read (-w-)], Old Phrygian ksuwaksaros; the etymology is obscure; see Iranisches Personennamenbuch I/2, p. 27, V/4, p. 34, cf. p. 27: evidence in Lycian?), king of Media in the 6th century b.c.e. Edith Porada The seals of Persia correspond in their types and use to those of Mesopotamia, beginning with amuletic pendants, which could also be used as seals, and developing into elaborately engraved seal stones, with a change in the Uruk period from stamp to cylinder seals. The latter seal form had a revival at the Achaemenid court, whereas the peoples of the Persian empire of that time (which included Babylonia) mostly used cone-shaped stamps or engraved seal rings. Hu@Þang A¿lam (sarv), Cupressus (Tourn.) L. The genus Cupressus is represented in Persia by one species (sempervirens L.), with three varieties: the cereiform (cereiformis Rehd.), called sarv-e na@z in Shiraz; the more common pyramidal or fastigiate, variously called sarv-e Þ^ra@z^ (Shiraz cypress) and sarv-e ka@Þ^ (Ka@Þa@n cypress); and the horizontal, known popularly by several names but usually referred to as zarb^n by modern Persian botanists. The first two varieties are usually propagated and planted as ornamental evergreens, but the zarb^n grows wild in the Caspian forests from Arasba@ra@n to Gorga@n and, mingled with specimens of the sarv-e na@z, in southern Persia (T¨a@bet^, pp. ... Michael Weiskopf an island in the eastern Mediterranean off the southern coast of central Anatolia, not mentioned in any of the Old Persian imperial inscriptions but under Achaemenid control from the reign of Cambyses son of Cyrus (520s b.c.e.) to the reign of Darius III (336-31 b.c.e.). It was never organized as a separate satrapy with its own governor. Herodotus (3.91) reported that it was part of the satrapy of Syria, but as the satrap was never mentioned as managing Cypriot affairs, not even in times of great instability, the report is probably incorrect. ... Nicholas Sims-Williams ACTS OF, Christian martyrological text. The Greek original is lost, but versions survive in several languages, including Latin, Armenian, Syriac, and Arabic. Part of a Sogdian version, translated from the Syriac, is extant in a fragment with the signature T ii B 60 [No. 13] (unpublished; preserved in the Turfan collection of the Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin). The legend, which has been conveniently summarized by August Dillmann, recounts the martyrdom of Julitta, a noblewoman from Iconium, and of her son Cyriacus, a child of two years and nine months; it is set in Tarsus in Cilicia in the year 304 c. ... Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg (Gr. Ku‚rou paideía, The education of Cyrus), a partly fictional biography of Cyrus the Great (q.v.; 559-29 b.c.e.), founder of the Achaemenid empire. It is the longest work written by the Athenian gentleman, soldier, and writer Xenophon (b. ca. 430-25 b.c.e., d. after 356), who served in the expedition of Cyrus the Younger (q.v.) against his brother Artaxerxes II (405-359 b.c.e.) in 401. The title is strictly applicable only to the first of the eight books into which the work is divided. In that book Cyrus' descent, the Persian educational system, and his stay at the court of his maternal grandfather, the Median king Astyages (q. ... Igor V. P'yankov (Latin form of Gr. Kurou‚polis), ancient town in Central Asia probably founded by Cyrus the Great (q.v.; 559-30 b.c.e.). The alternative name Kure‚schata [for another town of the same name see below] probably reflects Iranian *Kuru(Þ)-kaƒa-, lit. “the (reinforced) settlement of KuruÞ/Cyrus” (Benveniste, pp, 163-65; Abaev), but was interpreted by the Greek authors through popular etymology as “Cyra, the farthest/last,” cf. Strabo, 11.11.4: taà Kûra, e‚schaton oàn Ku‚rou ktísma “Kûra, the last city founded by Cyrus” (the form Kûra is also mentioned by Nonnus of Panopolis; Geiger's suggestion [pp. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (Gk. Ky‚rtioi, Lat. Cyrtii), a tribe dwelling mainly in the mountains of Atropatenian Media together with the Cadusii (q.v.), Amardi (or “Mardi”), Tapyri, and others (Strabo 11.13.3). According to Strabo, they were migrants and predatory brigands (11.13.3; cf. 15.3.1). He characterized the Cyrtians living in Persia proper in similar terms. In the Hellenistic period they seem to have been in demand as slingers (Gk. sphendonêtai, Lat. funditores), for they fought as such for the Median satrap Molon in his revolt against King Antiochus III in 220 b. ... Rüdiger Schmitt, A. Shapur Shahbazi, Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Antigoni Zournatzi river in Central Asia. See kura. river in Fa@rs. See kor. sup: CANADA, Iranian Studies in sup: CANADA, v. Iranian Community in Canada, M. Mannani, N. Rahimieh, K. Sheibani sup: ÙERAÚGÚ-E HEDAÚYAT, ("lamp of guidance"), a monolingual Persian dictionary by the Indo-Muslim poet and scholar Ser›j-al-Din ¿Ali Khan AÚrzu, J. R. PERRY sup: COWELL, EDWARD BYLES, polymath, scholar, and translator from Indian languages and Persian, Parvin Loloi |