See anôoman-e taúrèk¨-e afgúaúnestaún. Hubertus Von Gall (lit., “Mother and daughter,” translated by Herzfeld as “The Nurse and the princess”), an important rock-cut tomb, probably of the early Hellenistic period, at the northwestern corner of the Mamasan^ region of Fa@rs. The tomb is situated near Ku@pa@n on the road to K¨u@zesta@n between Nu@ra@ba@d and Dogonbada@n. From Ku@pa@n it can be reached via the village of H®osayna@ba@d (3 km distant), from which it lies about half an hour's walk northwest. ¿Al^-Akbar Sa¿^d^ S^rja@n^ tanning, the process by which animal skins are made into leather. In southern Persia, in S^rja@n, for example, tanning is also known as ¿amal a@vardan (lit., “working the skin”), in the central regions, as at Jandaq, as dast-varz^ (lit., “handling, kneading”). (elementary school). See education. Nassereddin Parvin (lit., “school”), Persian monthly cultural journal published in MaÞhad in 1301-02 ˆ./1922-23 and 1305-06 ˆ./1926-27. The first issue appeared on 1 Rab^¿ II 1341/12 October 1922, and the last was printed on 1 ˆahr^var, 1306 ˆ./24 August 1927. A biweekly journal by the same name had been published in 1324/1906 in Tabr^z. Fath®-Alla@h Mojtaba@÷^ -E MAD¨AÚHEB (School of religious doctrines), an important text of the AÚdòar Kayva@n^ pseudo-Zoroastrian sect (see aúz¨ar kayvaún). It was written anonymously between the years 1055/1645 and 1068/1658 (Rieu, Persian Manuscripts I, pp. 141-43) and contains information particularly about the prevalent religions of India in the 17th century. The author refers to himself only as “the author” (na@ma-nega@r) and “the writer of the acts” (kerda@r-goza@r), but from autobiographical references in the book he seems to have been born in Patna around 1026/1617, for he was about seven years old in 1033/1624, when he was taken to Agra (formerly Akbara@ba@d). ... Ah®mad Tafazµzµoli, Hashem Rajabzadeh (< Mid. Pers. dib^r < Achaemenid Elamite tup-pi-ra; Livshits, 1977, p. 166; Back, p. 207; cf. Arm. dpir), secretary, scribe. -E A¿Z®AM. See BAHRAMÈ, FARAJ-ALLAÚH. Guity Nashat -AL-MOLK FARAÚHAÚNÈ, M^rza@ Moháammad-H®osayn (1225-98/1810-80), director of the private royal secretariat (waz^r-e rasa@÷el-e kòa@sásáa) under Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96). He belonged to a distinguished family of officials, claiming descent from the third imam, H®osayn b. ¿Al^, and he used the attributive al-H®osayn^ on his seal (E¿tema@d-al-Saltáana, p. 117). Members of the family had served both the Zand and Qajar dynasties. Ah®mad Tafazµzµol^ (Mid. Pers. dib^r^h “script”; Man. Mid. Pers. Pahlawa@n^g dib^r^ ud izwa@n “the Parthian script and language”; cf. Boyce, Reader, p. 40; dab^r^ and variants in Islamic sources [see below]; for the exceptional development of the suffix Mid. Pers. -^h into classical Pers. -ih, later -e, beside regular -^, see Sáa@deq^, 1990), a term designating the “seven scripts” supposedly used in the Sasanian period (Me@no@g ^ xrad, ed. Anklesaria, 27.23; Aog™madae@±a@, par. 92; Ebn Moqaffa¿ apud Ebn al-Nad^m, ed. ... (secondary school). See EDUCATION. -E NEZ®AÚM (military secondary school). See MILITARY. Wilfred Madelung the dynasty of espahbads ruling T®abaresta@n until its conquest by the Muslims in 144/761. It is named after its founder Da@bu@ya@ (Da@bo@e@, Da@dbu@ya; see Justi, Namenbuch, p. 75), who appears to have reigned at the time of the rise of Islam. The main source for the history of the dynasty is Ebn Esfand^a@r, whose account of the origins and early years is partly legendary and must be interpreted with caution. Z®ah^r-al-D^n Mar¿aÞ^'s account is of little value. Although it differs on some points from that of Ebn Esfand^a@r, it does not seem to be based on any independent sources. ... Mansour Shaki (Av. da@ta- “law, right, rule, regulation, statute, command, institution, decision” [AirWb., col. 726]; Mid. Pers. da@d “law, canon, regulation, rule, principle, justice, decree, ordinance, attribute”), in the Zoroastrian tradition the most general term for law, in contrast to da@desta@n (q.v.) “civil law, justice, judicial decision, judgment” and kardag “traditional orthodox law, pronouncement of the ancient sages or eminent religious authorities” (Shaki, pp. ... Jean During a vocal and instrumental gu@Þa (motif), in reality more of a melodic type than a modal structure. It is played only in the Ma@hu@r modal system (dastga@h, q.v.), at the beginning of the development section, on the basic Ma@hu@r scale (ma@ya): (A, B), C, D, E, F, G, A, with a slight emphasis on the F and the D. From the modal point of view it consists of the progressive introduction of the notes in the upper register through repetition of small motifs at various pitches. Da@d is sometimes preceded by a short introduction (moqaddama-ye da@d, rad^f of M^rza@ ¿Abd-Alla@h, q. ... Nassereddin Parvin (lit., “justice”), a Tehran afternoon newspaper issued daily from 20 Mehr 1321 ˆ./12 October 1942 to 27 Farvard^n 1340 ˆ./16 April 1961, with four brief interruptions when it was banned. The publisher and managing editor was Abu÷l-H®asan ¿Am^d^ Nu@r^ (1323-1401 = 1360 ˆ./1905-81), a lawyer and representative for Ma@zandara@n in the Majles. The first editor-in-chief was Mosátáafa@ Alamu@t^, an economist and deputy in the Majles, representing Ru@dba@r and Alamu@t; he was also publisher of the newspaper Sáobhá-e emru@z. ... Mansour Shaki (law book), one of the three divisions of the Avesta (q.v.), comprising seven nasks, subdivided into the five strictly legal (da@d^g) nasks (Nika@tum, Duzd-sar-nizad, Huspa@ram, Saka@tum, and Vide@vda@d) and the two disparate nasks, Ùihrda@d and Baga@n YaÞt (De@nkard, ed. Madan, II, p. 678; West, p. 7). The original Avestan texts of these nasks are lost, except for those of the N^rangesta@n and He@rbedesta@n (both sections of the Huspa@ram) and the complete text of the Vide@vda@d; Pahlavi commentaries giving a summary of their contents are preserved in the De@nkard (q. ... (cofounder of the K¨alwat^ Sufi order). See DEDE ÖMER RU‡ENÈ Muhammad A. Dandamayev Old Persian name derived from darÞ “to dare” (Kent, Old Persian, p. 189). Three men with this name are known. Mansour Shaki (da@d [q.v.] “law,” with the formative suffix -sta@n), a Middle Persian term used with denotations and connotations that vary with the legal, religious, philosophical, and social context. As a legal term it has four referents. First, it refers to civil law, as distinct from da@d (q.v.; canon law) or kardag (traditional orthodox law). This distinction is attested in Syriac translation, where de@na@ (da@desta@n) is defined as civil law and na@mosa@ as canon law (Sachau, p. 13). ... Mansour Shaki (Religious judgments), Pahlavi work by Manu@Þ±ihr, high priest of the Persian Zoroastrian community in the 9th century c.e. It comprises an introduction and ninety-two (ninety-four in the translation of E. W. West, who counted the introduction and an irrelevant section at the end of the manuscript) miscellaneous questions (pursiÞn) put by MihrxwarÞe@d, son of AÚdurma@h, and others to Manu@Þ±ihr, along with his answers (passox). The title traditionally given to the work is of late origin; the author himself referred to it in his introduction as a pursiÞn-na@mag (book of questions). ... Ah®mad Tafazµzµol^ (Judgments of the Spirit of Wisdom), a Zoroastrian Pahlavi book in sixty-three chapters (a preamble and sixty-two questions and answers), in which a symbolic character called Da@na@g (lit., “knowing, wise”) poses questions to the personified Spirit of Wisdom (Me@no@g ^ xrad), who is extolled in the preamble and identified in two places (2.95, 57.4) with innate wisdom (a@sn xrad). The book, like most Pahlavi books, is based on oral tradition and has no known author. According to the preamble, Da@na@g, searching for truth, traveled to many countries, associated himself with many savants, and learned about various opinions and beliefs. ... (court of law). See judicial system. (fire). See aútaˆ. Ba@qer ¿AÚqel^ H®OSAYN (b. Tehran ca. 1299/1881, d. 1349 ˆ./1970; Ba@mda@d, Reja@l VI, p. 93), ¿Adl-al-Molk, at various times president of the Persian Majles, cabinet minister, and senator under the Qajar and Pahlavi dynasties. He was the son of a merchant and was educated in theology and jurisprudence, philosophy, history, and mathematics. In 1325/1907 he was employed by the Ministry of justice (Weza@rat-e da@dgostar^) and became a judge. Ten years later he was appointed public prosecutor of Tehran; he was subsequently transferred to the Ministry of the interior (Weza@rat-e dòa@kela) and received the title ¿Adl-al-Molk (Sáafa@÷^, p. ... -e. See judicial system. Erica C. D. Hunter (Syr. “beloved of Jesus”; Payne Smith, col. 824, s.v.; Pers. “given by Jesus”; Justi, Namenbuch, p. 75, s.v. Da@dhyeÞu@¿), catholicus of the Sasanian “Nestorian” church in 420/21-455/56 c.e. (Labourt, p. 120 n. 3), following the short incumbencies of Ma¿na and Farbokt, who were both deposed. The new Sasanian monarch, Bahra@m V (r. 420-38), permitted the election of another catholicus as a reward for services rendered by Samuel, bishop of T®u@s, against barbarian forces at the Khorasan frontier (Assemani, III/1, p. ... Nicholas Sims-Williams (late 7th century c.e.), Nestorian author of ascetic literature in Syriac. Presumably a native of Qatáar, as his surname suggests, Da@diÞo¿ seems to have become a monk at the otherwise unknown monastery of Rab-kenna@re@ before dwelling for a time at the monastery of Rabban ˆa@bu@r (near ˆostar [ˆu@Þtar, Tostar] in K¨u@zesta@n) and at that of the “Blessed Apostles” (Scher, pp. 103-12). In addition to the Retreat of the Seven Weeks and other short treatises on solitude, prayer, and contemplation (Mingana, 1934, pp. ... (espahbad of T®abaresta@n). See dabuyids. Mansour Shaki (respectively judge, administrator of justice, lawgiver, lit., “bearer of law”; Man. Mid. Pers. d÷ywr, Man. Parth. d÷db÷r, Inscr. Mid. Pers. d÷twbl, d÷twbry, Inscr. Parth. d÷tbr, dtbr, OIr. da@ta-bara-, Arm. lw. datavor, Aram. lw. dtbr, Talmudic dw÷r, dwwr; and legal decision, judgment, e.g., pad da@dwar^h andar e@sta@dan “to sit in judgment”). Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal Dadibhai Noshirwanji (1734-99), a distinguished Parsi philanthropist. His given name was Dadi, -bhai being a courtesy addition, Seth a later honorific. He came to be known popularly as the “Great Dadyseth” (Gujarati Mo@ta@ Da@d^Þe@th; Paymaster, p. 6), and his descendants adopted Dadyseth as the family surname. Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal In 1771 c.e. Dadibhai Noshirwanji Dadyseth (q.v.) established an agiary (see aútaÞkada) with an AÚdara@n fire (q.v.) for the sake of the soul of his first wife, Kunverbai, in the Fort district of Bombay. The fire was tended with Shenshahi rites by Bhagaria (q.v.) priests from Navsari (Vatcha, I, p. 309). Dadyseth having subsequently become a Kadmi, his son Ardashir after his father's death built a finer temple on adjacent land and had the fire installed there, with Kadmi rites, on the day of Saro@Þ, month of Farvard^n, 1173 Yazdegerd^/25 September 1803. ... Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal the oldest AÚtaÞ Bahra@m (q.v.) of Bombay, consecrated and installed according to Kadmi (see dadyseth) rites in the district of Fanaswadi on the day of Saro@Þ, month of Farvard^n 1153 A.Y./29 September 1783 (Patell, 1888, p. 86; idem, 1906, pp. 15-17). The cost was borne entirely by Dadibhai Noshirwanji Dadyset. Mulla Kaus brought Kadmi priests from Surat to perform the long consecration rites and was himself installed as the temple's first dastu@r, or high priest. At his death in 1802 he was succeeded in this office by his son Mulla Feroze and he in 1830 by his nephew and heir, Rustomji Kekobadji, the dasturship remaining in their family until 1897 (Seervai and Patell, p. ... See deún. Jean During, Veronica Doubleday AND DAÚYERA (daf < Ar. daff, duff “tambourine”; E. W. Lane, An Arabic-English Lexicon III, London, 1867, p. 888; cf. Hebrew táo@ph “timbrel” [Genesis 31:27, Judges 11:34, Psalms 68:25, 150:4]; da@yera, colloquial NPers. da@r^a, colloquial Afghan doyra < Ar. da@÷era, “circle”), the frame drum or tambourine. Hashem Rajabzadeh (Mid. Pers. daftar (dptl) “register, account book” < Gk. diphthe‚ra “(prepared) hide, piece of leather, especially as a writing material”), an administrative office, as well as a notebook or booklet, more especially an account book or correspondence register, used in such an office. In Greek sources the term diphthe‚ra was sometimes used to refer to the Persian royal archives (haì basilikaì diphthe‚rai); the keeping of such records had been the custom since the Achaemenid period (cf. ... Ah®mad Mahdaw^ Da@mg@a@n^ -E ASNAÚD-E RASMÈ (Registry of official documents), a government department where documents and records of transactions, contracts (q.v.), marriages, divorces, and the like are kept and signatures verified. They are also known as maházμar because before the modern period the religious court maházμar-e háa@kem-e Þar¿ was responsible for recording such transactions. Offices known as daftar-e t¯abt-e asna@d (office for recording documents) were established in a number of Persian cities in accordance with the Qa@nu@n-e t¯abt-e asna@d wa amla@k (Law for recording documents and properties) of 21 Farvard^n 1302 ˆ. ... Hashem Rajabzadeh -K¨AÚNA-YE HOMAÚYUÚN (royal secretariat), a Safavid administrative unit headed by the daftarda@r, or chief secretary. The earliest known mention of the daftar-kòa@na (secretariat) is dated to the 14th century: Moháammad Nakòjava@n^ devoted a chapter of his Dastu@r al-ka@teb to daftar-da@r^-e mama@lek (state record keeping). He credited Sáa@háeb-(e) D^va@n K¨úa@ja ˆams-al-D^n Jovayn^ with having appointed a secretary (daftarda@r-e d^va@n) to the Il-khanid court (II, pp. 125-31). S®a@deq Sajja@d^ (Av. daxÞa-, Bal. dakòta), brand, a mark made by touching the body of an animal or human being with a heated iron implement or, by extension, a lasting mark of any kind (e.g., Heda@yat, s.v.; Naf^s^, s.v.; cf. Jorfa@daqa@n^, p. 9). As an adjective da@g@ means very hot, particularly with reference to water and metal. The abundance of compounds like da@g@ zadan (to brand), da@g@^ (branding iron), da@g@sa@z (brand maker), da@g@neh or da@g@gar (brander), da@g@ga@h (site where branding takes place) indicates that branding was a widespread practice for various purposes, notably identifying ownership of animals, punishing criminals, and medical and veterinary purposes. ... Gadzhi Gamzatovich Gamzatov, Fridrik Thordarson Roger M. Savory fath®-¿alè khan b. Alqa@sá M^rza@ b. Ildirim Khan ˆamkòa@l, grand vizier (waz^r-e a¿záam, e¿tema@d-al-dawla) under Shah Soltáa@n-H®osayn I Sáafaw^ (1105-35/1694-1722). In this office he was one of the successors to M^rza@ Moháammad-T®a@her Qazv^n^ “Wahá^d” (Heda@yat, VIII, p. 505), who retired from office because of his great age and failing health and died in 1110/1698-99 (see Dehqa@n in Qazv^n^, pp. 1920; cf. Tadòkerat al-molu@k, ed. Minorsky, p. 65 n. 1: “seems to have retired in 1120/1708 (?)”). ... Chahryar Adle the first practical photographic process, introduced into Persia in the early 1840s, shortly after its official presentation to the French Acade‚mie de Science in Paris in 1839. It was developed by the French painter Jacques Daguerre (1787-1851) and involved exposing, through the lens of a camera, a silver-coated copper plate sensitized by iodine, then developing the image with vapor of mercury (for details of the process and its sources, see Daguerre). In Persia the introduction of the daguerreotype paved the way for a floruit of photography in the second half of the 19th century. ... Hamid Algar a Sufi order of Shi¿ite allegiance, ultimately derived from the Kobraw^ya order, founded in the mid-12th century by Najm-al-D^n Kobra@ (d. 617/1220). It is found today almost exclusively in Shiraz and Azerbaijan. Despite the relatively meager number of its adepts, it is significant as the sole surviving branch of the once great Kobraw^ order, apart from still smaller groups in Kashmir and Bihar. François De Blois, Willem Vogelsang Gherardo Gnoli -E GÚOLAÚMAÚN or, according to Walther Hinz (p. 374 n. 1), Dahana-ye GÚola@ma@n “Gateway of the slaves,” site located 2 km straight south of the village of Qal¿a-ye Now (New fortress, QN) ca. 30 km southeast of Za@bol in S^sta@n, in the Persian part of the endorrheic basin originally formed by the waters of the Helmand river, very close to the Afghan frontier. The archeological site, which was discovered in 1960 by Umberto Scerrato of the Italian archeological mission, is located on a terrace at the foot of the desert plateau that surrounds the Ha@mu@n-e Helmand basin, near an artificial corridor that serves as the entrance into the basin and for which the site is named. ... Hamid Algar a hereditary line of NaqÞband^ Sufis centered on the shrine at Dahb^d, a village about 11 km. from Samarqand. The first Dahb^d^ Shaikh was Makòdu@m-e A¿záam Sayyed Ahámad K¨úa@jag^ Ka@Þa@n^ (q.v.; d. 949/1542), a native of Ka@Þa@n near Farg@a@na, who claimed descent from Imam ¿Al^ al-Rezµa@ (q.v.). Makòdu@m-e A¿záam, was buried in Dahb^d, beneath the tree under which he had enjoyed sitting during his lifetime. Several important NaqÞband^ lineages originated with him. They include the Ju@yba@r^ shaikhs of Bukhara, whose progenitor, K¨úa@ja Moháammad Esla@m Ju@yba@r^ (d, 971/1563), was one of Makòdu@m-e A¿záam's successors (kòal^fas), and the White Mountain and Black Mountain Khojas of eastern Turkestan, descended respectively from ÈÞa@n Kala@n K¨úa@ja Moháammad-Am^n and K¨úa@ja Esháa@q Wal^, two of Makòdu@m-e A¿záam's sons (see chinese turkestan v, especially p. ... Mary Boyce the Middle Persian name of the Zoroastrian divinity (also known as Dahma@n AÚfr^n and Dahma@n) who is the spirit or force inherent in the Avestan benediction called Dahma Vaºuhi AÚfriti, or Dahma AÚfriti. This benediction invokes blessings on the house of the just man, the aÞavan, and is incorporated in the yasna liturgy as Ha@ 60.2-7, the longer form of its name being given in the following ha@. There (Y. 61) it is said to be the fourth most powerful of all utterances. Mansour Shaki, Daniel Gimaret (< Ar.-Pers. dahr “time, eternity”), a theological term referring either to an atheist or to an adherent of the doctrine that the universe had no beginning in time. Gherardo Gnoli (OIr. dahyu-), attested in Avestan dax‚iiu-, daº‚hu- “country” (often with reference to the people inhabiting it; cf. AirWb., cot. 706; Hoffmann, pp. 599-600 n. 14; idem and Narten, pp. 54-55) and in Old Persian dahyu- “country, province” (pl. “nations”; Gershevitch, p. 160). The term is likely to be connected with Old Indian da‚syu “enemy” (of the Aryans), which acquired the meaning of “demon, enemy of the gods” (Mayrhofer, Dictionary II, pp. ... Farhad Daftary Ú¿È (he who summons), a term used by several Muslim groups, especially the Isma¿ilis, to designate their propagandists or missionaries. It was adopted by the ¿Abbasid da¿wa, or mission, in Khorasan (see ¿abbasid caliphate) and by the early Mu¿tazilites, but it soon became particularly identified with certain Shi¿ite groups, for example, the Zayd^s and some Shi¿ite extremists (g@ola@t), notably the K¨atátáa@b^ya (see abuú÷l-k¨at®t®aúb asadè). The term acquired its widest application in connection with the Isma¿ilis, though early Isma¿ili authors in Persia sometimes substituted other designations, like jana@há (plural, ajneháa; see the excerpt from Abu@@ H®a@tem Ra@z^, Keta@b al-esála@há, in Hamdani, p. ... Tahsin Yazici pen name of AH®MAD b. Ebra@h^m b. Moháammad, Turkish scholar and poet who wrote in both Persian and Turkish. From the little information found in tadòkeras and Da@¿^'s own work, it is known that he lived during the latter part of the 14th century and the first half of the 15th century. Some authors (Seh^, p. 56; ¿Abd-al-Latá^f, p. 85; Qena@l^za@da, I, p. 139) reported that he was from the province of Getm^a@n, the present-day Kütahya in Turkey, others (T®aw^l [Uzun] Ferdows^, Solayma@n-na@ma, Süleymaniye kütüphanesi, Istanbul, ms. ... Cathe‚rine Poujol MÈRZAÚ ˆAMS-AL-DÈN BOK¨AÚRÈ (d. 1303/ 1885), poet from Bukhara, probably born during the reign of Amir Nasár-Alla@h (1242-77/1827-60). He was appointed secretary by Nu@r-al-D^n, the Manghit governor of Ùa@rju@y. His career illustrates the life of a provincial court poet in the Bukharan emirate and the continuation of the tradition of poet-secretaries at the end of the 19th century. Da@¿^ lived through the period of transition in Bukhara (q.v.) from independent emirate to protectorate of the Russian empire, in 1290/1873. ... M. Saleem Akhtar -AL-ESLAÚM, SAYYED MOH®AMMAD-¿ALÈ, Persian scholar, preacher, and lexicographer, born 1295/1878 at La@r^ja@n. After receiving his early education at AÚmol and Tehran, in 1316/1898 he went to Isfahan to continue his studies under the guidance of such respected religious teachers as AÚkòu@nd Molla@@ Moháammad Ka@Þ^, Jaha@ng^r Khan QaÞqa@÷^ and AÚqa@ Khan Najaf^ (q.v.). His stay at Isfahan (1316-24/1898-1906), during which he also learned English and Hebrew, coincided with the arrival of some European missionaries, who, through their preaching and distribution of polemical literature, caused a great stir. ... Wilfred Madelung ELA÷L-H®AQQ, ABUÚ ¿ABD-ALLAÚH MOH®AMMAD b. Zayd b. Moháammad b. Esma@¿^l b. H®asan b. ¿Al^ b. Ab^ T®a@leb (d. 287/900), brother and successor of H®asan b. Zayd, founder of Zayd^ rule in Ru@ya@n and T®abaresta@n. Nothing is known about the date of his birth and his youth. It seems likely, however, that the family lived in Iraq before coming to T®abaresta@n (Sáafad^, XII, p. 21). Moháammad appears to have arrived in ˆalanba near Donba@vand (Dama@vand) on his way to T®abaresta@n in 253/867, three years after his brother had established himself there. ... Nasrin Rahimiyeh (lit., “Uncle Napoleon”), a satirical novel written in 1348-49 ˆ./1969-70 by Èraj PezeÞkza@d, who was already known in Persia for such satirical novels as Ha@j^ Mamja¿far dar Pa@r^s (Tehran, 1333 ˆ./1954) and Aság@ar AÚqa@ Kal Meyt^, as well as the weekly column “AÚsemu@n o r^smu@n” in the magazine Ferdows^ (published in book form, in Tehran, 1343 ˆ./1964). The theme of Da@¿^ Ja@n Na@pel÷on is the paranoid behavior of the chief character, representing the widespread conviction in 20th-century Persia that the British were the secret instigators and hidden agents of all events in the country (see conspiracy theories). ... -E KABÈR. See H®ASAN b. ZAYD. -E S®AGÚÈR. See H®ASAN b. QAÚSEM ¿ALAWÈ. D¨ab^h®-Alla@h S®afa@@ AL-DAÚ¿È ELA÷LLAÚH SAYYED NEZ®AÚM-AL-DÈN MAH®MUÚD (810-70/1407-65), known as Shah Da@¿^, poet, preacher, and leader of the Ne¿mat-Alla@h^ Sufi order in Fa@rs. He was a descendent of H®asan b. Qa@sem, known as al- Da@¿^ al-Sáag@^r, the fourth da@¿^ (304-16/916-28) of the ¿Alid dynasty of T®abaresta@n (see ¿alids); hence his title Da@¿^ ela÷lla@h. In poetry he used the pen name Da@¿^ and sometimes Nezáa@m^ or Nezáa@m^-e T¨a@n^. Gherardo Gnoli (lit., “the (good) Da@itya@”; Mid. Pers. Weh Da@it^), the name of a river connected with the religious “law” (Av. da@ta-, Mid. and NPers. da@d, qq.v.), frequently identified in scholarly literature with the Oxus or with rivers of the northeastern region (Geiger, pp. 32-33). In the Avesta, however, Vaºhv^ Da@itya@ seems to have been particularly identified with the Helmand (Markwart, pp. 120, 122 n. 3, 159 n. 2; cf. Gnoli, 1989, p. 53). Avestan vaºhuyå da@ityayå “of the good Da@itya@“ qualifies airyana- vae@jah- (see avestan geography; eúraúnveúj); the entire phrase airyan™m vae@èo@ vaºhuyå da@ityayå “the Aryan expanse of the good Da@itya@” is the original name of the district Airyana Vae@èah (Benveniste). ... See DEIOCES. Clarisse Herrenschmidt and Jean Kelllens Old Iranian noun (Av. dae@uua-, OPers. daiva-) corresponding to the title deva‚- of the Indian gods and thus reflecting the Indo-European heritage (*dei„o‚-), though the category of divinities to which it referred seems to have dropped completely out of the Iranian religious tradition and even to have become demonized. It is extremely difficult to determine just when this change took place and to understand its significance within the framework of Mazdean theology. The impression garnered from various sources is that the process was a gradual one. ... Gherardo Gnoli (lit., “temple of the daivas,” q.v.), Old Persian term that appears in the “daiva inscription” of Xerxes (486-65 b.c.e.) at Persepolis (XPh 37-38; Kent, Old Persian, p. 151): pasa@va vaÞna@ Auramazda@ha adam avam daivada@nam viyakanam “Afterwards, by the favor of Ahura-mazda@, I destroyed that temple of the daivas.” The name is composed of daiva- “god” (but with a negative connotation, as in Av. dae@uua-, reflecting Zoroaster's condemnation of polytheism) and da@na- (IE. ... Hamid Algar (the great deceiver), in Islamic tradition the maleficent figure gifted with supernatural powers whose advent and brief, though quasi-universal, rule will be among the signs heralding the approach of the resurrection. The Dajja@l may be thought of as the Antichrist, for he is often styled al-mas^há al-dajja@l and it is generally to Jesus (after his second coming) that the task of killing him is assigned. The role of the Dajja@l differs from that of the Antichrist in several respects, however, the most important being that his defeat and death are envisioned in the context of the universal triumph of Islam in the last days of the world. ... -AL-MOLK. See FORUÚGÚÈ, MOH®AMMAD-¿ALÈ; FORUÚGÚÈ, MOH®AMMAD-H®OSAYN. Hamid Algar SAYYED MÈR ¿ABD-AL-H®AMÈD MA¿SáUÚM-¿ALISAÚH (ca. 1151-1211 or 1212/ca. 1738-97), the “renewer” (mojadded) of the Ne¿mat-Alla@h^ Sufi order in Persia and thus the initiatory ancestor of all present-day Ne¿mat-Alla@h^s. He was born in Hyderabad (Deccan) to an aristocratic family that, like most of the governing elite of the province, was probably of Persian origin. Early in his youth he joined the followers of Rezµa@-¿Al^Þa@h (q.v.; d. 1214/1799), qotáb (leader) of the Ne¿mat-Alla@h^ order, who gave him the Sufi sobriquet Ma¿sáu@m-¿Al^Þa@h, by which he is commonly known (Ma¿sáu@m-¿Al^Þa@h, III, p. ... Javad Nurbakhsh -¿ALȈAÚH, also known as Shah ¿Al^-Rezµa@ (1094-1204/1683-1799), leader (qotáb, lit., “pole”) in the years 1154-1214/1741-99 of the Ne¿mat-Alla@h^ Sufi order in Hyderabad (Deccan), India. Nothing is known of his background, except that he was a disciple of ˆams-al-D^n Dakan^, who initiated him into the order. He is best known as the man responsible for reviving the Ne¿mat-Alla@h^ order in Persia through the dispatch of Sayyed ¿Abd-al-H®am^d Ma¿sáu@m-¿Al^Þa@h Dakan^ (q. ... H®osayn-¿Al^ Beyhaq^ “interceder,” a piece of rag or cord or a lock fastened (dakò^l bastan) on a sacred place or object, for example, the railing around a saint's tomb or grave or a public fountain (saqqa@-kòa@na), the branch of a tree considered sacred, or another plant (e.g., ˆahr^, V, p. 113, VI, p. 10; ˆaku@rza@da, pp. 91-92; cf. Dehkòoda@, s.v.), in order to obtain a desired benefit. The practice has always been particularly popular among women. ¿Al^-Akbar Sa¿^d^ S^rja@n^ -YE k¨úAÚRAZMˆAÚHÈ, a Persian encyclopedia of medical knowledge compiled by Sayyed Esma@¿^l b. H®osayn Jorja@n^ and dedicated to his patron, the ruler of K¨úa@razm, Qotáb-al-d^n Moháammad K¨úa@razmÞa@h (r. 490-521/1097-1127). It is the most comprehensive medical treatise written in Persian up to that date, incorporating the findings of earlier physicians recorded in Arabic and Persian books, as well as observations from Jorja@n^'s own medical practice. It is also a fine example of early Persian prose, simple and unornamented, lucid and graceful. ... See CORPSE. Robert H. Dyson, Jr. an archeological site in western Azerbaijan. It is a small mound located about 5 km southwest of H®asanlu@ Tepe just north of the modern village of Dalma@ in the Soldu@z valley at the southwestern edge of Lake Urmia. The mound rises about 4 m above the plain level and is approximately 50 m in diameter at the base. It was excavated by Charles Burney in 1958 and 1959 and T. Cuyler Young, Jr., in 1961, as part of the Hasanlu Project of The University Museum of Archaeology/Anthropology of the University of Pennsylvania and collaborating institutions (Hamlin). ... Farrokh Gaffary buffoon, court jester, also sometimes known as maskòara. The earliest extant study of buffoons is that of Athenaeus (bks. 1, 6, 12) from the 2nd century c.e., though it seems that clowns, comic actors, jugglers, conjurors, and acrobats were not yet clearly distinguished (Welsford, p. 4). The absence of such clear distinctions among different classes of royal and popular entertainers is also typical of Persian sources, both pre-Islamic and Islamic. Here the word dalqak refers to the court jester, the professional buffoon employed by nobles and kings for the explicit purpose of entertainment. ... G. A. Pugachenkova a large site in southern Uzbekistan located not far from the bank of the Surkhandarya river near Denau, a small city approximately 60 km northeast of Termez; it has yielded valuable data on the civilization and arts of northern Bactria and Tokharistan. The excavations were sponsored by the Uzbekistan Institute of Fine Arts, Tashkent, and were directed by the present author. See BAND. Klaus Fischer archeological site in Afghanistan, 30°55' N, 62°01' E, located approximately 20 km east of the Helmand delta, 10 km south of the Ha@mu@n-e AÞk^n ¿AÚm (the southeastern part of the Ha@mu@n-e S^sta@n, on Afghan territory), and 10 km north of the extensive ruins of Kordu@, in the desert on the edge of the moving sand dunes between Kordu@ and Pata@ndek. Jean-Pierre Digard -DAÚRÈ (animal husbandry). The first known domestication of certain animals took place in various parts of Persia: Kurdistan, where sheep were domesticated ca. 9000 b.c.e, and goats ca. 7000 b.c.e. (see boz), and the Zagros mountains, where the ox was domesticated ca. 5000 b.c.e. (Flannery, passim; Reed, passim). In the Neolithic era and antiquity these areas were among the richest agricultural zones in the Near East, giving rise to an early and distinctive agricultural and pastoral way of life based on the exploitation of summer pastures at high elevations; beginning in the 13th century, under the pressure of the Mongol invasion, this way of life in turn served as the point of departure for the development of the Turco-Persian pastoral nomadism that is still current in much of the region (Hesse; Zeder; Briant; de Planhol). ... Mansour Shaki, H®asan Ta@jbak¨Þ and S®a@deq Sajja@d^ -PEZEˆKÈ, veterinary medicine. Andrew J. Newman MÈR(-E), SAYYED MOH®AMMAD-BAÚQER b. M^r ˆams-al-D^n Moháammad H®osayn^ Astara@ba@d^ (d. 1041/1631), leading Twelver Shi¿ite theologian, philosopher, jurist, and poet of 17th-century Persia. He inherited the title Da@ma@d (son-in-law) from his father, who had married the daughter of the famous Shi¿ite theologian Shaikh ¿Al^ b. H®osayn Karak^, known as Moháaqqeq-e T¨a@n^ (d. 940/1534). For his contributions to philosophy M^r Da@ma@d was later dubbed mo¿allem-e t¯a@let¯ (the third teacher), thus being classed with Aristotle and Fa@ra@b^, the first and second teachers respectively. ... Mary Boyce Zoroastrians at. The earliest evidence for the presence of Zoroastrians at Damascus is provided by Berossus (q.v.), who stated (Jacoby, Fragmente IIIC, frag. 65) that this was one of the cities of the Achaemenid empire at which Artaxerxes II (q.v.; 404-358 b.c.e.) had a statue set up for “Anaitis” (q.v.). “At” need mean no more than “near” (see Boyce and Grenet, pp. 203, 354), and the temple in which the statue was erected may well have stood outside the city by one of the streams flowing down from the Anti-Lebanon, the banks of which would have been a fit place for the worship of a river divinity. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (Gk. Dama‚spia@ or -pía@), name of a Persian queen, wife of Artaxerxes I (q.v.) and mother of his legal heir, Xerxes II (424/3 b.c.e.). She was named only once by Ctesias (in Jacoby, Fragmente, vol. III.C, p. 468, frags. 15, 47); according to the excerpts from his text (where Xe‚rxe@s is to be corrected to Artoxe‚rxe@s, as in two neighboring instances), she died on the same day as Artaxerxes, thence in 424/3 b.c.e.; yet there is no available evidence whatsoever on her age and lineage (for speculations, see König, pp. ... Bernard Hourcade, Ah®mad Tafazµzµol^ mountain, town, and administrative district (Þahresta@n) in the central Alborz region. D. N. MacKenzie the Middle Persian (Pahlavi) name of one of the lost nasks of the Avesta (q.v.). It is probably the traditional “learned” rendering of an Avestan word *da@mi.da@ti- “the creating of the creation,” as a real derivative of this word would have become *da@mya@d (see daúmi-). Alternatively it may be a Middle Persian coining from the phrase da@m da@d “he (Ohrmazd) created the creation.” Knowledge of its contents comes from two sources. The older is the description of the nasks in book 8 of the Pahlavi De@nkard (q. ... See DARDIC LANGUAGES. Chahryar Adle Persian town located on a plain south of the Alborz range, 342 km east of Tehran (54° 20', 36° 10' N, 1115-30 m above sea level). It was for a long time the capital city of the small province of Ku@meÞ (Ar. Qu@mes, Gk. Ko@mise@ne@´; Lat. Comisene; see, e.g., Strabo 11.9.1), now Osta@n-e Semna@n (for the geomorphological and ecological setting of the Da@mg@a@n plain, see O. G. Meder in Dyson and Howard, pp. 7-12). The town was reputed to have been founded by Ho@Þang, the second of the mythical P^Þda@d^a@n kings of Iran (Mojmal, ed. ... EIr. nesba of a leading family of jurists of Persian origin, descendants of Abu@ ¿Abd-Alla@h Moháammad Kab^r (b. Da@mg@a@n 398/1007, d. Baghdad 478/1085), a well-known exponent of Hanafite law, who served as the chief magistrate (qa@zμ^ al-qozμa@t) of Baghdad. Members of the family were active until the mid-12th century (see genealogical chart in Makdisi, p. 193). Sheila S. Blair nesba of a father and two sons from Da@mg@a@n who worked as engineers, builders, and stucco carvers in the early 14th century. -¿ALÈ. See ABUÚ ¿ALÈ DAÚMGÚAÚNÈ. Jean Kellens -, Avestan word, probably the noun of agency connected with Old Avestan da@man- “stake” (Y. 46.6, 48.7; equivalent to Skt. da@´man- < Indo-Ir. *da@ “to attach”; Insler, p. 267), thus “the one who drives the stake” (Kellens, 1989). It was formerly interpreted (AirWb., pp. 736-37) as a masculine noun in -mi- (< da@ “to create” < Indo-Ir. *dha@ “to put”), which is attested only in the Gathas and refers either to the agent (“the one who creates, the creator,” Y. ... Mohammad R. Ghanoonparvar terms referring to rice cooked in a single pot (cf. polow and ±elow; see ùelow-kabaúb). Dampokòt or dam^ may consist of plain rice, in which case it is sometimes called kata, or rice mixed with other ingredients, like saute‚ed onions, fava beans, mung beans, and seasonings. Plain dam^ is prepared by placing rice, water, and butter or oil in a pot and allowing it to boil until the water has been absorbed, then steaming the rice in the same pot over low heat. When other ingredients are to be included, they are either cooked first in the pot and the rice added to them, or they are added later, depending on the required cooking time. ... A. Shapur Shahbazi, Robyn C. Friend (raqsá). The term dance has been defined as a “transient mode of expression, performed by the human body moving in space . . . through purposefully selected and controlled rhythmic movements . . . ” (Kealiinohomoku, p. 28). Gerd Gropp (“ivory houses”), ruined city located about 50 km north of the Domoko (q.v.) oasis in the eastern portion of the oasis complex of Khotan, in Chinese Turkestan. Today this area is completely uninhabited, but the ruined buildings and remains of huge trees show that in the 6th-8th centuries the Chira river, originating in the southern mountains, flowed past it and made possible the cultivation of fruit trees. The site consists of temples and dwellings, which are covered by high dunes. Sven Hedin discovered the ruins in 1896 during his perilous attempt to cross the Takla Makan desert between the Keriya and Khotan-Darya rivers; among several freestanding walls he found stucco sculptures and wooden vessels, which are now in the Ethnographic Museum, Stockholm. ... C. Edmund Bosworth a small town of medieval Khorasan, in the Qara Qum, or sandy desert, between Marv and Sarakòs, 10 farsakòs from the former, on which it was administratively dependent (Ebn K¨orrada@dòbeh, pp. 24, 202; Esátáakòr^, p. 284; Ebn Rosta, p. 279; Zhukovski¥, pp. 21-22, 38). The site of the settlement is now in the Republic of Turkmenistan. From the reports of the 10th-century Arabic and Persian geographers it is clear that the town was protected by a wall 500 paces in circumference, with a reba@tá or caravansary for travelers en route to Marv (Ebn H®awqal, pp. ... Nassereddin Parvin (lit., “knowledge”), title of seven newspapers and journals published in Persia and the Indian subcontinent, presented here in chronological order. Vincent Fourniau (DoniÞ), AH®MAD MAK¨DUÚM b. M^r b. Yu@sof H®ANAFÈ S®EDDÈQÈ BOK¨AÚRÈ (1242-1314/1827-97), known as Ahámad Kalla@ and Mohandes (lit., “engineer”), a historian and progressive Tajik writer of Bukhara. The son of the imam of a small mosque in Bukhara, he proved more interested in stories told in the street than in koranic studies (Islamova, p. 50). Nevertheless, he studied in a madrasa (religious school), where he also taught himself history, literature, astronomy, geometry, medicine, calligraphy, and music; his artistic gifts caught the attention of the court architect, whose prote‚ge‚ he became (Epifanova, pp. ... Peter J. Chelkowski (b. Istanbul 1286/1870, d. Ankara 1322 ˆ./1943), a leading Turco-Persian poet, journalist, and scholar. ¿Al^-Akbar Sa¿^d^ S^rja@n^ pen name of MO¿ÈN-AL-WEZAÚRA MÈRZAÚ REZ˜AÚ KHAN ARFA¿ (Arfa¿-al-Dawla; ca. 1262/1846-1316 ˆ./1937), also known as Prince Rezµa@ Arfa¿, diplomat and poet of the late Qajar period. According to his son H®asan Arfa¿ (q.v.; Arfa, p. 1), Rezµa@'s grandfather M^rza@ Ebra@h^m was the chief minister of the khan of Yerevan during the Perso-Russian war of 1241-43/1826-28. Some time after the Russian annexation of Yerevan in 1242/1827 Ebra@h^m's son H®asan, later known as H®a@j^ Shaikh H®asan Sáarra@f Èrava@n^, moved to Tabr^z, where he married and established a modest business. ... Èraj AfÞa@r (b. Tabr^z, 1278 ˆ./1861, d. Tehran 5 Esfand 1327 ˆ./24 February 1948), poet and government official. His father, M^rza@ H®osayn Waz^r-e TafreÞ^, also known as Bolu@r (crystal), was a government accountant (mostawf^) and official of the private quarters at the court of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96). The young Da@neÞ studied literature and theology under M^rza@ Abu÷l-H®asan Jelwa and Molla@@ ¿Abd-al-Sáamad Yazd^ and calligraphy under M^rza@ ¿Al^-Moháammad Sáafa@. He served as revenue officer (mostawf^) and clerk under M^rza@ Yu@sof Mostawf^-al-Mama@lek in Tehran, Mas¿u@d M^rza@ Z®ell-al-Soltáa@n in Isfahan, Mahámu@d Na@sáer-al-Molk in Kurdistan (ten years) and Am^n-al-Soltáa@n in Tehran. ... Hamid Dabashi -NAÚMA-YE ¿ALAÚ÷È, Persian philosophical treatise written by Avicenna (q.v.; 370-428/980-1037). No title is mentioned in the book, but ¿Abd-al-Wa@háed Ju@zja@n^, a student of Avicenna's who edited and amended the text, gave it the title Da@neÞ-na@ma. The work has also been called Da@neÞ-na@ma-ye ¿ala@÷^ya, H®ekmat-e ¿ala@÷^ or ¿ala@÷^ya, al-Keta@b al-¿ala@÷^, Osáu@l wa nokat-e ¿olu@m-e kòamsa-ye háekam^ya, and Da@neÞ-ma@ya (Ùaha@r maqa@la, ed. Qazv^n^, pp. 448-53; Qazv^n^, p. 83; Avicenna, 1974a, pp. ... Ehsan Yarshater -NAÚMA-YE ÈRAÚN WA ESLAÚM (Encyclopedia of Iran and Islam). In 1348 ˆ./1969 Bonga@h-e tarjoma wa naÞr-e keta@b (q.v.; Institute for translation and publication) considered publishing a Persian translation of the second edition of the The Encyclopaedia of Islam. But, as the treatment of Iranian-speaking lands in that reference work was found somewhat inadequate (reflecting lack of adequate research on relevant Iranian topics), compared to the treatment of some other Islamic countries, and as the subject matter did not encompass pre-Islamic Iran, it was decided to combine the translation of articles from The Encyclopaedia of Islam with additional, original articles, in order to produce a comprehensive and up-to-date survey of Iranian culture and history. ... Solomon Bayevsky -NAÚMA-YE QADAR KHAN (Book of knowledge [dedicated to] Qadar Khan), a Persian dictionary compiled by AÞra@f b. ˆaraf Modòakker Fa@ru@g@^ primarily in Malwa, India, and completed on 21 D¨u÷l-háejja 807/20 June 1405. It was dedicated to Qadar Khan, a son of Dela@var Khan GÚu@r^, ruler of Malwa (794-809/1392-1405). AÞra@f came from the Chandiri district of the kingdom, but nothing is known about his life or other works. -SARAÚ-YE ¿AÚLÈ. See education; teacher training. -SARAÚ-YE MOQADDAMAÚTÈ. See education. Ehsan Yarshater locally Donesbon, a village located at 49° 45' E, 35° 47' N in the southern part of the Ra@mand district of Qazv^n province, 30 km west and slightly north of Bu@y^n; it has a population of a little over 3,000 (3,074, according to the census of 1345 ˆ./1966; Farhang-e a@ba@d^ha@-ye keÞvar 13, Tehran, 1348 ˆ./1969, s.v.). The village was badly damaged during the earthquake of 1341 ˆ./1962 but was later reconstructed. See education; entries on individual universities. -E JANG. See military. DA. See EDUCATION; FACULTIES. DA (newspaper). See Supplement. DA-YE AFSARÈ. See military. -ye ES®FAHAÚN. See Supplement. Tahsin Yazici Amir GÚa@z^ Taylu GümüÞ-tigin Ahámad (or Moháammad) Da@neÞmand (d. 498/1104), founder of a Turkman dynasty in northern Cappadocia toward the end of the 11th century. The name Da@neÞmand appears with some variations in Byzantine, European, and Syriac sources (e.g., Anna Comnena, II, p. 111; William of Tyre, Historia Rerum in Fartibus Transmarinis Gestorum, in Houtsma, I, pp. 396-97; Fulcher of Chartres, Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Peregrinantium in Houtsma, III, pp. 368-69; cf. pp. 519, 550-51, 709; Albert of Aix, Historia Hierosolymitana in Houtsma, IV, pp. ... Peter Jackson Mongol commander (d. 706/1306). He is possibly to be identified with the Da@neÞmand Baha@dor who headed a band of Qara@÷ona@s (Qara@vona) in an attack on the Jovayn region in the summer of 689/1290 (RaÞ^d-al-D^n, Ja@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò, Baku, p. 267; idem, Ta@r^kò-e g@a@za@n^, p. 23). Subsequently he was in the service of Nowru@z, a general in the army of the il-khan GÚa@za@n Khan (694-703/1295-1304). Deserting Nowru@z during GÚa@za@n's campaign to overthrow him in 696/1297, he was placed in command of the il-khan's vanguard by the general Qotlog@Þa@h and successfully repulsed Nowru@z near Ja@m, despite the small size of his own force (RaÞ^d-al-D^n, Ja@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò, Baku, p. ... Peter Jackson -E H®AÚJEB, Muslim officer in Mongol service in the first half of the 13th century. In 616/1219-20 he was sent by Ùeng^z Khan (q.v.) to the town of Zarnu@q, on the south bank of the Sir Darya (Jaxartes), and induced it to surrender to the Mongols (Jovayn^, ed. Qazv^n^, I, p. 76). Later that year he was dispatched on a similar but unsuccessful mission to the mother of the K¨úa@razmÞa@h ¿Ala@÷-al-D^n Moháammad, Terken (Terka@n) K¨a@tu@n (Nasav^, pp. 49-50, tr. p. 56). His standing with the Mongols even at that early stage is clear from the fact that he was given in marriage Terken Soltáa@n, a daughter of the K¨úa@razmÞa@h who was captured with Terken K¨a@tu@n in 617/1220 (Nasav^, p. ... Klaus Fischer a mud-brick structure on diaper masonry foundations located on the left bank of the Sorkòa@b river, 34 km north of Doa@b-e M^kòzar^n on the road to DoÞ^ (35° 25' N, 68° 14' E). See weights and measures. Amnon Netzer B. MOˆEH QUÚMESÈ, Persian Jewish scholar and exegete of the Karaite sect, the members of which rejected rabbinical writings later than the Bible itself. The Karaites had many followers among the Jews of Persia. Da@n^a@l was born in Da@mg@a@n (q.v.) in the district of Qu@mes in the second half of the 9th century and left Persia for Jerusalem at an unknown date; he died in Jerusalem in the first half of the 10th century. As a Karaite, Da@n^a@l was in continual conflict with the rabbinic institutions and authorities in Baghdad, then the major center of Jewish authority and scholarship. ... Amnon Netzer, Nicholas Sims-Williams, Parv^z Varja@vand, Amnon Netzer -E NABÈ, the Old Testament prophet Daniel, in the Persian tradition. -IRANIAN RELATIONS. See DENMARK. J. T. P. De Bruijn MARVAZÈ, ˆAMS-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD b. ¿Al^ , the supposed author of a version of the Bakòt^a@rna@ma (q.v.), who lived from the late 12th to the 13th century. All that is known about him is a brief passage by Moháammad ¿Awf^ (q.v.; d. ca. 630/1232), who spent his early years in Bukhara and recollected that he had probably seen him there (Loba@b I, pp. 212-15). He described Daqa@yeq^ as a man of letters who preached in a Shafi¿ite mosque in Bukhara. Commoners disliked his accent and low voice, but the elite used to frequent his sessions, presumably because they appreciated his stylistic skills. ... Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh ABUÚ MANS®UÚR AH®MAD b. Ahámad, one of the famous poets of the last years of the Samanid (204-395/819-1005) dynasty. The exact dates of his birth and death are not known, but, because he began to compose the ˆa@h-na@ma at the command of Nu@há b. Mansáu@r (r. 365-87/975-97) and Abu÷l-Qa@sem Ferdows^ (q.v.) took up the work in about 365/977, Daq^q^'s death must have taken place in approximately 366/976; furthermore, as Ferdows^ reported (ˆa@h-na@ma, ed. Khaleghi, I, p. 13, vv. 128-34) that Daq^q^ had been killed at a young age, the date of his birth can probably be placed after 320/932. ... See ABUÚ ¿ALÈ DAQQAÚQ. See weights and measures. John Gurney and Negin Nabavi AL-FONUÚN (lit., “polytechnic college”), a college founded in Tehran in 1268/1851 by M^rza@ T®a@q^ Khan Am^r-e Kab^r (q.v.), which marked the beginning of modern education in Persia. Hamid Algar AL-H®ARB “the realm of war,” lands not under Islamic rule, a juridical term for certain non-Muslim territory, though often construed, especially by Western writers, as a geopolitical concept implying the necessity for perpetual, even if generally latent, warfare between the Muslim state and its non-Muslim neighbors (see, e.g., Lambton, p. 201). Mary Boyce -E MEHR, a Zoroastrian term first recorded in the Persian Riva@yats and Parsi Gujarati writings. Its use in the former is rare, with a variant dar be-mehr, unknown among the Parsis, occurring once. This variant form is regarded by the Irani Zoroastrians as belonging to their own special dialect (which is not usually written). The occurrences of the term in the Persian Riva@yats are as follows. In one passage (repeated three times with varying scribal errors) the “consecrated dar-e mehr” (dar-e mehr-e yaÞte) is added to the standard list of things from which a menstruating woman should keep her distance (Persian Riva@yats, ed. ... AL-ˆUÚRAÚ-YE KOBRAÚ. See WEZAÚRAT. Ernie Haerinck (-E) TANHAÚ (lit., “the lonely tree”), an archeological site in the district of Badr, near the village of Jabar, ca. 70 km east-southeast of Èla@m, in the province of PoÞt-e Ku@h. In 1348 ˆ./1969 two megalithic tombs were excavated there by Louis Vanden Berghe of Ghent University, Belgium. Each consisted of irregular courses of large boulders with enormous capstones forming a gabled roof. AL-Z˜ARB. See Z˜ARRAÚB-K¨AÚNA. Michael Weiskopf the name of a Parthian city and of a Byzantine garrison town of the Sasanian period. sup: DAMIRI, theologian, is best known for his H˜ay›t al-h„ayaw›n, G. A. Russell sup: DAÚNEˆKADA, a monthly literary journal, Nassereddin Parvin sup: DAÚNEˆKADA-YE ES®FAHAÚN, a monthly literary journal and the organ of a society of the same name, N. Parvinsup: DASTUR AL-MOLUK sup: DELKAˆ sup: DUNHUANG AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ, AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ (< *Da@ra@w < Da@rya@w < OPers. Da@rayavau-; cf. Pahlavi Da@ra@y), the name of two kings of the legendary Kayanid dynasty. ,¿ABD-ALLAÚH MÈRZAÚ. See ¿ABDALLAÚH MÈRZAÚ DAÚRAÚ. .See AÚL-E BAÚVAND. ANNEMARIE SCHIMMEL (b. near Ajmer, 19 S®afar 1024/20 March 1615, d. Delhi, 22 D¨u'l-háejja 1069/12 August 1659), first son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jaha@n (r. 1037-67/1627-57) and his wife Momta@z Maháall, religious thinker, mystic, poet, and author of a number of works in Persian. Little is known about his education; one of his teachers was ¿Abd-al-LatÂ^f SoltÂa@npu@r^ (Raháma@n-¿Al^, p. 81). Although trained as heir apparent, Da@ra@ ˆoko@h never showed a serious interest in politics or in military prowess; his father repeatedly promoted him, however, until he finally reached the unprecedented rank of commander of 60,000 dòa@t/40,000 sova@r in 1067/1656. ... MASSOUD KHEIRABADI, DIETRICH HUFF, GEORGINA HERRMANN i. Modern city and æahresta@n. KAIKHUSROO M. JAMASP-ASA , DASTUR, Zoroastrian priest and author (b. Navsari, Gujarat, 1668, d. Navsari, 1 September 1734), eldest son of Pahlan Fredoon, who was accorded the title "dastur" (high priest) and the privilege of occupying the second chair in the Zoroastrian assembly of the small port of Navsari in 1670 or perhaps earlier; the first chair belonged to the family of Dastur Meherjirana and the third to the family of Dastur JamaspAsa. Darab Pahlan, a brilliant student, learned Avestan, Pahlavi, Pa@zand, Sanskrit, and Persian under the tutelage of his father, whom he esteemed highly and to whom he ascribed his own knowledge. ... WILLIAM L. HANAWAY ,prose romance of the 12th century, by Abu@ T®a@her Moháammad b. H®asan b. ¿Al^ b. Mu@sa@ T®a@rsu@s^ (or T®artÂu@s^), in which the adventures of the legendary Kayanid king Da@ra@b (q.v.), son of Bahman (also called Ardaæ^r) and Homa@y, variously identified as the daughter of king Sa@m Ùa@raæ of Egypt or of Ardaæ^r (=Bahman), are recounted. The tale also includes a story of Alexander the Great and his conquest of Persia in one of the Iranian variants of the Romance of Alexander by Pseudo Callisthenes. ... .See DAÚRAÚB ii. .See CITRUS FRUITS. ANDREW J. NEWMAN ,SAYYED JA¿FAR b. Ab^ Esháa@q Mu@saw^ Boru@jerd^ Kaæf^ (b. EsátÂahba@na@t in Fa@rs, 1189/1775, d. Boru@jerd 1267/1851), religious scholar, nephew of the Akòba@r^ Yu@suf b. Ahámad Bahára@n^ and father of Sayyed Yaháya@ Wahá^d Da@ra@b^ (qq.v.). MOOJAN MOMEN SAYYED YAH®YAÚ(b. Yazd, ca. 1226/1811, d. Neyr^z, 1266/1850), Babi leader usually known as Wahá^d (unique), a title given him by the Ba@b (q.v.). The eldest son of Sayyed Ja¿far Kaæf^ EsátÂah-ba@na@t^, he received a Muslim religious education and, like his father, was associated with the Qajar court (see DAÚRAÚBÈ, JA¿FAR; Sepehr, p. 121; E¿tezµa@d-al-SaltÂana, p. 74). .See DERAÚFˆ-E KAÚVÈAÚN. -E.See FINANCE MINISTRY. JEAN DURING (lit., "introduction"), an episode in the course of a musical performance, the nature and length of which vary with the material introduced. The dara@mad of a modal system (dastga@h, q.v.) is thus more developed than that of one of its sections (gu@æas). Only when the dara@mad is long enough to constitute a distinct entity is it recognized in the nomenclature of the gu@æas of a modal system (a@va@z, q.v., or dastga@h), for example, dara@mad-e ˆu@r or dara@mad-e Za@bol. ... .See DERAÚÚZ-DAST; ARDAˆÈR; BAHMAN. PARVÈZ VARJAÚVAND EMAÚM,large shrine complex in the old Sonbolesta@n quarter of Isfahan (number 217 in the official register of Persian national monuments), centered on a burial chamber identified in an 18th-century inscription (see below) as that of Ebra@h^m BatÂháa@ (or T®aba@tÂaba@÷^?), a descendant of one H®asan Mot¯áanna@, and Zayn-al- ¿Abed^n, believed to have been the son of Imam Ja¿far al-S®a@deq. The main structure, consisting of entrance portal (sar-dar), vestibule, and tomb, was built in 857/1453 and expanded and modified several times during the Safavid period (Figure 1). ... ERICH KETTENHOFEN (Ar.Ba@b al-Abwa@b), ancient city in Da@g@esta@n on the western shore of the Caspian Sea (qq.v.), located at 42° 3' N and 48° 18' E at the entrance to the narrow pass (3-3.5 km wide) between the Caucasus foothills and the sea. BERNARD HOURCADE ,quarter of Tehran, formerly a village in the summer resort (yeyla@q) of ˆam^ra@n, situated at an elevation of 1,700 m on the extreme northern edge of the capital, where the Alborz foothills begin. A stream of the same name flows through it, and in July 1987 it flooded, destroying the ba@za@r of Tajr^æ. Since the 1950s, when ˆam^ra@n and Tajr^æ were gradually incorporated into Tehran, Darband has become the yeyla@q quarter par excellence, adjacent to the palaces of Sa¿da@ba@d; it has a hotel, restaurants, and cafe‚s, which are frequented by members of the more prosperous social classes. ... HAMID ALGAR ,MULLA AÚQAÚ b. ¿AÚbed b. Ramazµa@n, commonly known as Fa@zµel Darband^ (d. Tehran, 1286/1869-70), Shi¿ite scholar and preacher of the Qajar period, renowned for his disputatious and irascible character. His name suggests an origin in the city of Darband or its environs, but the place and year of his birth are not known. He studied in Najaf, where his principal teacher was Mulla Moháammad ˆar^f-al-¿Olama@÷ Ma@zandara@n^ (d. 1245/1829-30), whose patience he frequently tried with his endless objections to the texts being studied and his tendency to brawl with his fellow students. ... .See BAÚR; COURTS AND COURTIERS. GUITY NASHAT (lit., "the great court"), a council of ministers established in October 1872 as one of several experiments undertaken in the reign of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96) to reorganize and rationalize the Persian administration on the model of Western cabinet government. It was composed of the sáadr-e a¿záam (grand vizier) and nine other ministers—of war, finance, justice, foreign affairs, the interior, education, public works, the court, and commerce and agriculture—who were collectively responsible for the entire government (S®an^¿-al-Dawla [later E¿tema@d-al-SaltÂana], pp. ... HUÚˆANG A¿LAM (i.e., da@r-e ±^n^, lit., "Chinese tree/wood," < Mid. Pers. *da@r ^ ±e@n^g; cf. Arm. lw. dari±enik; Hübschmann, Armenische Grammatik, p. 137; Ar. da@rsá^n^), or commonly da@r±^n, the dried aromatic (inner) bark of many plants of the genus Cinnamomum (fam. Lauraceae) found in eastern, southeastern, and southern Asia (for a description of species, varieties, and their habitats, see Balfour, I, pp. 598-99, 731-32). KAMBIZ ESLAMI ,JOSEPH (also known as D'Arcy Todd, Major Todd, Pers. "Mester Ba@ru@t," "Qu@lu@nel Khan," "Qonsu@l Khan"; b. Portsmouth, England, 14 March 1780, d. Lymington, England, 17 February 1848), major (later lieutenant colonel) in the British Royal Artillery who arrived in Persia in 1226/1811 with the ambassador Sir Gore Ouseley. He was one of a group of British officers and enlisted men who were to reform and equip the Persian army. Before reaching its headquarters in Tabr^z, D'Arcy and his companions were forced to stay in Shiraz for three months, during which D'Arcy was put to work collecting geographical and other information and surveying local sites. ... FUAD ROUHANI ,WILLIAM KNOX (b. Newton Abbot, Devonshire, England, 11 October 1849, d. Stanmore, Middlesex, England, 1 May 1917), petroleum entrepreneur and founder of the oil industry in Persia and the Middle East. The only son of an Irish solicitor, D'Arcy received his early education at Westminster School, London. The family moved to Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia, in 1866, where, after qualifying as a solicitor in 1872, D'Arcy joined his father's practice and later established his own. In 1882 he became involved with mining, forming a syndicate to restore a nearby abandoned gold mine; by 1886 he had become a millionaire. ... ANNEMARIE SCHIMMEL , K¨úAÚJA MÈR (b. Delhi, 19 D¨u'l-Qa¿da 1133/13 September 1721; d. Delhi, 29 S®afar 1199/11 January 1785), poet and author of prose works on mystical theology. NIGEL J. R. ALLAN, D. I. EDEL'MAN ,the region where Dardic languages are spoken. JOSEF VAN ESS ,ABUÚ SA¿ÈD ¿OT¨MAÚN b. Sa¿^d b. K¨a@led SEJESTAÚNÈ, Persian traditionist and jurist (b. ca. 200/816, d. Herat D¨u'l-háejja 280/February 894, sometimes incorrectly reported as 282/896). He belonged to a family of Sejesta@n^ cloth merchants and was educated in a Hanafite environment. Through extensive travel, probably in connection with his business, he became acquainted with Hadith scholarship in Iraq, Syria, and Egypt. In Baghdad he met (Ahámad) Ebn H®anbal (q. ... BAÚÚQER ¿AÚQELÈ MOHáAMMAD M. SALEEM AKHTAR , alsoknown as Mo¿taman-al-Dawla Mo¿taman-al-Molk Sa@la@r-Jang K¨a@n-e Dawra@n Nawwa@b (b. Sangamne@r, Deccan, 1122/1710, d. Awranga@ba@d, 18 Joma@da@ I 1180/22 October 1766; Malka@pu@r^, p. 398; cf. AÚza@d Belgra@m^, pp. 222-23), Persian official at Hyderabad and Awranga@ba@d, best known for his description of Delhi. He was descended from K¨a@nda@nqol^ Khan D¨u'l-Qadr, a member of the Bu@rbu@r line of Turkman chiefs in the region of Maæhad, who had emigrated to India in 1048/1638 (AÚza@d Belgra@m^, pp. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , nesba (attributive name) for Dargaz^n (or Darjaz^n, q.v.), borne by several viziers of the Great Saljuqs in the 12th century. GILBERT LAZARD name given to the New Persian literary language at a very early date and widely attested in Arabic (e.g., EsátÂakòr^, p. 314; Moqaddas^ [Maqdes^], p. 335; Ebn H®awqal, p. 490) and Persian texts since the 10th century. The Persian translator of T®abar^'s Tafs^r (between 350/961-62 and 365/975-76; I, p. 5), Abu@ ¿Al^ Moháammad Bal¿am^ in his continuation of T®abar^'s Ta@r^kò (352/963-64; Gryaznevich and Boldyrev, p. 53), Keyka@vu@s Ra@z^ in his Zara@toæt-na@ma (before 368/978, according to Rempis), and H®ak^m Meysar^ in his Da@neæ-na@ma (367-70/978-81; apud Lazard, Premiers poeàtes I, p. ... . See AFGHANISTAN v; see also Supplement. ETAN KOHLBERG MICHAEL ALRAM (Gk. dareiko‚s state@´r), Achaemenid gold coin of ca. 8.4 gr, which was introduced by Darius I (q.v.; 522-486 B.C.E.) toward the end of the 6th century B.C.E. The daric and the similar silver coin, the siglos (Gk. síglos mediko‚s), represented the bimetallic monetary standard that the Achaemenids developed from that of the Lydians (Herodotus, 1.94). Although it was the only gold coin of its period that was struck continuously, the daric was eventually displaced from its central economic position first by the biga stater of Philip II of Macedonia (359-36 B. ... RICHARD N. FRYE (Mid. Pers. *dlykpt\, dar^gbed [cf. Arm. darik¿pet; see Chaumont, p. 157], variant dlyk÷n srd÷r, dariga@n sa@la@r [Arm. dranikan-salar; Chaumont, p. 157] attested in the inscription of ˆa@pu@r I on the Ka¿ba of Zoroaster at Naqæ-e Rostam, Mid. Pers. l. 33, Parth. l. 27: drykn s÷rr, Gk. l. 65: toû epì tôn driganôn, rather than drigaiôn), title of a low-ranking official at the Sasanian court. Although it is rarely attested in Middle Persian, its occurrence as the title of Abursa@m-ˆa@pu@r, the last name in the list of dignitaries at ˆa@pu@r's court in the inscription at Naqæ-e Rostam, is clear evidence that its holder did not have an exalted rank. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT, RICHARD N. FRYE, A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI (NPers. Dar^u@æ, Da@ra@), name of several Achaemenid and Parthian rulers and princes. HELEEN SANCISI-WEERDENBURG, EIR., RÜDIGER SCHMITT, RÜDIGER SCHMITT, MARIE LOUISE CHAUMONT was the sixth Achaemenid king of kings (r. February 423- March 403 B.C.E.). He had been satrap of Hyrcania. Darius was his throne name; his given name is reported in classical sources as Ochus (Babylonian U´-ma-kuæ or U´-ma-su; Stolper, p. 115). The Old Persian name may have been either *Vauka (Schmitt, 1977, pp. 422-23; idem, 1982, p. 84) or *Va(h)uæ (cf. Stolper, p. 115). His father was Artaxerxes I (q.v.; 465-25 B.C.E.), his mother a Babylonian. Greek authors therefore considered him a bastard (Gk. ... PARVIZ AD¨KAÚ÷ÚÈ (or Dargaz^n), name of two rural subdistricts (dehesta@ns) and a village in the Razan district (bakòæ) of Hamada@n province. The administrative center for the subdistrict of Upper Darjaz^n (Darjaz^n-e ¿olya@) is Razan, for Lower Darjaz@^n (Darjaz^n-e sofla@) Fa@men^n. The average altitude of the Razan plain is 1,830 m above sea level, and winters are cold. The chief products of the region are grains, fruits (especially grapes), and dairy products. The village of Darjaz^n (35° 21' N, 49° 04' E) is situated 83 km northeast of Hamada@n in Upper Darjaz^n subdistrict. ... MARY BOYCE AND D. N. MACKENZIE , JAMES (b. Château-Salins, Alsace, 12 March 1849, d. Paris, 19 October 1894), the great Iranist, was the son of a Jewish bookbinder, who in 1852 moved to Paris to improve his children's educational opportunities. Through the prompting of his elder brother Arseàne, himself a distinguished philologist specializing in medieval French, James (who was endowed with a superb intellect in a frail body), after a brilliant school career, enrolled at the École des Hautes Études, where he studied comparative gram-mar with Michel Bre‚al and Sanskrit with Abel Bergaigne and made his first contribution to Iranian studies in 1874 with "Notes de philologie iranienne" (MSL 4, pp. ... RÉMY BOUCHARLAT -YEBARRA (Valley of the lamb), a locality in Fa@rs province, 2.5 km east-northeast of the Achaemenid royal tombs at Naqæ-e Rostam. Several rock-cut monuments are scattered on steep scree and in the cliff on the north side of the valley. They include chambers either hollowed out of the cliff or cut in freestanding blocks; basins and troughs, often called "fire bowls" by archeologists; and platforms of stones and earth. The most outstanding feature, however, is the tallest fire altar so far found in Fa@rs. ... MASSOUD KHEIRABADI, PHILIP KOHL (Valley of the tamarisks), a fertile valley about 50-55 km east-west and 30-35 km north-south in the Kopet Dagh range in northern Khorasan, at about 450 m above sea level, in which are located a æahresta@n (subprovince) and a town of the same name. DANIEL BALLAND -YE NUÚR(Paæa^ Däre@-i No: Herrlich et al., pp. 343, 858; lit., "valley of light"; a suggested Pashto etymology, in Ba@bor-na@ma, tr. Beveridge, app., pp. xxiii-xxv, is to be rejected), name of a small tributary valley on the right bank of the Konar river in eastern Afghanistan and the corresponding subdistrict of Nangraha@r province. The Nu@r river rises on the forested Ko@nádá GÚar (ca. 4,360 m), a ridge of the Hindu Kush that has been described as a place of pilgrimage (Simpson, p. ... DANIEL BALLAND -YES®UÚF, name of a valley in northern Afghanistan, drained by a tributary of the right bank of the Balkòa@b (q.v.), and of the adjoining mountain district and its administrative center in Samanga@n province. The direct caravan route from Ba@m^a@n (q.v.) to Maza@r-e ˆar^f passed through the valley, which has sometimes been erroneously transcribed (e.g., in most Afghan Boundary Commission reports) as Darra Yu@su@f/Yu@sof. PIERRE OBERLING ,one of the five major tribes of the Qaæqa@÷^ tribal confederation (see CONFEDERATIONS, TRIBAL). According to Z^a@d Khan Darraæu@r^, a former kala@ntar (chief) of the tribe, whom the author interviewed in spring 1957, the name Darraæu@r^ comes from that of a valley, the Darra-ye ˆu@r (Valley of salt), in the area of the tribe's summer quarters (Oberling, p. 226). The tribe is also sometimes called Darraæu@l^, however, a name that Vladimir Minorsky connected with that of the ˆu@l (p. ... SAYYED ¿ALÈ AÚL-E DAÚWUÚD, JOHN CURTIS ,district in northern Tehran east of Qol-hak and south of QaytÂar^ya, all former suburbs of the city; it is located about 8 km from the center of the modern city. . See DRUGS. .See CITIES iii. JAN-HEEREN GREVEMEYER ,until partition between czarist Russia and the Afghan kingdom in the last quarter of the 19th century a largely autonomous principality with territory on both sides of the upper course of the AÚmu@ Darya@ (q.v.), known as the Panj. Today the portion of the former territory of Darva@z that lies north of the river has been incorporated into Tajikistan, whereas the former southern portion has been designated a district within the Afghan province of Badakòæa@n (q.v.). WOLFRAM KLEISS (gateway), generally an entrance opening wide enough to permit passage of vehicles, in contrast to doorways, which are smaller openings to permit passage through a wall or fence (Wasmuths Lexikon, pp. 544, 565). LINDA K. JACOBS TEPE(or Tall-e Darva@za), a village site in the southeastern Kor river basin, in Fa@rs province, occupied in three stages from 1800 B.C.E. to 800 B.C.E., according to radiocarbon dates of the finds, and characterized by an essential continuity in both architecture and other aspects of material culture. Above virgin soil three levels of occupation have been discovered; in each small irregularly shaped rooms are situated around large, open courtyards. In the most extensively excavated level (phase III) two perpendicular streets divide the settlement into quadrants. ... MANSOUR SHAKI, HAMID ALGAR , a poor, indigent, ascetic, and abstemious person or recluse (Av. dr™gu-, dri©u- "the needy one, dependent"; Lommel, pp. 127-28; pace AirWb. 777: "poor, needy; Mid. Pers. driyo@æ "worthy poor, needy; one who lives in holy indigence"; Pa@zand daryo@æ; NPers. dar©o@æ > daryo@æ > darv^æ). Paul Horn (Etymologie, s.v. derve@æ) connected it with New Persian der^g@ "regret, sorrow," a connection that Heinrich Hübschmann (Persische Studien, p. ... ,¿ABD-AL-MAJÈD T®AÚLAQAÚNÈ. See ¿ABD-AL-MAJÈD T®AÚLAQAÚNÈ. M. E. SUBTELNY (d. 912/1507), Timurid vizier. From the position of a lowly functionary charged with the task of writing out receipts (qabzµ; hence his nickname Qa@bezµ) in the d^va@n of the Timurid SoltÂa@n-H®osayn Ba@yqara@ (q.v. Supplement; 873-911/1469-1506) he rose to the rank of am^r tu@ma@n (commander of 10,000). In 911/1505-06 he was arrested after accusing S®a@yen-al-D^n ¿Al^, keeper of the seal (mohrda@r) in the d^va@n, of embezzlement. He was soon released, however, owing to the intervention of the chief amir, Moháammad-e Wal^ Beg, who had S®a@yen-al-D^n arrested and replaced by Darv^æ Ahámad. ... . See BUÚZJAÚNÈ. M. E. SUBTELNY , AMÈR NEZ®AÚM-AL-DÈN MARGARET CATON , GÚOLAÚM-H®OSAYN (b. Tehran, 1289/1872, d. Tehran, 2 AÚdòar 1305 ˆ./23 November 1926), master musician, renowned teacher, and innovative composer of Persian classical music. He was a transitional figure, both a guardian of tradition and an innovator, introducing changes in style of performance, composition, and construction of instruments. KATHRYN BABAYAN Ú (d. 1040/1631), a qezelba@æ functionary who claimed to be the awaited Mahd^. It is reported in the Safavid chronicles that, in order to gain credibility, he falsely claimed to be an Afæa@r (Esáfaha@n^, p. 118; Wa@leh, fols. 43b-44a). At the siege of Yerevan (November 1603-June 1604) he deserted the army, embarked upon a spiritual journey into the Ottoman empire, and spent some time at AntÂa@k^ya, where he was said to have "learned about the occult sciences and magic" (Wa@leh, fol. ... (OPers. drayah-, Mid. Pers. draya@, Av. zrayah-; sea, river) in Iranian culture. The role of the sea in Iranian culture evolved through a clearly discernible series of historical phases. In this article an attempt has been made to extrapolate those phases from basic information published in articles on the Black Sea, the Caspian (qq.v.), and the Persian Gulf. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,a Tehran morning daily of news and politics, published with a number of interruptions from Ord^beheæt 1323 ˆ./May 1944 to Farvard^n 1330 ˆ./March 1951. The publisher and managing director was H®asan Arsanja@n^ (q.v.), a radical lawyer and politician (1301-48 ˆ./1922-69), who had first used the pen name Da@rya@ for his articles in the paper Èra@n-e ma@. The name Da@rya@ has no real meaning; in the author's opinion it was formed from the letters of the word ^ra@d (objection) spelled backward. ... Ú-YEK¨AZAR. See CASPIAN SEA. Ú-YEMAÚZANDARAÚN.See CASPIAN SEA. YAH®YAÚ D¨OKAÚ÷ (lit., "sea of light"), one of the largest diamonds in the world, kept and exhibited in the Jewel museum of the Central bank of Persia (Ba@nk-e markaz^-e Èra@n). It was mined in the famous Golconda diamond fields in southern India and, with the Ku@h-e nu@r (lit., "mountain of light," now part of the British crown jewels), was brought to Persia in 1151/1739 as part of the booty from Na@der Shah's Indian campaign. During the unstable period following the assassination of Na@der Shah in 1160/1747 it was held in turn by his grandson ˆa@hrokò, ¿Alam Khan Arab K¨ozayma (q. ... .See ¿OMAÚN, SEA OF. . See BLACK SEA. GUITY NASHAT (sea lord), originally an Ottoman naval title dating from the 15th century (Lewis, p. 165). In Persia it was first adopted in the 18th century, when Na@der Shah Afæa@r (1148-60/1736-47) built his fleet. The naval commander in chief bore the title darya@beyg^ or occasionally sarda@r or sarda@r-e bana@der (Estara@ba@d^, p. 580; Eskandar Beg, II, p. 665; Lockhart, 1936, p. 11; Floor, 1987, pp. 40-49). Na@der Shah's choice, in 1146/1733, of Bu@æehr (q.v.) for his shipyards and the residence of the darya@beyg^ led to the eclipse of Bandar-e ¿Abba@s (q. ... .For individual lakes, see entries under the names. MEHRDAD SHOKOOHY ,a village (29° 11´ N, 58° 09´E) on the road between Kerm@an and Bam on the site of a large early medieval town recorded as Dayr-e Waz^n (or D^ru@z^n), Da@rj^n, Da@r‘^n, and Da@r±^n and described as having a fine congregational mosque and many orchards (e.g., Ebn K¨orda@dòbeh, pp. 49, 196; H®odu@d al-¿a@lam, tr. Minorsky, pp. 125, 375; EsátÂakòr^, pp. 161, 169; Moqaddas^, pp. 461, 465-66; Ebn H®awqal, pp. 308, 314; tr. ... JEAN DURING (Ar. pl. of Pers. dasta@n, q.v.), the term for modes in early musical theory, translated into Arabic as asáa@be¿ (fingers) and sometimes also as mawa@jeb "obligations, laws." It originally referred to the eight fundamental octave scales attributed to the Sasanian musician Ba@rbad (q.v.); as each note is played on a specific lute string by a specific finger, the notes are thus designated, for example, "the free string in the range of the middle finger," "the touch of the index finger on the annular," and so on (Mara@g@^, 1356 ˆ. ... FATHá-ALLAÚH MOJTABA÷È ,the most important tract of the AÚdòar Kayva@n^ sect, almost certainly the work of its founder, AÚdòar Kayva@n (see AÚZ¨AR KAYVAÚN). The book, written in an invented language, is about supposedly ancient Iranian prophets and includes accounts of events that have no historical basis. It is divided into two parts, the first of which comprises sixteen chapters, or na@mas (books), each attributed to a so-called "ancient" prophet, from Maha@ba@d and J^-Afra@m, who supposedly predated Kayu@mart¯, to Sa@sa@n V, whom the author designated as a contemporary of the Sasanian ruler Kòosrow II Parve@z (r. ... MICHAEL WEISKOPF ,Achaemenid satrapy in northwestern Anatolia (Herodotus, 3.120.2; cf. Thucydides 1.129.1: te@`n Daskulitìn satrapeían; OPers. tayaiy drayahya@; DB 1.15; Kent, Old Persian, p. 117), part of the Persian empire until the 330s B.C.E. The borders varied, extending as far south as the Mysian plain and the southern Troad and east into the land of the Bithynian peoples; some satraps controlled both sides of the Hellespont. The territory of Dascylium encompassed estates, garrisoned fortresses, and cities and villages in which Persians and other groups were mingled. ... . See DASTGERD. PIERRE AMIET (Dashly), oasis situated south of the AÚmu@ Darya@ (q.v.), on the desert plain of northern Afghanistan, ancient Bactria (q.v.), now in the province of Ju@zja@n ca 35 km northeast of AÚq±a (q.v.; Ball, I, p. 84-85 nos. 256-59). Forty-one archeological sites, representing occupations from the Bronze Age to the Kushan period, have been found distributed over an area 100 km2; they were explored in the 1970s by a Soviet mission under the direction of Viktor Sarianidi. The two principal Bronze Age sites are Dashly 1 and Dashly 3. ... ARAM ARKUN (Pers. Da@æna@k), ECKART EHLERS (plain, open ground) SAYYED ¿ALÈ AÚL-E DAÚWUÚD -EARÛAN (also Arjan, Arzan, lit., "plain of the mountain or bitter almond"; Forsáat ˆ^ra@z^, p. 275), a mountain basin ca. 14 x 5-6 km (Manouchehr Kasheff, personal communication) situated 1,500 m above sea level on the road from Shiraz to Ka@zeru@n. Located on the elevated plain is a small catchment area, fed largely by northern springs. It is surrounded by limestone escarpments, crossed from the south by the P^ra-zan pass (kotal). Centuries ago Daæt-e Ar‘an was covered with forests and was famous for its lush foliage and ample pasturelands; almond trees flourished there. ... GÉRARD FUSSMAN -eNAÚWOR (lit. "plain of the lake"), a depression (average elev. 3,100 m) 60 x 15 km with a brackish lake (na@wor, na@vor, Mong. nor) in the center, located at 33° 41' N and 67° 46' E, about 60 km west of GÚazn^. It is now permanently inhabited by Persian-speaking Hazaras and is also the summer grazing ground for Pashto-speaking nomads; formerly the Afghan cavalry also summered there. HENRI-PAUL FRANCFORT -EQAL¿A (lit., "plain of the fortress"), small ba@za@r village on an irrigation canal near the junction of the Ko@k±a and AÚmu@ Darya (q.v.; Panj) rivers in the province of Badakòæa@n, northeastern Afghanistan, the site of several earlier settlements. It is the major village on the plain of Torg@ay T^ppa (Moháammad-Na@der Khan, pp. 402-03; tr., 236-37; ed. Sotu@da, pp. 251-52), which extends over approximately 220 km2 and forms part of K¨úa@ja-ye GÚa@r woloswal^ in Takòa@r wela@yat. ... PETER J. CHELKOWSKI ,the most common term for a ritual procession held in the Islamic lunar month of Moháarram (q.v.) and the following month of Sáafar, both periods of mourning for Imami Shi¿ites. The procession commemorates the tragic death of Háosayn (q.v.), grandson of the prophet Moháammad and the third imam of the Shi¿ites, on the plain of Karbala@÷ on 10 Moháarram 61/10 October 680. The most spectacular dastas take place on the actual day of the passion, known as ¿AÚæu@ra@÷ (q. ... ANDREW J. NEWMAN ,SAYYED AMÈR JAMAÚL-AL-DÈN ¿AT®AÚ-ALLAÚHb. Fazµl-Alla@h b. ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n H®osayn^ Herav^ (d. 912/1506, 917/1511, or 926/1520; Da@neæpa‘u@h and Monzaw^, pp. 582-83; Bag@da@d^, p. 664, citing the anonymous 16th-century chronicle K¨ola@sáat al-afka@r, by M^r Moháammad-Taq^ Ka@æa@n^), a scholar of Hadith in Khorasan in the late Timurid and early Safavid periods. He was from a Sunni family that originally hailed from the Daætak quarter in Shiraz. ... ANDREW J. NEWMAN AMÈR SAYYED GÈAÚT¨-AL-DÈNMANS®UÚR b. Sáadr-al-D^n Moháammad ˆ^ra@z^ H®osayn^ (866-948/1462-1541), scholar, philosopher, and motakallem (theologian) of the late Timurid and early Safavid period, and, for a brief interval under Shah T®ahma@sb (930-84/1524-76), one of two sáadrs (chief clerical overseers). JEAN DURING ,a term used in three different contexts in Persian music. .See ZAÚL. ,story, tale, parable. See FICTION. WILLIAM HANAWAY (storytelling), term used for written and oral genres of fictional narrative. Other terms used for the same genres include da@sta@n-gu@÷^, da@sta@n-parda@z^, qesÂsÂa-gu@÷^, afsa@na-sara@÷^, and naqqa@l^. In this article primarily the oral forms of storytelling will be discussed. Oral storytelling is generally considered a part of popular culture, but it also touches on literary culture at many points. It is performed in a number of different genres and contexts, of which a general overview will be given here. ... JAMˆÈD S®ADAÚQAT-KȈ ,æahresta@n (subprovince) on the Persian Gulf coast in Bu@æehr province, bounded on the north and east by Fa@rs province, on the south by the æahresta@n of Daæt^ (q.v.), and on the west by the æahresta@ns of Bu@æehr, Tangesta@n, and Gana@va. The adminstrative capital is Bora@zja@n (q.v.). According to the census (q.v.) of 1365 ˆ./1986, the population of Daætesta@n was 175,406, 42 percent of which lived in urban, the remainder in rural areas (Nata@yej, p. ... JEAN DURING ,modal system in Persian music, representing a level of organization at which a certain number of melodic types (gu@æas) are regrouped and ordered in relation to a dominant mode (ma@ya). Each dastga@h takes its name from this dominant mode, which is always played in the introductory parts. For example, dastga@h-e Ùaha@rga@h comprises not only several gu@æas belonging to the mode Ùaha@rga@h but also gu@æas in modes that are both closely (Za@bol, H®esáa@r) and distantly (Mokòa@lef) related, which are played before the conclusion (foru@d) in the initial mode. ... PHILIPPE GIGNOUX (< *dasta-kráta "made by hand, handiwork"), a term originally designating a royal or seigneurial estate. It is doubtful that it was used in the Achaemenid period, as it is attested only once, in the restored form [dasta]krátam (cf. DSe, ll. 42-43; Kent, Old Persian, p. 142). It is widely attested in Middle Iranian inscriptions (ˆKZ Mid.Pers. l. 30, Parth. ll. 16-17, 25, 19-30; NPi Mid.Pers. l. 4, Parth. l. 3, a passage too full of lacunae to permit interpretation of the term; Humbach and Skjœrvø, III/1, p. ... JAMˆÈD S®ADAÚQAT-KȈ ,æahresta@n (subprovince) on the Persian Gulf in Bu@æehr province, corresponding approximately to the area referred to as Ma@ndesta@n and S^f AÚl Mozáaffar in early sources (Ebn al-Balkò^, p. 152; Ya@qu@t, Bolda@n III, p. 217). It is bounded on the north and west by the æahresta@ns of Daætesta@n (q.v.) and Tangesta@n, on the east by the æahresta@n of F^ru@za@ba@d, and on the south by the æahresta@ns of Dayyer and Kanga@n. ... JEAN DURING ,one of the twelve modal systems in the repertoire of traditional music (rad^f); it is an a@va@z (q.v.), or auxiliary modal system, derived from or attached to the dastga@h (q.v.) ˆu@r. Its defining feature is the combination of two descending pentachords (G, F, Eb, D, C, Bb and Dp, C Bb Ap G) in such a way that D, the fundamental note of the first pentachord, is lowered a quarter-tone, or koron (p), in the second pentachord. This sudden shift from D to Dp confers a very particular character on Daæt^, distinguishing it clearly from such related modes as H®eja@z, Baya@t-e Kord (q. ... J. E. KNÖRZER (b. Karbala@÷, ca. 1312/1894, d. Teh-ran, 26 Dey 1360 ˆ./16 January 1982), man of letters, journalist, and politician. DAVID O. MORGAN ,JAMAÚL-AL-DÈN, Il-khanid bureaucrat. He first came to prominence as inspector of awqa@f (pious endowments) in Iraq in 683/1284. Later, during the reign of Arg@u@n (q.v.; 683-90/1284-91), he acted as ka@teb (scribe) to the Jewish administrator Sa¿d-al-Dawla, who was attempting to repair the financial ravages of Bu@qa@ (q.v.), who is notable for having been the only Mongol to have headed the Il-khanid Persian bureaucracy. During the brief reign of Ba@ydu@ (q.v.; 694/1295) Jama@l-al-D^n served as chief vizier (sáa@háeb-d^va@n; Joma@da@ I 694-S®afar 695/March-November 1295). ... MANSOUR SHAKI (Pahl. dstwbl, Man. Mid. Pers. dstwr, Man. Parth. dstbr, Pa@zand and NPers. dastu@r, all < OIr. *dasta-bara-(?), the first element of which seems to be cognate with Av. da…stva@- "dogma, doctrine" < da…h-, *OIr. dans- "to teach"; cf. Man. Pers. dastan "powerful," Man. Parth. dast "capable, able," NPers. dast "power, ability," and Dasta@n, the name of Za@l, father of Rostam, in all likelihood also signifying "powerful"; for the etymology of dastwar, see Bailey, Zoroastrian Problems, p. ... SOLOMON BAEVSKY FÈ LO@@GÚAÚT AL-FAZ˜AÚ÷EL (Manual of the learned for learned words), an early Persian-to-Persian dictionary (farhang-na@ma), compiled in India in 743/1342, during the reign of Moháammad b. To@g@loq Shah (725-52/1325-52) by H®a@jeb K¨ayra@t Raf^¿, a poet from Delhi, for his patron ˆams-al-D^n Moháammad Ahámad b. ¿Al^ Jajn^r^.Comparisons show that H®a@jeb K¨ayra@t's sources included the early dictionaries Lo@g@at-e fors of Asad^ T®u@s^ (11th century) and Farhang-e Fakòr-e Qawwa@s (ca. ... SOLOMON BAEVSKY , India in 743/1342, during the reign of Moháammad b. To@g@loq Shah (725-52/1325-52) by H®a@jeb K¨ayra@t Raf^¿, a poet from Delhi, for his patron ˆams-al-D^n Moháammad Ahámad b. ¿Al^ Jajn^r^. HASHEM RAJABZADEH -EDABÈRÈ, comprehensive manual of letter writing by Moháammad Meyhan^, consisting of an introduction (d^ba@±a) and two chapters (qesám; comp. D¨u'l-qa¿da 585/December 1189-January 1190). It is known from a single manuscript in the library of the Fatih mosque, Istanbul (ms. no. 4074; Da@neæpa‘u@h, p. 27; cf. Monzaw^, p. 625). DAVID O. MORGAN FÈ TA¿YÈN AL-MARAÚTEB, administrative manual written by Moháammad Nakòjava@n^ (ca. 679/1280-after 768/1366), son of Fakòr-al-D^n Hendu@æa@h b. Sanjar Nakòjava@n^, author of Taja@reb al-salaf. The work was commissioned during the reign of the Il-khan Abu@ Sa¿^d (q.v.; 716-36/1316-35) by the vizier GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n Moháammad, son of the great vizier Raæ^d-al-D^n Fazµl-Alla@h. It provides a detailed and immensely valuable description of the machinery of government as it existed toward the end of the period of Mongol rule in Persia. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI (lit., "provided with chains"), place near Obolla in southern Iraq where in 633 C.E., according to Sayf b. ¿Omar, one of T®abar^'s informants, K¨a@led b. Wal^d and an Arab force of about 18,000 men defeated a small Sasanian garrison led by a frontier commander named Hormoz (T®abar^, I, pp. 2021, 2023-25; cf. Ebn al-At¯^r, II, p. 294; Donner, p. 179; for questions about the veracity of Sayf in general and the suggestion that his unique report of this battle is fictional, see Wellhausen, pp. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT , Old Iranian term for "law" (originally the neuter verbal adjective da@ta-m from the root da@- "to put, place," thus "(the law) set/laid down"; cf. Ger. Gesetz and Eng. law respectively), attested both in Avestan texts (Old and Younger Av. da@ta-) and in Achaemenid royal inscriptions (Old Pers. da@ta-; Kent, Old Persian, p. 189). The Old Persian term was incorporated into the languages of several neighboring peoples during the Achaemenid and subsequent periods (e.g., El. da-ad-da-um, da-at-tam6, da-tam5, da-ad-da-(-ma) [cf. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT , title of a high official in the Achaemenid legal and juridical system. It is not attested in Old Persian but only in collateral traditions (El. da-ud-da-bar-ra; Late Babylonian da-(a-)ta-ba-ra/ri, -bar-ri; biblical Aram. dtbr, d™t¯a@bòar; talmudic Aram. dw÷r, dwwr) and in younger Iranian languages (Pahl. d÷twbl, da@dwar; Inscr. Pahl. d÷tbry, d÷twbr; Man. Mid. Pers. d÷ywr, da@ywar; Inscr. Parth. d÷tbr; Man. Mid. Parth. d÷db÷r, da@dßa@r; Pa@zand, NPers. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. Data‚me@s), Iranian personal name, reflecting Old Iranian *Da@tama- or *Da@ta@ma-, either a two-stem shortened form *Da@ta-m-a- from a compound name like *Da@tamiƒra- (q.v.) or an unabridged compound *Da@ta@ma- from *Da@ta-ama- "to whom force is given." RüDIGER SCHMITT (El. Da-da/tam5-mi-ut-ra, Aram. dtmtr), Iranian personal name resulting from an inversion of Miƒra-da@ta- "given by Mithra" and continued in the New Persian Da@dmehr. It is also attested in the variant *Da@ta-miça- (El. Da-da-mi-iæ-æa‚), with persianized second element (Hinz and Koch, pp. 261, 298). Such a name may also form the basis of the shortened Old Iranian *Da@tama-, reflected in Greek Data‚me@s (see DATAMES). RüDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. Dataphe‚rne@s < Ir. *Da@ta-farnah- "to whom farnah- [i.e. grace and glory] is given," also reflected in Babylonian Da-da-pir-na-÷, Da-da-a-pa-ar-na-÷ and El. Da-tap-par-na, Da-ud-da-pa-ir-na and variants), name of an Iranian (perhaps Bactrian) officer in the entourage of Bessos (q.v.), murderer of Darius III (q.v.; 336-30 B.C.E.). Although he was one of Bessos' confidants, in the spring of 329 B.C.E. he volunteered, together with Spitamenes, to arrest his master and turn him over to Alexander the Great (q. ... HUÚˆANG A¿LAM (derakòt-e kòorma@, nakòl; Phoenix dactylifera L., fam. Palmaceae), dioecious tree of great economic and cultural importance in Persia and the Middle East. It is indigenous to the geobotanical "Sahara-Sind region," a desert or semidesert belt extending from the Indus valley to North Africa (Gauba, 1951, p. 15; for distribution of the date palm in this region, see Dowson and Aten, p. 2; Dowson, tr., pp. 20-37). It is believed by some authorities to be native to the Persian Gulf area (Erbe) and by others to have been derived from the the wild or date-sugar palm of western India (Hindi kòarju@ra, Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. ... D. N. MACKENZIE in Old and Middle Iranian. The only dating formulas preserved in an Old Iranian language are those found in Old Persian in the B^sotu@n inscriptions of Darius I (qq.v.). They have a ponderous air, suggesting a chronicle addressed to posterity, rather than a system meant for everyday use. No year is mentioned in them, and, though the months are named (see EIr. IV, p. 659 table 20), the days are generally indicated only by numerals. For example, "on the ninth of Garmapada" is written garmapadahya@ ma@hya@ IX rau±abiæ ƒakata@ a@ha avaƒa@ . ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. Dâtis), Iranian personal name, reflecting Old Iranian *Da@tiya- (cf. El. Da-ti-ya; see below), rather than *Da@ti-, as previously assumed (cf. Old Pers. final -iya-, reflected in Gk. -is, as in Brádiya-/ Sme‚rdis). The name is formed with the hypocoristic suffix -iya- attached to the well-attested but ambiguous stem *da@ta- (Schmitt, p. 468 n. 38a). ANNE KROELL (b. Montoire-sur-le-Loir, 1621, d. Paris, 23 October 1715), RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. Dauríse@s, apparently reflecting the same Old Persian original as El. Da-a-u‚/hu-ri-sa/æa, connected with Younger Av. daiº‚ha@uruuae@sa- "wandering up and down the country"; cf. Hinz, p. 80), name of a Persian general during the Ionian revolt, a son-in-law of Darius I (522-486 B.C.E.). In 497 B.C.E., together with other Persian commanders, he pursued the Ionians who had attacked Sardis. After the victory they divided the rebellious Ionian cities among themselves and destroyed them; Daurises sacked those on the Hellespont, including Dardanus, Abydus, Percote, Lampsacus, and Paesus (Herodotus, 5. ... HUÚˆANG A¿LAM , or dova@l-pa@ (colloq. du@a@l-pa@; Kurdish dolpa@; Kerma@n^ dohol-pa@), an imaginary evil anthropoid creature characterized by flexible legs (pa@) resembling leather straps (da/ova@l < Pahl. dawa@l "hide, leather"), which he uses as tentacles to grip and enslave human beings, who then have to carry him on their shoulders or backs and labor for him until they die of fatigue. Ú.See QAJAR TRIBES. HAMID MAHAMEDI, HAMID MAHAMEDI (local pronunciation do:÷u:), village located 12 km northeast of Ka@zeru@n in Fa@rs; a distinctive dialect is spoken there. ANDREW J. NEWMAN , JALAÚL-AL-DÈN MOHáAMMAD b. As¿ad Ka@zeru@n^ S®edd^q^ (b. Dava@n, q.v., near Ka@zeru@n in Fa@rs, 830/1426-27, d. 908/1502), often referred to as ¿Alla@ma Dava@n^, leading theologian, philosopher, jurist, and poet of late 15th-century Persia. He began his studies with his father, who had been a student of M^r Sayyed ˆar^f-¿Al^ b. Moh®ammad Gorga@n^ (d. 816/1413), but while still young he moved to Shiraz, where he studied theology, philosophy, logic, principles of Islamic jurisprudence (osÂu@l-e feqh), and Hadith under such scholars as Homa@m-al-D^n Golba@r^; S®af^-al-D^n Èj^ (d. ... .See DAÚTABARA. BAÚQER ¿AÚÚÚQELÈ ,¿ALÈ-AKBAR (b. Tehran, 1302/1885, d. Tehran, 21 Bahman 1315 ˆ./10 February 1937), journalist, politician, statesman, and founder of the modern Persian judicial system, as well as of several state enterprises in the time of Rezµa@ Shah (1304-20 ˆ/1925-41). He was the son of Kalb-¿Al^ Khan Kòa@zen Kòalwat, a government employee, and was educated at the Da@r al-fonu@n (q.v.), from which he received his diploma in humanities in 1327/1909 (¿AÚqel^, pp. ... ¿ABD-AL-WAHHAÚB NUÚRAÚNÈ WES®AÚL , M^rza@ Moháammad (b. Shiraz 1238/1822-23, d. Shiraz, 1283/1866), poet, calligrapher, and painter of some renown in Qajar Persia and a contemporary of Moháammad Shah (1250-64/1834-48) and Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96). He was the third son of the famous poet and calligrapher M^rza@ Moháammad-S®af^ Wesáa@l, with whom he studied Arabic grammar and theology; he also studied with his older brother Ahámad Weqa@r. Da@var^ tried his hand at various kinds of poetry, but he excelled at qasá^das (odes). ... . See SHI¿ÈSM. . See Supplement. DJALAL KHALEGHI-MOTLAGH (Twelve combats), designation of a relatively long episode in the ˆa@h-na@ma (2,500 verses; Moscow, V, pp. 86-234), in which a battle takes place on the borders of Tu@ra@n between Iranians under the command of Gu@darz and Turanians under the command of P^ra@n. The battle begins when Hu@ma@n, a brother of P^ra@n, challenges the Iranians and is killed by B^‘an, Gu@darz's grandson, in single combat. Then the two armies join in an inconclusive battle. Finally the two sides agree that the battle should be decided by single combat between eleven pairs of heroes from the two armies. ... ÚÚ.See DRUGS. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (lit., "keeper, bearer of [the royal] inkwell or inkstand"), title of various officials in medieval Islamic states. DAÚRYUÚˆ S®AFVAT ,¿ABD-ALLAÚH (b. T®a@ near Tafreæ, 1309/1891; d. Tehran, 20 Dey 1359 ˆ./10 January 1981), a master of classical Persian vocal music with a perfect command of the rad^f (repertoire), as well as a gifted player of the Persian drum (tonbak) and a virtuoso of rhythmic (zµarb^) pieces and songs (tasán^f). His father, Abu'l-Qa@sem, was a performer in ta¿z^a (the Shi¿ite passion play) and a singer. Dawa@m^ received his early education from the village mullas. ... LINDA KOMAROFF (inkwell), a utilitarian receptacle that also served as a symbol or metaphor for the instrument of state, with a long history in Islamic Persia (see DAWAÚ(T)DAÚÚR). As a container for ink the dawa@t could be attached to, or set within, a pencase (qalamda@n); free standing; or carried suspended from a belt. Practical considerations dictated that the container be cylindrical, in order to prevent the accumulation of dried ink and other matter in the corners. Inkwells from early Islamic Persia have been preserved in glass, pottery, and bronze or brass (Allan, 1982b, p. ... NASSEREDDINE PARVIN , a biweekly Persian journal published in Bombay by H®a@jj Sayyed Moháammad Da@¿@^-al-Esla@m (q.v.) from 1 Ramazµa@n 1324/19 October 1906 until the end of 1326/1909; it was the organ of an association of the same name, which had its center in Bombay. The journal was religious, and its contributors engaged in polemics against faiths other than Islam and against other, more nationalist Persian publications in India. It also included world news and news about Indian Muslims. It was frequently endorsed by ranking religious leaders and received financial assistance from wealthy believers. ... NASSEREDDINE PARVIN (The Islamic call), a monthly religious journal published in Kerma@næa@h from Joma@da@ II 1346/November-December 1927 to T^r 1315 ˆ./June 1936. Beginning in the fourth year only ten issues were published a year, with a religious treatise substituted for the other two. The first issue was identified as number 3, apparently because the publisher and director of the magazine, Sayyed Moháammad-Taq^ Wa@háed^ Bodala@, had previously edited two issues of another religious journal, Kowkab-e darakòæa@n, published by M^rza@ Ahámad Jawa@her^ Boru@jerd^. ... DANIEL BALLAND , name of several localities in Afghanistan that have grown up around civil or military government buildings. Some have never developed into large settlements. For example, a former Nu@rzay encampment 72 km northeast of Fara@h, formerly a fording place across the Fara@hru@d and a toll station on the caravan road between Qandaha@r and Herat, remains only a village, with a population of about 400 adult males (Central Statistics Office [C.S.O.], p. 1171; Ima@m Shar^f, p. 220; repr. in Gazetteer of Afghanistan II, p. ... CYRUS AMIR-MOKRI SAYYED ¿ALÈ-MOH®AM-MAD(b. Dawlata@ba@d, 1341/1868, d. Tehran, ˆawwa@l 1341/May-June 1923), prominent politician and deputy of the Persian parliament. He was the third son of H®a@jj Sayyed M^rza@ Ha@d^ Dawlata@ba@d^, reputed to have been leader of the Azal^ Babis (Ta@r^kò-e b^da@r^, ed. Sa¿^d^ S^rja@n^, 2nd ed., I, p. 649), and a younger brother of Yaháya@ Dawlata@ba@d^ (q.v.). ¿Al^-Moháammad received his first formal schooling in Najaf, where his father had gone to continue his own religious studies, in 1292-94/1875-77. ... MEHRANGUIZ MANOUTCHEHRIAN (b. Isfahan, 1300/1883, d. Tehran, 6 Morda@d 1340 ˆ./28 July 1961), journalist, educator, and pioneer in the movement to emancipate women in Persia. Her mother, K¨a@tema, was descended from a family of local ¿olama@÷, and her father, M^rza@ Ha@d^ Dawlata@ba@d^, was a prominent mojtahed (theologian) of Isfahan. S®edd^qa spent her childhood in Tehran, where she was privately tutored in Persian, Arabic, and French. At the age of twenty years she was married to an elderly physician, but the marriage ended in divorce in 1339/1921. ... ABBAS AMANAT , SAYYED YAH®YAÚ(b. Daw-lata@ba@d near Isfahan, 17 Rajab 1279/8 January 1863, d. Tehran, 4 AÚba@n 1318 ˆ./26 October 1939), celebrated educator, political activist, and memoirist of the constitutional and postconstitutional periods. Yaháya@ was the second of the five sons of an affluent family of landowning ¿olama@÷. His father, H®a@jj Sayyed M^rza@ Ha@d^ Dawlata@ba@d^, was an influential local mojtahed and leader of the clandestine Azal^ branch of Babism (q. ... DANIEL BALLAND , tribal name common among the eastern Pashtun at various levels of tribal segmentation, not to be confused with Dawlatz^ (q.v.). There are minor sections of Dawlatkòe@l within the Sado@z^ Otma@nz^ (¿Ot¯ma@nz^) Mandará in the northeastern extremity of the Peshawar basin, the Otma@nkòe@l (¿Ot¯ma@nkòe@l) in the lower Swat valley, the pashtunized Molla@gor^ on the northern side of the Khyber Pass, their Malekd^nkòe@l and Zakka@kòe@l Afr^d^ neighbors, the Laækarz^ OÚrakz^ of the upper K¨a@nk^ valley, and the Ahámadz^ (q. ... ABBAS AMANAT , MOH®AMMAD-¿ALÈMÈR-ZAÚ (1203-37/1789-1821), eldest son of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah (1212-50/1797-1834) and powerful prince-governor of western provinces of Persia. He was born in the resort village of Nava@ in Ma@zandara@n to Z^ba@-±ehr K¨a@nom, a Georgian (Ù@uæ) slave girl of the Tzicara Chwili family owned by Fathá-¿Al^ Shah, and was senior by seven months to ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.). Proximity in age between these and other princes later contributed to a prolonged succession crisis in the Qajar house. ... D¨ABÈH-ALLAÚH S®AFAÚ b. Am^r ¿Ala@÷-al-Dawla Bokòt^æa@h GÚa@z^ SAMARQANDÈ(b. ca. 842/1438, d. 900/1494 or 913/1507), author of Tadòkerat al-æo¿ara@÷ (Memorial of poets), a book containing biographies of about 150 poets with specimens of their poetry, as well as historical information. Dawlatæa@h was one of the few authors before the 16th century to have devoted a work entirely to poets, arranged more or less chronologically. His is the second such full-length Persian tadòkera of poets to have survived, the first being Loba@b al alba@b by ¿Awf^ (q. ... DANIEL BALLAND (singular Dawlatzay), ethnic name common among the eastern Pashtun on both sides of the Durand Line (see BOUNDARIES iii). The different tribal units bearing the name do not seem to be connected with one another. They are found in four different geographical locations, three on the Pakistani side of the boundary and one in Afghanistan. FARHAD DAFTARY (Ar. and Pers.), period, era, or cycle of history, a term used by Isma¿ilis in connection with their conceptions of time and the religious history of mankind. The early Isma¿ilis conceived of time (zama@n) as a progression of cycles or eras, dawrs (Ar. pl. adwa@r), with a beginning and an end. On the basis of their eclectic temporal vision, which reflected Greek, Judeo-Christian, and Gnostic influences, as well as the eschatological ideas of earlier Shi¿ites, they worked out a view of history, or rather hierohistory, in terms of the eras (dawrs) of different prophets recognized in the Koran. ... JEAN DURING (Ar. and Pers. "circle"), a term applied to scales and also to rhythmic cycles, both commonly diagramed as circles (da@÷era, dawr) in the classical musicology of Persian, Arab, and Turkish groups. Such diagrams are particularly appropriate for representing both the cyclical nature of the scales, which characteristically return to their points of departure an octave higher, and the periodic nature of rhythmic formulas, defined by the return of identical patterns at specific intervals. .See Supplement. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (or Dawraq al-Fors), name of a district (ku@ra; Moqaddas^, pp. 406-07), also known as Sorraq, and of a town that was sometimes its chef-lieu in medieval Islamic times. The town lay 78 km southeast of Ahva@z (q.v.); its modern successor is ˆa@daga@n, situated 30° 40' N, 48° 40' E. DANIEL BALLAND (or Dafta@n^, sg. Dawta@nay/Dafta@nay), Pashtun tribe of the Lo@d^ confederation, still mainly nomadic. The Dawta@n^ have sometimes been included among the Lo@háa@ná^ tribes because of common migratory patterns (Gazetteer of Afghanistan VI, pp. 162-64). All indigenous accounts point to a wholly independent status, however (H®aya@t Khan, p. 183; ˆe@r Moháammad Khan, p. 222). J. A. Robinson (p. 160) has provided the best discussion of internal subdivisions of the tribe, and most of the segments he described were recorded in the Afghan nomad survey of 1357 ˆ. ... FATH®-ALLAÚH MOJTABAÚ÷È , the biblical David (for linguistic discussion of the name, see Jeffery, pp. 127-28), mentioned in a number of passages in the Koran as the hero who fought with and killed Ja@lu@t (Goliath; 2:251), the prophet who received the Book of Psalms (Zabu@r) from God (4:163, 17:55), and the king who was given the power to rule, enforce justice, and distinguish between truth and falsehood (fasál al-kòetÂa@b, 38:20, 2:251). Da@wu@d is said to have been God's vicegerent (kòal^fa) on earth (38:26) and, with his son and successor, Solayma@n (Solomon), represented as a man endowed with knowledge (27:15) whose judgment was sought in matters of dispute (21:78, 38:20-25). ... B. MO÷MEN. See JEWISH PERSIAN LITERATURE. BARNETT RUBIN , MOH®AMMAD (b. Kabul, 1288/ 1909, d. Kabul, 7 T¨awr 1357 ˆ./27 April 1978), prime minister (1332-42 ˆ./1953-63) and first president of Afghanistan (1352-57 ˆ./1973-78). His father, Moháammad ¿Az^z Kha@n, was a brother of Moháammad Na@der Shah (1308-12 ˆ./1929-33). The family belonged to the Yaháya@kòe@l lineage of the royal Moháammadzay clan of the Ba@rakzay tribe of the Dorra@n^ (q.v.) Pashtuns. W. W. MALANDRA (Av. da’uuah-, Pahl. day "creator"), an epithet of Ahura Mazda@ (q.v.) that became the name of the tenth month, as well as of the eighth, fifteenth, and twenty-third days in each month of the Zoroastrian calendar (q.v. i). Younger Avestan da’uuah-/daƒuæ- is a perfect active participle of the verb da@- (IE. *dheh1-, OInd. dha@-, NPers. da@dan) "to place, put, create." In the last sense it was commonly used for the creative acts of Ahura Mazda@, for example, in the words of Darius I (DNa 1-3; Kent, Old Persian, pp. ... MAHMOUD OMIDSALAR AND THERESA OMIDSALAR wet nurse (Mid. Pers. da@yag, Av. dae@nu-, "female animal," Kurdish da@, d^, d^a "mother," Sanglechi da@ya "nurse"; cf. Oss. däïn, däyun "to suck," Pashai do@y "to milk"). Despite the mammalian instinct to suckle the young, in some societies or social groups women other than the mothers are employed to nurse infants. In some cultures it is even forbidden for women to nurse immediately after giving birth, perhaps a vestige of the ancient belief that colostrum is indigestible and thus harmful to the infant (Deruisseau, p. ... MOH®AMMAD-AMÈN RÈAÚH®È ABUÚ BAKR ¿ABD-ALLAÚH b. Moháammad b. ˆa@ha@var b. Anu@æerva@n Ra@z^ (573–654/1177–1256), ROBERT G. BEDROSIAN (< dayeak, Arm. lw. < Mid. Pers. da@yag; cf. NPers. da@ya, q.v., "wet nurse"; cf. Vedic dha@pa‚yate@ "suckles"; Skt. dha@tr^´, Prakrit dhatt^ "wet nurse"), a form of child rearing practiced in Armenia and other parts of the Caucasus. In modern Armenian dayeak means only "wet nurse," but in its earliest attestations (4th-5th centuries) it referred to one entrusted with educating and nurturing a child for an extended period. At that time the young sons of Armenian lords (naxarars) were sent to be raised and educated by other lords, sometimes in distant districts. ... DAÚRYUÚˆ AÚˆUÚRÈ , the first general encyclopedia in Persian compiled along modern lines. It includes about 30,000 entries translated from the Concise Columbia Viking Desk Encyclopedia, supplemented by approximately 10,000 original articles on Persia. Although originally planned for two volumes (Da@yerat al-ma¿a@ref I, p. 2), it is now scheduled for three, each measuring 31 x 21 cm, in a triple-column format based on that of its American model. The first two volumes (alef-s^n and s^n-la@m) were published in 1345 ˆ. ... .See BUYIDS, DEYLAMITES. QAMAR AÚRYAÚN (monastery), in early Islamic Arabic and Persian literature usually a building in which Christian monks (ra@heb) lived and worshiped. The term eventually took on a number of metaphorical and symbolic meanings as well. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (lit., "the monastery at the bend in the river"; cf. Syriac ¿aqûla@ "bend"; Payne Smith, II, cols. 2963-65), a medieval town in Iraq situated on the Tigris 15 farsangs (= 80 km) southeast of Baghdad. It presumably grew up around a Christian monastery, but the latter had apparently disappeared by the time of ˆa@boæt^ (10th century), who did not mention its existence in his Keta@b al-d^a@ra@t. The medieval geographers described Dayr al-¿AÚqu@l as the primary town of the fertile district (tÂassu@j) in central Nahrava@n, with busy markets, prosperous agriculture and palm groves, and a Friday mosque; Maqdes^ (Moqaddes^, p. ... MEHRDAD SHOKOOHY (lit., "gypsum hospice"), Sasanian caravansary (q.v.) situated in the desert halfway between Ray and Qom, on the ancient route from Ray to Isfahan (Plate X). It is recorded in most early Muslim geographies (see, e.g. Ebn Rosta, p. 191), with the name sometimes given in Arabic as Dayr al-jesásá. According to Moháammad b. Qays Ra@z^ (ed. Modarres Razµaw^, p. 192), the name referred to a dome built with gypsum that once stood there. EsátÂakòr^ (pp. 230-31) and Ebn H®awqal (pp. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH b. Ebra@h^m KORDÈ, ABUÚ SAÚLEM, Kurdish commander who ruled sporadically in Azerbaijan (q.v.) between 326/938 and 344/955 after the period of Sajid domination there. . See Supplement. WILLEM FLOOR (or de Bruyn), CORNELIS, also known as Corneille Le Brun or Le Bruyn A. J. M. VROLIJK , MICHAËL JAN (b. Dronrijp, Friesland, 18 August 1836, d. Leiden, 17 May 1909), . See Supplement. PIERRE AMIET ,Jacques (b. Huisseau-sur-Cosson, near Blois, 3 June 1857, d. Marseilles, 14 June 1924), French archeologist and prehistorian. He came from an exceptionally gifted family, in which cultivation of humane learning was combined with scientific rigor. His father, Eugeàne, sometimes called "Baron" de Morgan, an engineer specializing in mineral prospecting, was interested in entomology and prehistory. He initiated his two sons, Henry, the elder, and Jacques, into fieldwork, excavating with them the Campigny fault near Rouen, which had lent its name to the first phase of the European neolithic. ... JACQUES DUCHESNE-GUILLEMIN , parchment and papyrus scrolls written in Hebrew, mainly of the 1st centuries B.C.E. and C.E., found in caves around Qomra@n on the northwest coast of the Dead Sea and considered to represent a sect of Judaism. A number of Iranian elements can be discerned in these documents, particularly pertaining to dualism, a characteristic of Iranian religions. Until the discovery of the Qomra@n manuscripts the doctrine of two spirits was only sporadically attested in Jewish literature, but it is clear that the spirits under God's command were not always good and benevolent; for example, God is said to have sent an evil spirit between Abimelech and the citizens of Shechem (Judges 9:23) and Saul to have been troubled by an "evil spirit" after the "spirit of God" departed from him (I Samuel 16:14). ... MARY BOYCE among Zoroastrians. At death among Zoroastrians the body is swiftly disposed of (see CORPSE), but rites for the soul are prolonged. They are also complex, partly because, although Zoroastrianism is a salvation faith, offering hope of heaven and threat of hell, it maintains rites that, as Brahmanic parallels show, are an inheritance from very ancient, pre-Zoroastrian, times and belong with quite different beliefs. These beliefs were that the soul, after lingering on earth for three days (a belief retained in Zoroastrianism), needed before its departure consecrated offerings to provide for it in the underworld kingdom of the dead; and that it required such offerings again on the thirtieth day after death, the first anniversary day, and then annually for thirty years, or roughly a generation. ... .For death in other religions, see FUNERARY RITES. CARL W. ERNST, PRISCILLA P. SOUCEK (or Dakhan, Pers. Dakan < Sk. dakshináa, "right [hand]," i.e., south), the south-central plateau of India, bounded on the north by the Narbada river, on the west by the Sea of Oman, on the east by the Bay of Bengal, and on the south by the Tungabhadra river. The main plateau is divided into three regions: Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Telang-Andhra. PRISCILLA P. SOUCEK , the use of consciously designed patterns to embellish building surfaces and objects for aesthetic effect, one of the most characteristic features of art and architecture in Islamic Persia. Both the quantity and quality of surface patterns attest the esteem they enjoyed among artists and patrons alike. YAH®YAÚ ˆAHÈDÈ ,honors granted by the Persian government. Although in general Western usage orders are badges reflecting the distinction of belonging to select societies, whereas decorations and medals are awarded in recognition of various types and levels of civil or military achievement or service, in Persia there are no orders in the Western sense, but only decorations and medals. Nonetheless, decorations (neæa@n), elaborate combinations of badges and accessories, are frequently referred to, especially in Western writings, as "orders. ... . See ABDAÚL BEG. TAHSËN YAZICI (b. Güzel H®esáa@r, Aydén province, in western Anatolia, at an indeterminate date; d. Tabr^z, 892/1487), Turkish Sufi who wrote poetry in both Persian and Turkish. His mother belonged to the powerful Aydénog¡lu family of western Anatolia, and his nesba (attributive name) is a deliberate play on the name of his birthplace, ru@æan^ (< rowæan "bright") being a direct Persian translation of Turkish aydénlé (< aydén "bright"). TAHSËN YAZICI (b. Yenice on the Vardar in Ottoman Ma@qadu@n^a@ [modern Macedonia] at an indeterminate date, d. Istanbul, 861/1546), Mawlaw^ Sufi shaikh, poet, and author. He was born to a family of scholars originally from Edirne and educated by his father. He became shaikh of the Mawlaw^ convent (mawlaw^-kòa@na) at Yenice, but he moved to Istanbul when the governor expropriated the endowments of the convent (T¨a@qeb Dede, II, pp. 20-22). According to Qena@l^za@da (p. 1085) and AÚæeq Ùeleb^ (fol. ... SHAMSUDDIN AHMAD (1103-79/1691-1765), historian, poet, and Sufi of Kashmir. He was born in the De@dmar quarter of Srinagar, hence his nesba (attributive name) De@dmar^. From his early years he studied traditional Islamic sciences with renowned scholars at the madrasas of Molla@ ¿Ab^d and ¿Abd-al-Razza@q in Srinagar. As a young poet he benefited from the guidance of the poet Nu@r-al-D^n ˆa@req (d. 1127/1714) and later studied with Moháammad-Rezµa@ Moæta@q Kaæm^r^ (d. ... .See AÚHUÚ, GAVAZN. FRANCIS RICHARD ,Charles-François (b. Cambray, France, 18 December 1822, d. St.-Vale‚ry-en Caux, France, 18 August 1883), French orientalist and scholar. His father was a notary. After finishing at the Lyce‚e Louis-le-Grand he studied Arabic with J. T. Reinaud and Caussin de Perceval at the Colleàge de France and the École des Langues Orientales; at the latter he also studied Persian with the historian Étienne de Quatremeàre, whose disciple he became. In 1848 it had been intended to entrust him with the first courses in the history of the Islamic world at the École des Langues Orientales, but other matters took priority, and the courses were not introduced. ... DANIEL BALLAND AND MARCEL BAZIN (village) in Persia and Afghanistan. The Persian word deh (Paæto@ k™lay, Ar. qarya) has a more precise meaning than Persian a@ba@d^ (q.v.) "inhabited place," which can refer to cities and towns, on one hand, and isolated farms (mazra¿a), on the other. A deh is a rural settlement perceived as an autonomous social and spatial unit. PIERRE OBERLING ,Kurdish tribe of Kurdistan. Henry Rawlinson (p. 34 n.), who visited northwestern Persia in 1838, referred to the Deh-bokr^s as a clan (t^ra) of the Mokr^ tribe. According to Basile Nikitine, the Deh-bokr^s were probably local inhabitants who were absorbed by the Mokr^ tribe; he also suggested that the name Deh-bokr^ was derived from Deh Mokr^ (p. 165). According to a tribal legend, the Deh-bokr^ chiefs had originated in D^a@rbakr (q.v.) and their name reflects that origin, but, as Vladimir Minorsky pointed out (p. ... JIM G. SHAFFER , a Bronze Age archeological site located at 34° 90' N, 65° 30' E, adjacent to the village of Deh Mora@s^, approximately 27 km southwest of Qandaha@r and 6.5 km east-southeast of Pahjwa@÷^ in southeastern Afghanistan (Ball and Gardin, I, p. 90 no. 287). It is situated on a plain bounded by the Ar@g@anda@b, Tarnak, and Du@r^ rivers on the west, east, and south respectively. The mound (Paæto g@onday) rises approximately 5.3 m above the surrounding plain and covers an area of 1. ... HUBERTUS VON GALL , site of a group of four rock-cut tombs of the 4th-3rd centuries B.C.E., located about 25 km south of B^sotu@n (q.v.) in Kerma@næa@ha@n, three of them in the mountains between the villages of Deh-e Now (Kurd. Di Nu@) and Esháa@qvand (in Western sources often incorrectly rendered Sakavand; Kurd. Issaq-avand), the fourth near the village of Sorkòa-deh (Kurd. Su@rkòa-deh). They provide important evidence for the development of asto@da@n (q.v.; ossuary) burial in Persia (Plate XIX). ... SAYYED ¿ALÈ AÚL-E DAÚWUÚD , town in the æahresta@n of AÚba@da (q.v.), Fa@rs (30° 37' N, 53° 12' E), situated on the Shiraz-Isfahan road in a plain (elev. 2,300 m) 191 km northeast of Shiraz. The climate is dry and temperate. The Dehb^d river, which rises in the Gerda@b and B^desta@n mountains, flows south of the town, where it joins the S^vand river. In the 10th century Dehb^d was mentioned by Maqdes^ (Moqaddas^, p. 457) and EsátÂakòr^ (p. 129) as a village and stage on the road from EsátÂakòr to Yazd and Khorasan. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (in modern Persian administrative usage a rural district consisting of a number of villages), the name of a region in medieval Gorga@n and a town in Ba@d@g@^s (qq.v.) and another in Kerma@n (Ya@qu@t, Bolda@n, II, p. 492). C. EDMUND BOSWORTH b. ¿Al^, twice vizier to the Saljuq sultan Bark^a@roq (q.v.; 487-98/1094-1105). MOH®AMMAD DABÈRSÈAÚQÈ , H®OSAYNb. As¿ad b. H®osayn Mo÷ayyad^, Persian translator of the Arabic work al-Faraj ba¿d al-æedda by Abu@ ¿Al^ Moh®assen b. ¿Al^ b. Da@wu@d Tanu@kò^ (327-84/939-94), a collection of poems, anecdotes, sayings, and didactic remarks arranged in thirteen chapters on the general theme of joy following hardship; the translation, Faraj-e ba¿d az æeddat, was dedicated to Dehesta@n^'s patron ¿Ezz-al-D^n T®a@her b. Zang^ Faryu@mad^, governor or vizier of Khorasan under the Il-khanid Abaqa Khan (663-80/1265-82; Spuler, Mongolen3, pp. ... .See AÚZ¨ARˆAHR. ¿A.-A. SA¿ÈDÈ SÈRJAÚNÈ ,MÈRZAÚ ¿ALÈ-AKBAR QAZVÈNÈ (also known as Dakòow; b. Tehran, ca. 1297/1879, d. Tehran, 7 Esfand 1334 ˆ./26 February 1956), scholar, poet, and social critic. His father, K¨a@nba@ba@ b. AÚqa@ Khan b. Mehr-¿Al^ Qazv^n^, a landowner in Qazv^n before moving to Tehran, died when ¿Al^-Akbar was only nine years old. ¿Al^-Akbar studied Arabic, jurisprudence (feqh), theology, and philosophy with Shaikh GÚola@m-H®osayn Boru@jerd^ for ten years; he also came under the influence of the liberal cleric H®a@jj Shaikh Ha@d^ Najma@ba@d^ (Dehkòoda@, 1334 ˆ/1955, p. ... MARCIA K. HERMANSEN , SHAH WALÈ-ALLAÚH QOT®B-AL-DÈN AH®MAD ABU'L-FAYYAÚZ˜ (1114-76/1703-62), leading Muslim intellectual of India and writer on a wide range of Islamic topics in Arabic and Persian; more than thirty-five of his works are extant (for an annotated list, see Baljon, pp. 8-14). He was educated by his father, the well-known scholar Shah ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m (1131/1719), founder and principal of the Rahá^m^ya Madrasa in Delhi. At the age of fifteen years Shah Wal^-Alla@h was initiated into the Naqæband^ Sufi order by his father and assigned to teach at the Rahá^m^ya, of which he became principal in 1131/1719. ... .See DELHI. FRANK HOLE (Deh Lora@n), the name of a æahresta@n (subprovince) in Èla@m province in southwestern Persia, and of the main town. The æahresta@n, which is located on the Iraqi border, comprises four districts (H®u@ma, AÚbda@na@n, Zarr^na@ba@d, and Mu@s^a@n) inhabited mainly by the Lor tribes of Ja@÷^rvand, Mahámu@dvand, Ba@p^rvand, and Du@st-¿Al^vand. The Dehlora@n plain is bounded on the east and west by the Mayma and Doveyrej rivers respectively and on the north and south respectively by the S^a@hku@h and H®amr^n mountains. ... AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ ,arabicized form of Syriac dhgn÷ (Margoliouth, p. 84a), borrowed from Pahlavi dehga@n (older form dah^ga@n). The original meaning was "pertaining to deh" (< OPers. dahyu), the latter term not in the later sense of "village," but in the original sense of "land." RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. De@ïo‚ke@s), name of a Median king; this Greek form, like Assyrian Da-a-a-uk-ku (i.e., Daiukku) and Elamite Da-a-(hi-)(u‚-)uk-ka, Da-a-ya-u(k)-ka, and so on, reflects Iranian *Dahyu-ka-, a hypocoristic based on dahyu- "land" (cf. Schmitt). (Banquet of the Sophists), a miscellany in the form of dialogues ostensibly conducted at table, including approximately one hundred passages pertaining to Persia; it is the only extant work of Athenaeus (see ATHENAIOS OF NAUCRATIS), an Egyptian-born author who lived in Rome in the early 3rd century C.E. Charles Gulick (I, p. viii), suggested that one of the participants in the dinner conversation, a man named Ulpian, may have been modeled on the jurist Ulpian of Tyre, who was murdered in the presence of the emperor Alexander Severus in 228; if this identification is correct, then Deipnosophistaí was probably completed shortly after that date. ... .See ACHAEMENID RELIGION; ISLAM; ZOROASTRIANISM. .See ARVANDRUÚD; ˆAT®T® AL-¿ARAB; TIGRIS. (lit., "remembrance"), the act of reminding oneself of God. AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ money and riding animals. Farrokò^ in his youth served a dehqa@n in S^sta@n and received an annual pension from him. According to one tradition, Ferdows^ himself was a dehqa@n (Ùaha@r maqa@la, ed. Qazv^n^, text, pp. 58, 75). ,AH®MAD. See Supplement. RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. De@ïo‚ke@s), name of a Median king; this Greek form, like Assyrian Da-a-a-uk-ku (i.e., Daiukku) and Elamite Da-a-(hi-)(u‚-)uk-ka, Da-a-ya-u(k)-ka, and so on, reflects Iranian *Dahyu-ka-, a hypocoristic based on dahyu- "land" (cf. Schmitt). JACQUES DUCHESNE-GUILLEMIN (Banquet of the Sophists), a miscellany in the form of dialogues ostensibly conducted at table, including approximately one hundred passages pertaining to Persia; it is the only extant work of Athenaeus (see ATHENAIOS OF NAUCRATIS), an Egyptian-born author who lived in Rome in the early 3rd century C.E. Charles Gulick (I, p. viii) suggested that one of the participants in the dinner conversation, a man named Ulpian, may have been modeled on the jurist Ulpian of Tyre, who was murdered in the presence of the emperor Alexander Severus in 228; if this identification is correct, then Deipnosophistaí was probably completed shortly after that date. ... .See Supplement. See also ACHAEMENID RELIGION; AHRIMAN; AHURA MAZDAÚ; MANICHEISM; ZOROASTRIANISM. .See ARVANDRUÚD; ˆAT®T® AL-¿ARAB; TIGRIS. GERHARD BöWERING, MOOJAN MOMEN (lit., "remembrance"), the act of reminding oneself of God. .See BALUCHISTAN i. BERNARD HOURCADE (also Dela@rosta@q, D^la@rost@a@q), dehesta@n (administrative district) in the æahresta@n of AÚmol (La@r^ja@n bakòæ), on the northeastern slope of Mount Dama@vand (q.v.) in Ma@zandara@n (Razma@ra@, Farhang III, p. 122). It is a small, isolated region, located between La@r^ja@n and Nu@r and thus forming part of the conglomeration of mountain valleys in the central Alborz. For a long time it was difficult of access owing to the altitude and especially to the steepness of the slopes in the lower part of the valley bordering the Hara@z river (Sotu@da, pp. ... PAUL BERNARD ,urban site 40 km northwest of Balkò (q.v.), on the northern limit of an oasis irrigated by the Balkòa@b (q.v.), near a defensive wall built during the Greek period (ca 329-130 B.C.E.) to protect the oasis. It was probably founded in the 5th century B.C.E. and flourished up to about the 6th century C.E. Study of the fortifications excavated by a Soviet-Afghan mission in 1348-56 ˆ./1969-77 suggests that the earliest stage of the citadel may date from the Achaemenid period, as the closest parallels to the construction methods and ceramic finds are of that period (Dolgorukov, pp. ... JUAN R. I. COLE b. Moháammad-Mo¿^n NAS®ÈRAÚ-BAÚDÈ, Sayyed GÚofra@n-ma÷a@b (b. Nasá^ra@ba@d near Lucknow, 1166/1753, d. Lucknow ca. 1235/1820), Shi¿ite cleric of northern India who helped to establish the Shi¿ite form of Friday prayers and propagated the rationalist Osáu@l^ school of jurisprudence in the Avadh (q.v.) region. JOYCE BLAU MELA RA÷UÚF (b. in the sanjaq of K¨oy in the Ottoman empire, 20 February 1918; d. Erb^l, Iraq, 12 October 1948), Kurdish poet and humanist. While a student of law in Baghdad he joined the Hiwa@ (Hope) party, the first legally recognized Kurdish organization to work for the unification of Kurdistan. FRANCINE TISSOT, FRANCINE TISSOT , bodies established by the French government to conduct archeological investigations in Persia and Afghanistan respectively. GAVIN R. G. HAMBLY, CATHERINE B. ASHER , Muslim kingdom established in northern India by Central Asian Turkish warlords at the turn of the 13th century and continuing in an increasingly persianized milieu until its conquest by Ba@bor (q.v.) in 932/1526. PIERRE OBERLING , tribe of the K¨alkòa@l region in eastern Persian Azerbaijan. In spite of its Turkish name (deli "young, wild, frolicsome"; Doerfer, Elemente II, pp. 660-62), the tribe is apparently of Kurdish origin, like its neighbors the ˆatÂra@nlu@ and Qolu@qja@nlu@ tribes; Moháammad Mardu@kò includes it in his list of Kurdish tribes (I, p. 190). Although most of the Del^ka@nlu@ are now Turkophone, as recently as 1330 ˆ./1951 Kurdish was still spoken at AÚqba@æ (Razmara@, Farhang IV, p. ... CATHÉRINE POUJOL ,QAÚRÈ MOLLAÚ KARAÚMAT-ALLAÚH TANBUÚRÈ BOK¨AÚRAÚ÷È (b. Bukhara at an indeterminate date, d. Bukhara, 1320/1902), Tajik poet and musician known and revered for melodies performed on the tanbu@r (a long-necked lute), the instrument from which his nickname was derived (¿Ayn^, p. 312). He was a student and friend of Ahámad Da@neæ (q.v.), a leader of the Tajik progressive movement in Bukhara in the late 19th century. Like other disciples of Da@neæ, including Ta@æ-K¨va@ja ¿Asá^r^, Moháammad-S®edd^q H®ayrat, Mozµtáareb, ˆams-al-D^n Makòdu@m (ˆa@h^n), and Rahámat-Alla@h Wa@zµehá, Delkaæ was trained in both music and literature (Istoriya, 1966, p. ... JEAN DURING ,an important modal unit (æa@h gu@æa) linked to the dastga@h (q.v.) Ma@hu@r, constituting one of its four main modulations, perhaps the most important in expressive function, which contrasts strongly with that of Ma@hu@r itself. Delkaæ differs from the initial mode of Ma@hu@r by a displacement on the fifth, with a modulation in ˆu@r on G and a pause on F: (C, D, E,) F, G, Ap Bb, C, (D). Playing centers around G; the melody begins in the higher notes and then, after the sounding of an A, descends toward C in Ma@hu@r. ... JOHN GURNEY , PIETRO (b. Rome, 11 April 1586, d. Rome, 21 April 1652), one of the most remarkable travelers of the Renaissance, whose Viaggi is the best contemporary account of the lands between Istanbul and Goa in the early 17th century. He was born into a distinguished aristocratic Roman family, received a thorough education in the classics, had a knowledge of music and letters and an interest in medicine and the sciences, and, as a member of the Accademia degli Umoristi, played a prominent part in Roman and Neapolitan intellectual and cultural circles (Maylender, pp. ... EZAT O. NEGAHBAN , PINHAS PIERRE CHARLES MELVILLE , eldest daughter of the Chobanid Demaæq K¨úa@ja (q.v.) and Tu@rs^n K¨a@tu@n, granddaughter of the Il-khanid sultan Ahámad Taku@da@r (q.v.; Ahar^, p. 184; tr., p. 83). After the fall of the Chobanids (q.v.) in 727/1327 Delæa@d K¨a@tu@n was brought under the protection of her aunt Bag@da@d K¨a@tu@n, who had become wife of the il-khan Abu@ Sa¿^d (q.v.) after having first been married to H®asan-e Bozorg Jala@yer. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Attic De@ma‚ra@tos, Ionic De@ma‚-re@tos, Laconian Da@ma‚ra@tos, lit., "wished by the people"), king of Sparta (from at least as early as 510 B.C.E.) who took refuge with Darius I (q.v.). He was a son of King Ariston, of the ancient lineage of the Eurypontidae. Demaratus' name is said to have reflected the Spartans' desire that Ariston have a son. Demaratus married Percalum (Pe‚rkalon, not Pe‚rkalos), whom he had abducted from her intended bridegroom, Leotychidas (Herodotus, 5. ... CHARLES MELVILLE , third son of the amir Ùoba@n (q.v.), possibly born in 699/1300, when his father was on campaign in Damascus. He was married and remained devoted to Tu@rs^n (or Tursa@n) K¨a@tu@n, despite the opposition of her father, Èrenj^n (Èren±^n; Wasásáa@f, pp. 639-40; H®a@fezá-e Abru@, ms., fol. 506b). She bore him four daughters, of whom the eldest was Delæa@d K¨a@tu@n (q.v.). A. D. H. BIVAR ,name of two Greco-Bactrian kings. .See PEOPLE OF THE BOOK. RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. De@moke@´de@s), Greek physician attached to the court of Darius I (q.v.) and praised as "the most skillful physician of his time" by Herodotus (3.125.1). He was born in Croton in southern Italy, the son of Calliphon, a priest of Asclepius in Cnidus. Democedes seems to have worked first as a physician in the civil service of Aegina and Athens before entering the service of Polycrates, the famous tyrant of Samos (Herodotus, 3.131.1-2). Around 522 B.C.E. he, together with Polycrates and his entourage (3. ... .See ANÔOMAN; CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION i-v; ELECTIONS. . See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION v. BERNARD HOURCADE, DANIEL BALLAND, DANIEL BALLAND ,the statistical study of characteristics of human populations. EDDA BRESCIANI , Egyptian papyrus document of the early 2nd century B.C.E. (Biblio-theàque Nationale, Paris, Pap. dem. no. 215 v), in which anti-Persian themes, especially focused on Cambyses (q.v.), Xerxes, and Artaxerxes III (q.v.), were elaborated in Ptolemaic Egyptian sacerdotal and intellectual surroundings (Bresciani, 1985, pp. 506, 525-26). The Persian conquerors of Egypt are called "Medes" (hieroglyphic Mdj, Demotic Mtj probably < Aram. mdy). PRISCILLA P. SOUCEK , illustrated manuscript, now dispersed, of Ferdows^'s epic poem, often identified by the name of a former owner, the Paris dealer Georges Demotte (active ca. 1900-23). A more accurate designation is "the great Mongol ˆa@h-na@ma," for it is generally believed to have been produced for a patron associated with the Il-khanid court (Grabar and Blair, pp. xi-xiv, 46-55) and is particularly renowned for the intrinsic quality of its paintings. The large format of the manuscript and the incorporation of Chinese motifs into the paintings are characteristic of other Il-khanid examples, like Raæ^d-al-D^n's Ja@me¿ al-tawa@r^kò (Rice and Gray; Gray, pp. ... MANSOUR SHAKI (Av. dae@na@, trisyllabic in Old Av., disyllabic in Young Av.; Mid. Pers. de@n; NPers. d^n), theological and metaphysical term with a variety of meanings: "the sum of man's spiritual attributes and individuality, vision, inner self, conscience, religion." .See DABÈRE, DABÈRÈ. JEAN KELLENS (Yaæt 16 of the Avesta), a relatively short text, consisting for the most part of repetitive or formulaic sentences (Lommel, pp. 154-56; Avesta, tr. Darmesteter, II, pp. 593-97). Although the title implies a hymn to Dae@na@, the text is devoted exclusively to the invocation of a female divinity named Ùista@ (q.v.), whose name is related etymologically to ±isti- (intuition, idea) but in no other way. Except for several formulaic repetitions, she is mentioned only in this text and in Yaæt 10. ... PHILIPPE GIGNOUX ANATOL IVANOV ,BORIS PETROVICH (b. Kazan, 15 January 1885, d. Moscow, 13 October 1941), the first Russian historian of the medieval art of the Near and Far East. He first studied Russian art at Kazan University, from which he was graduated in 1911. In 1913 in Berlin he became acquainted with the work of A. von Le Coq's expedition to eastern Turkestan. As a result he published "O pamyatnikakh kultury i iskusstva Turfana (Rezul'taty ekspeditsii A. Lekoka v Kita¥skii Turkestan)" (On the monuments of the culture and art of Turfan [Results of the expedition of A. ... OSCAR WHITE MUSCARELLA Ú(DINKHA) TEPE,a Bronze and Iron Age site situated in the Oænu@ valley of Azerbaijan (q.v.), southwest of Lake Urmia, and 15 miles west of the major Iron Age site of Hasanlu (H®asanlu@) in the Soldu@z valley. The mound is 20 m high and 400 m in diameter, but much of the northern side has been washed away by the Gad@ar river. In 1315 ˆ./1936 Sir Mark Aurel Stein (1940, pp. 367-76) excavated on the northern slopes for six days, recording only Bronze Age material. A team from The University of Pennsylvania and The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, excavated there in 1345 ˆ. ... PHILIPPE GIGNOUX (lit., "Acts of the religion"), written in Pahlavi, is a summary of 10th-century knowledge of the Mazdean religion; the editor, AÚdurba@d EÚme@da@n (q.v.), entitled the final version "The De@nkard of one thousand chapters." This version, described by Jean de Menasce on the title page of his translation (1958) as a "Mazdean encyclopedia," consisted of about 169,000 words, according to E. W. West (Grundriss II, p. 91). It was divided into nine books of unequal importance, but the first two and the beginning of the third are lost. ... FEREYDUN VAHMAN, JES P. ASMUSSEN ,relations with Persia JAMES RUSSELL , short form of Vehdenæapuh (Mid. Pers. *Wehde@næa@buhr), Sasanian hamba@rakapet (quartermaster; Faustus, tr. Garsoian, p. 530) involved in the campaign of Yazdagerd II (438-57) to force Christian Armenians to abjure their faith and return to Zoroastrianism (Òazar P¿arpec¿i, pp. 293, 309-10, 314, 317, 319; E¬iæe@, ed. Te@r-Minasean, pp. 19-139; cf. Hübschmann, Armenische Grammatik, p. 37 no. 56); a gem bearing his name is preserved in the British Museum in London (Thomas, no. ... S®AÚDEQ SAJJAÚDÈ (danda@n-pezeæk^) in Persia. No specific information about dentistry in pre-Islamic Persia has survived, but a reference in the Avesta (Vd. 2.29) indicates that oral and dental diseases were not uncommon among Iranians. Significant advances in medicine were achieved, particularly at the college hospital at Gonde@æa@pu@r (q.v.; in the Islamic period Jond^æa@pu@r), which was founded under the Sasanians and continued to function in the early Islamic period. As Abu@ Bakr Moháammad Ra@z^ (d. ... BARBARA DALY METCALF ,country town northeast of Delhi (q.v.) in what is now the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh, India, where an influential Da@r al-¿olu@m was founded by a group of religious scholars in 1867 as an expression of a major religious reform movement partly inspired by British educational models. The goal was to train a class of religious scholars dedicated to a version of Islam stripped of many customary practices deemed deviant. The curriculum was based on the dars-e nezáa@m^ developed at the Farang^ Maháa@ll in Lucknow in the 18th century, though with less emphasis on "rational" studies in favor of a thorough grounding in the Koran and Hadith. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI, ERICH KETTENHOFEN, JOHN R. PERRY ,forced transfers of population from one region to another. Deportations should be distinguished from other, somewhat similar sanctions that may occur together with them, for example, expropriation and massacre, exile of individuals and their immediate families or adherents, enslavement or military conscription of conquered peoples, and forced sedentarization of nomads. A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI ("banner, standard, flag, emblem"; Av. drafæa-, Mid. Pers. drafæ, equivalent to OInd. drapsa‚-; see Horn, Etymologie, no. 553; AirWb., col. 771) in ancient Iran. The use of the banner as a religious, royal, or military symbol was common among Indo-Iranians (Wikander, pp. 60-62, 96-97; Kramrisch; Kuiper) and Near Eastern peoples (Sarre, pp. 233-44; Nylander, pp. 22-23; for bronze "standards" with animal heads in western Iran, see Moorey). In the Avesta Bactria "with tall banners" (™r™’£o@. ... DJALAL KHALEGHI-MOTLAGH the legendary royal standard of the Sasanian kings. HUÚˆANG A¿LAM (Mid. Pers. draxt), tree, shrub. Two other words for "tree" occur in Pahlavi literature: wan (Av. vana@-, Pashto wana, Pers. bon) and da@r, also meaning "wood" (Av. da@rav-/drav- "tree stem, wood," Caspian dialects, Kurd., etc., da@r "tree"; AirWb., cols. 738-39, 1353; Morgenstierne, p. 87 no. 260); both bon and da@r are obsolete in modern Persian usage, except in compounds like sarv-bon "cypress tree," probably na@r-van "elm tree," da@r-bast "trellis, scaffolding,"and ˆ^ra@z^ bon(-e)ga@h "grove," and da@r in the sense of "gibbet" and "wooden frame. ... AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ (having long hands; OPers. *darga-dasta-; cf. Younger Av. dar™©o@.gava- "with long hands," AirWb. col. 694), epithet of King Bahman-Ardaæ^r (q.v.) mentioned in the Persian sources (Mojmal, ed. Baha@r, p. 30; Ebn al-Balkò^, p. 52; Ta@r^kò-e goz^da, ed. Browne, p. 98), probably translating a Pahlavi form like de@rang/d-dast. It is also recorded in the Arabic forms tÂaw^l-al-yadayn (B^ru@n^, AÚt¯a@r, pp. 37, 111; Ebn al-¿Ebr^, pp. 87, 113) or tÂaw^l-al-yad (Ebn al-Nad^m, ed. ... .See DARBAND. .See DIRHAM. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH B. NAZ˜R(or Nasár or H®osayn), commander of ¿ayya@rs (q.v.) or motÂawwe¿a, orthodox Sunni vigilantes against the Kharijites in S^sta@n during the period immediately preceding the rise of the Saffarid brothers to supreme power there. Derham was chosen by the Sunni forces in the field to succeed the ¿ayya@r leader S®a@lehá b. Nazµr Kena@n^ (nowhere mentioned as a brother of Derham) in Joma@da@ II 244/October 858; he seems to have remained in command until ousted three years later by his own subordinate the Saffarid Ya¿qu@b b. ... .See TRIBES, PERSIAN. HIROSHI KUMAMOTO , Khotanese term with two meanings: "showing" (< Skt. des‚ayati "shows"), that is, "preaching" the law, and "profession" of faith or "confession" of sins (Bailey, 1962, p. 18; cf. Edgerton, s.v.). In the second meaning des‚ana@ also refers to a particular genre of Khotanese religious text (Emmerick, 1992, p. 37). BRIAN SPOONER (Pers. b^a@ba@n; kav^r; lu@t; see below), area of low precipitation that supports little vegetation and lacks surface water. Secondary characteristics typically include poor soils, salinity, high winds, and extreme temperatures, accompanied by high rates of erosion and sand accumulation. Global wind patterns maintain these conditions in zones that encircle the earth in the subtropical latitudes, both north and south of the equator. CATHÉRINE POUJOL ,JEAN-JACQUES-PIERRE (Petr Ivanovich Demezon; b. Chambe‚ry, in the kingdom of Sardinia, 1807, d. Paris, ** 1873), diplomat and compiler of an important Persian-French dictionary. Desmaisons was the son of a physician; he attended the Colleàge Royal in Chambe‚ry, then went to St. Petersburg to study oriental languages with Henry Wlangali (Vesselovski¥, pp. 23-26; Zapiski, p. 8). In 1829 he entered the university at Kazan, where he received a doctorate in oriental literature the next year. In February 1831 he was appointed senior master of oriental languages (Persian and Arabic) at the Neplyuev institute in Orenburg and in September translator for the frontier commission of that city (Desmaisons, I, p. ... WOLFRAM KLEISS (D.A.I.), research institution administered by the German foreign ministry, with a number of branches, including the Abteilung Teheran in Persia. The central headquarters and presidential office are located in Berlin, where normally a general meeting of the board of directors of the entire institute is held once a year. .See *DAIVA, DEÚW, DÈV. .See AHRIMAN; DÈV; EBLÈS. A. V. WILLIAMS (demon) in the Pahlavi books. The concept of the de@w (invariably written with the Aram. ideogram ˆDYA, more often in the pl. ˆDYA'n\, often to be translated "demons" even in the sg.) was central to the theology and ritual of Zoroastrianism; as Émile Benveniste (q.v.; p. 41) first observed, the term vi.dae@va- ("rejecting the dae@vas") qualified the faithful Zoroastrian with the same force as mazdayasna- ("Mazda@ worshiper") and zaraƒuætri- (Zoroastrian). Rejection of the de@ws is linked to Zoroaster's reform, and, as personifications of every imaginable evil, they are mentioned throughout Zoroastrian religious books. ... BORIS MARSHAK (Ar. De@wa@æanj, De@wa@æen^), ruler of Sogdia (87?-104/706?-22), referred to as "prince of Pan±" (Panj^kant) and as "king of Sogdia, ruler of Samarkand" in the portion of his archives discovered at the castle on Mount Mug (Mo@g@), east of Samarkand, on the upper course of the Zarafæa@n river. The latest dates given in the archives are in legal and economic texts in which his "fourteenth year of rule at Pan±" and his "second (year of rule) at Samarkand" are mentioned. ... .See CROWN. SAYYED ¿ALÈ AÚL-E DAÚWUÚD -E, a port on the Persian Gulf (30° 3' N, 50° 9' E) in the province of Bu@æehr at an elevation a little above 1 m. The town is situated in a coastal plain, 10 km north of the cape of Tonu@b, 72 km south of Behbaha@n (q.v.) and 217 km northwest of Bu@æehr (q.v.). The climate is warm and humid. The shallow harbor is now unsafe, and larger ships cannot dock there at all. NICHOLAS SIMS-WILLIAMS JOHN OF (Yoháanna@n Dayloma@ya@, d. 120/738), Eastern Syrian saint and founder of monasteries in Fa@rs. In addition to the brief details of his life given by the 9th-century Syriac writers Thomas of Marga@ and Èæo@¿dnahá of Basára, there are two complete biographies in Syriac, one in prose (edited and translated by Brock), of which an Arabic version is also known, and one in the form of an extended verse panegyric. The account of John of Deylam in the Ethiopian synaxary (Budge, pp. ... EZAT O. NEGAHBAN (Daylama@n), district and town in G^la@n. The district is about 37 km north-south by 23 km and is located at an elevation of about 2,000 m on the northern slope of the western Alborz (q.v.) east of the Saf^dru@d. It is bordered on the north by La@h^ja@n, on the east by the Jawa@herdeh highlands, on the south by ¿Amma@rlu@, and on the west by the region of Rahámata@ba@d. It is relatively cool in summer, and the winters are harsh and cold (Fukai, p. 1; Sotu@da, pp. ... JEAN DURING ,melody (gu@æa) incorporated into the rad^f of AÚva@z-e Daæt^ by Abu'l-H®asan S®aba@ (d. 1336 ˆ./1957), who borrowed it from the regional repertoire of northern Persia. It thus does not occur in the early rad^fs of M^rza@ ¿Abd-Alla@h, Mu@sa@ Ma¿ru@f^, and AÚqa@ H®osaynqol^ but is included in that of ¿Abd-Alla@h Dawa@m^ (q.v.) in the version of Mahámu@d Kar^m^ (Massoudieh, pp. 99-100), where it serves as the conclusion to Daæt^ (q. ... ,¿ABD-AL-RAˆÈD. See ¿ABD-AL-RAˆÈD DAYLAMÈ. ,ABU'L-FATH® NAÚS®ER b. H®osayn b. Moháammad b. ¿Èsa@ b. Moháammad b. ¿Abd-Alla@h b. Ahámad b. ¿Abd-Alla@h b. ¿Al^ b. H®asan b. Zayd b. H®asan b. ¿Al^ b. Ab^ T®a@leb, Zayd^ imam with the title Na@sáer le-D^n Alla@h (d. 444/1052-53). According to Yemenite sources, he first sought support for his imamate in Deylama@n (q.v.), where he was born and raised, or in G^la@n. He is not mentioned in local Caspian sources, however. ... GERHARD BöWERING ,ABU÷L-H®ASAN ¿ALÈ b. Moháammad (fl. 10th century), an obscure yet important author on the early Persian Sufism prevalent in Fa@rs. A contemporary of Abu@ ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n Moháammad b. H®osayn Solam^ (325-412/936-1021), he was a disciple and transmitter (ra@w^) of Abu@ ¿Abd-Alla@h Moháammad Ebn K¨af^f ˆ^ra@z^ (d. 371/982). Later he may have become attracted to the philosophical orientation of Abu@ H®ayya@n ¿Al^ b. ... ETAN KOHLBERG , ABUÚ MOH®AMMAD H®ASAN b. Abi'l-H®asan (b.) Moháammad b. ¿Al^ b. ¿Abd-Alla@h (or Moháammad), Shi¿ite author and traditionist. He is described in the biographical sources as a contemporary of ¿Alla@ma H®ell^ (d. 726/1325), of ¿Alla@ma's son Fakòr al-Moháaqqeq^n (d. 771/1369-70), and of ˆah^d-e Awwal ˆams-al-D^n Moháammad (d. 786/1384), yet all that can be gleaned from his own writings is that he composed his GÚorar al-akòba@r (see below) about a century after the fall of Baghdad in 656/1258 (cf. ... GERHARD BöWERING , ˆAMS-AL-DÈN ABUÚ T¨AÚBET MOH®AMMAD b. ¿Abd-al-Malek T®UÚSÈ (d. ca. 593/1197), original though obscure Sufi author of the 12th century. Ja@m^ (Nafaháa@t, p. 355) cited him as a teacher of the 13th-century Sufi Mahámu@d Oænoh^ (Landolt, p. 210) and "a great master and scholar whose teachings on the true reality of time, as set forth in his writings, are rarely found in the works of others." Deylam^ was the author of about two dozen works on a variety of philosophical, theological, and mystical topics. ... WOLFGANG FELIX, WILFERD MADELUNG , people inhabiting a shifting region in northern Persia and adjacent territories, including the Deylama@n uplands. .See AÚBYAÚRÈ; AGRICULTURE; BAÚRAÚN; FARMING. WOLFRAM KLEISS ,DEZ (fortress, castle; Mid. Pers. diz; OPers. dida@- "wall, fortress"; Av. dae@z-; Yidgha lizo "fort"). NASSERADDIN PARVIN , a weekly of news and politics associated with the Tudeh Party (see COMMUNISM ii) that began publication on 6 K¨orda@d 1322 ˆ./27 May 1943 in Tehran and continued with some interruptions until June 1953. Its publisher and director was Nowdòar AÚæu@r^. From 1950 until the summer of 1953 it was published with interruptions in place of Be su@y-e a@yanda (q.v.), the unoficial organ of the then underground Tudeh Party. Issues of De‘ are found in the Central Library of Tehran University, the Asian Institute in Shiraz, and the Library of Congress. ... , River. See AÚB-E DEZ. AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ -EBAHMAN (Fortress of Bahman, Pahl. Wahmandiz), according to legend a fortress in Azerbaijan conquered by the Kaya@nian king Kay K¨osrow, son of S^a@vaæ and grandson of Ka@vu@s, king of Iran. According to the ˆa@h-na@ma (ed. Khaleghi, II, pp. 460-67), after Kay K¨osrow returned from Tu@ra@n to Iran two prominent courtiers, T®u@s and Gu@darz, consulted about the royal succession. T®u@s proposed Far^borz, Ka@vu@s' son, while Gu@darz put forward the name of Kay K¨osrow. ... AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ -EGONBADAÚN (Fortress of Gonbada@n), a fortress where the Iranian hero Esfand^a@r (q.v.), son of the Kaya@nian king Goæta@sb, was imprisoned. At the instigation of Gorazm (T®abar^, I, p. 677: Qorazm) Goæta@sb began to mistrust Esfand^a@r and finally accused him of laying claim to the throne of Iran; he ordered Esfand^a@r put in chains and sent to De‘-e Gonbada@n, while he himself left Balkò for S^sta@n. When Arja@sb, king of Tu@ra@n and Goæta@sb's adversary, learned of Goæta@sb's absence and Esfand^a@r's captivity he attacked Balkò, capturing Goæta@sb's two daughters and killing his father, Lohra@sb. ... MANSOUR SHAKI È NEBEˆT(Mid. Pers. diz ^ nibiæt "fortress of archives," lit. "writing"), supposedly one of two repositories (the other being ganj ^ æa@h^ga@n, ms.: æpyk÷n "royal treasury") in which copies of the Avesta (q.v.) and its exegesis (zand) were deposited for safekeeping. Five somewhat different versions of this legend are recounted in Pahlavi literature. In the De@nkard (ed. Madan, I, p. 412; Nyberg, Manual I, p. 108) the vicissitudes of the Zoroastrian scriptures are reported this way: "Da@ra@y, son of Da@ra@y, commanded that two written copies of all the Avesta and Zand, even as Zoroaster had received them from Ohrmazd, be preserved, one in the royal treasury and one in the fortress of archives" (Zaehner, pp. ... AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ -ERUÚYÈN (or Ru@y^n-de‘, Brazen fortress), castle belonging to the Turanian king Arja@sb (see ARJAÚSP) and conquered by Esfand^a@r (q.v.), son of the Kayanid king Goæta@sb. It has also been called "brazen city" (al-mad^na al-sáofr^ya; T¨a¿a@leb^, GÚorar, p. 522). In Goæta@sb's absence Arja@sb attacked Balkò, killing Lohra@sb, Goæta@sb's father, and taking captive the king's two daughters, Homa@y and Beha@far^d (ˆa@h-na@ma, Moscow, VI, pp. ... AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ -ESAFÈD (White fortress), Iranian fortress located near the border with Tu@ra@n and conquered by Sohra@b, son of the Iranian hero Rostam by the Turanian princess Tahm^na. Sohra@b, searching for his father, advanced into Iran and arrived at this fortress, which was guarded by another Iranian hero, Hoj^r. Hoj^r came out alone to fight Sohra@b but was defeated and taken prisoner. Then Gorda@far^d, Go‘daham's daughter (see below), put on armor and advanced on Sohra@b, but she was defeated and captured. ... MASSOUD KHEIRABADI, COLIN MACKINNON (< Dez-pol "Fortress bridge"), æahresta@n (subprovincial administrative unit) and city in northern Kòu@zesta@n province. FARHAD DAFTARY (or ˆa@hdez), a medieval mountain fortress situated in central Persia on the summit of Mount S®offa, about 8 km south of Isfahan. No information is available on the construction date of this strategically situated fortress, which guarded the routes to Isfahan, but, like some other ruins in the same region, it may have been built as early as the Sasanian period (Minasian, pp. 17-18, 20, 61-62, pls. 1-45). Ebn al-At¯^r attributed (X, pp. 109-10) the construction of this fortress, which he called the "fortress (qal¿a ) of Isfahan," to the Saljuq sultan Malekæa@h (465-85/1072-92), but this attribution does not seem reliable. ... MARY BOYCE AND FIROZE M. KOTWAL ,BAHMANJI NUSSERWANJI (b. 1869 in Navsari, d. 1952 in Bombay 1952), eminent Parsi scholar of Bhagaria (q.v.) stock. He received his schooling at the Sir Cowasjee Jehangir Madressa and trained at the same time as a Zoroastrian priest. He was initiated ervad (the 1st priestly qualification) and mara@teb (the 2nd and final priestly qualification) at the Wadi Dar-e Mihr in Navsari, and matriculated in 1890. He then enrolled at Elphinstone College, Bombay, and in 1893 received the B.A. with distinction in mathematics, his optional subjects being English and Persian. ... KAIKHUSROO M. JAMASPASA ,DASTUR MANECKJI NUSSERWANJI (b. 22 September 1875, Surat; d. 25 May 1956, Karachi), Parsi priest and scholar. In 1878 Dhalla came to Karachi with his father, married at the age of nine, and was ordained a priest (navar) in 1890. For a while he abandoned his studies and worked to augment the family's meagre income, but his scholarly interest never waned. At the age of nineteen he became the editor of a monthly magazine called Golæan-e da@neæ (1st issue published September 1894). In its second year Dhalla took over the ownership of the magazine, but shortage of funds forced him to close it down in December 1896. ... , QAÚZ˜È KHAN BADR. See DHAÚRVAÚL. HIROSHI KUMAMOTO, YUTAKA YOSHIDA , magic spells in the Buddhist Maha@ya@nist and Tantric (esoteric) traditions. HIROSHI KUMAMOTO , a short Buddhist text belonging to the Maha@ya@nist tradition. Two different versions of the Sanskrit text, a fragment of the Khotanese version, and a Chinese translation have been published so far. M. SALEEM AKHTAR or YUTAKA YOSHIDA ,name of a Buddhist Sogdian text discovered at Tun-huang (B. M. Or. 8212 [160]; facs. ed. in MacKenzie, pls. 37-66). The name of the sutra goes back to Hans Reichelt, who first studied it; the word ’÷w-t÷ (< Skt. dhu@ta-) recurs several times in the text. Reichelt's edition was extensively commented upon by Émile Benveniste and the most recent, revised edition was published by D. N. MacKenzie. YUTAKA YOSHIDA , designation of a Buddhist Sogdian text of 405 lines discovered at Tun-huang (B.M. Or. 8212 [85]; facs. ed. in MacKenzie, pls. 67-108; Taisho@ TripitÂaka XV, no. 643, pp. 690c6-692c27). The name applied by Hans Reichelt, who first studied the text, is still in common use among Sogdianists, though the original text was later shown by S. Matsunami to have been the Kuan fo san mei hai ching. A very badly preserved little fragment in Berlin, perhaps of the same text, is mentioned by Olaf Hansen (p. 86). ... KHALID ABU EL FADL, KHALID ABU EL FADL (pl. d^a@t), the prescribed blood money or wergild paid in compensation for a wrongful death or certain other physical injuries. The system of d^a is similar to other forms of compensation prevalent in Roman, Germanic, Anglo-Saxon, and other ancient legal systems (A. Diamond, pp. 144-58). Its inception, however, is in the system of private vengeance prevalent in pre-Islamic Arabia. Tribes in pre-Islamic Arabia would at times renounce their right to vengeance in return for compensation often in form of camels or young brides (Edris, p. ... , RIVER. See ARVANDRUÚD; ˆERVAÚNRUÚD. GERNOT L. WINDFUHR . Introduction. The terms dialect and language overlap. In general, language refers to the more or less unified system of the phonology, grammar, and lexicon that is shared by the speakers of a country, or geographic region, or a socially defined group, whereas dialect (Pers. lahja, gu@yeæ) focuses on varieties of a language. In that sense, any dialect can be considered a language, and vice versa. In popular usage, dialect also refers to a speaker's accent (lahja, but not gu@yeæ), i.e., peculiarities in his pronunciation, including stress and pitch (such as a German accent, or the noticeable "melody" of Isfahani Persian vs. ... . See AMIDA. MARY BOYCE, FARIBA ZARRINBAF-SHAHR, H. HAKIMIAN, YITZHAK NAKASH, PIROUZ MOJTAHED-ZADEH, MEHDI BOZORGMEHR, GRANT FARR, ÙANGÈZ PAHLAVAÚN ,Iranian. See also DEPORTATIONS. Ú. See ABRȈAM. ,MAH®MUÚD KHAN. See ¿ALAÚ÷-al-MOLK. . See DABÈR. ERICH KETTENHOFEN , city conquered by ˆa@pu@r I (240-70) during his second campaign against Rome in 253 (252, according to Balty), as recorded in his inscription at Ka¿ba-ye Zardoæt (Parth. l. 7: dykwl, Gr. l. 16). The exact location in northern Syria or southeastern Asia Minor has not yet been established. Martin Sprengling's identification (pp. 95-96, pl. 2 l. 13) of the city with Diacira, mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus (24.2.3.; Talmudic Ihi Dakira), modern H^t on the Euphrates in Iraq, is untenable; that of Ernest Honigmann with Zevkir, south of Gaziantep in Turkey, is speculative. ... KATHRYN BABAYAN ,MARTIN BERNARD (b. Brooklyn, 22 March 1924, d. Princeton, 14 May 1991), Iranist and Central Asianist specialized in Safavid history. It was as a cryptographic technician for the OSS that he began his training in Persian at the University of Michigan (1943). He served in both the Asian and Eastern European theaters of war, adding Russian and Chinese to his repertoire of languages. After the war he left the army to receive his BA at the University of Washington (1948) in Far Eastern Languages and Literature. Unable to pursue his interests in Chinese Turkestan, for China was in the midst of Mao's revolution, Dickson turned first to Turkey, where he studied with Zeki Velidi Togan, and then to Persia. ... ¿ALÈ AˆRAF S®AÚDEQÚÈ, JOHN R. PERRY, H®OSAYN SAÚME¿È, H®OSAYN SAÚME¿È RüDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. taà Dídyma, probably of Carian origin), district ca. 20 km south of the Ionian Miletus and site of a pre-Greek (Pausanias, 7.2.6) sanctuary of Apollo, to which a famous oracle was attached. Didyma was connected to Miletus by a partially paved sacred way via Panormus on the sea. The 6th-century temple, which incorporated its smaller predecessor, was destroyed by the Persians in 494 B.C.E., after the failure of the Ionian revolt (Herodotus, 6.19.3; according to Strabo, 14.1.5, however, it was Xerxes who destroyed the temple). ... J.T.P. DE BRUIJN ,LOUIS (LUDOVICUS) DE, Dutch Orientalist (b. Vlissingen, Flushing, April 7, 1590; d. Leiden, Dec. 23, 1642). His father Daniel de Dieu (1540-1607) was a Calvinist minister at Brussels, who in 1585 fled from the Spanish army to Flushing in the Protestant province of Zeeland. Louis studied theology and Oriental languages (Hebrew, Syriac, Ethiopic, and Arabic) in Leiden with Thomas Erpenius and Jacob Golius. As a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church, he served first in his native province and then from 1619 onwards in Leiden. ... JEAN CALMARD , JANE HENRIETTE MAGRE (b. Toulouse, 29 June 1851, d. Château de Langlade, Haute-Garonne, 25 May 1916), French archeologist, explorer, folklorist, novelist, playwright, and journalist. Jane was born into a wealthy and cultivated family of merchants. She studied at Couvent de l'Assomption d'Auteuil (1862-1870) in Paris. In May 1870, she married Marcel Dieulafoy (q.v.) and joined him in the army of the Loire during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. From that time, she adopted masculine costume and a short haircut in her extensive travels and her mundane Parisian life. ... PIERRE AMIET ,MARCEL-AUGUSTE, French archeologist (b. Toulouse, 3 August 1844, d. Paris, 25 February 1920). He thoroughly represented a generation of learned Frenchmen of the 19th century who were without university education and specialized training. But their familiarity with classical civilization combined with technical education led them to take an interest in wide-ranging aspects of history and archeology. JENS KRÖGER , ERNST, Austrian historian of Iranian and Islamic art (b. 27 January 1878, d. 8 July 1961). Diez belonged to the first generation of European art historians, who, starting with studies in European art, soon developed an interest in Asian cultures. F. THORDARSON , Ossetic tribal name. The Digors, who number about 80,000 people or one-sixth of the Ossetic population, live mainly in the western districts of the former North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR), at the upper reaches of the Iräf (Russ. Urukh) river, but also in the Mozdok region of the same ASSR and in the Ozrek region of the former Kabard-Balkar ASSR (Isaev, p. 4). HUÚˆANG A¿LAM (æeved, æev^d, æebet, etc.), Anethum graveolens L. (fam. Umbellifera), an herb widely cultivated in Persia. The main use of its feathery leaves is as the sole herb in all dishes in which the main ingredient is fava beans (ba@qela@, q.v.), for example, ba@qela@ polow (pilau with fava beans), ku@fta-ye æeved-ba@qela@ (meatballs with dill and fava beans), kòoreæ-e ba@qela@ (a stew with chunks of meat, as well as dill and fava beans) and its well-known G^la@n^ variant ba@qla@ qa@toq, but also in æeved polow (a plain pilau sometimes served as a dietary dish, e. ... AMIR HASSANPOUR (Pers. Demdem or Domdom), name of a mountain and a fortress where an important battle between the Kurds and the Safavid army took place in the early 17th century. GARNIK S. ASATRIAN (or Za@za@), the indigenous name of an Iranian people living mainly in eastern Anatolia, in the Dersim region (present-day Tunceli) between Erzincan (see ARZENJAÚN) in the north and the Muratsu (Mora@dsu@, Arm. Aracani) in the south, the far western part of historical Upper Armenia (Barjr Hayk¿). They are also found in Bingöl, Mu¶, and the province of Bitlis, as well as around Diyarbekir (D^a@rbakr), Siverek, and Sivas (for details, see Lerch, p. xxi; Haykuni, p. 84; Andranik, pp. ... EIR. b. Olu@s Khan, the Uzbek prince who, with his brother ¿Al^ Soltáa@n, joined Shah T®ahma@sb's camp in 943/1536-37 during the latter's campaign in Khorasan against ¿Obayd-Alla@h Khan, the Uzbek ruler of Bukhara. He was given the governorship of Nesa@ and Ab^vard. In 945/1538-39 he regained Kúa@razm from ¿Abd-al-¿Az^z, son of ¿Obayd-Alla@h Khan. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN , a bi-weekly religious magazine published in Tabr^z, 1346-50/1928-31, replacing another Tabr^z religious magazine, Tadòakkora@t-e d^n^. Starting with its second year, it became a monthly magazine. Its owner and director, and probably also the writer of all of its articles, was Ha@jj M^rza@ ¿Al^ Moqaddas, a Tabr^z^ cleric about whom little is known. It contained only religious articles, all bearing Arabic titles and filled with Arabic words and phrases. PHILIPPE GIGNOUX, MICHAEL BATES (NPers. d^na@r, Mid. Pers de@na@r < Lat. denarius aureus), a gold coin. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , MALEK b. Moháammad (d. 591/1195), a leader of the Oghuz Turkmen in Khorasan and, in the latter years of the 12th century, ruler of Kerma@n. . See BAK¨TÈAÚRÈ. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (occasionally vocalized Daynavar), in the first centuries of Islam an important town in Jeba@l, now ruined. Its site lies northeast of modern Kerma@næa@h, at 34° 35' N, 47° 26' E, on an upland plain (elev. 1,600 m) traversed by what the medieval traveler Abu@ Dolaf called the river of D^navar (p. 49, comm. pp. 93, 97). CHARLES PELLAT , ABUÚ H®ANÈFA AH®MAD b. Da@wu@d b. Vanand (d. between 281/894 and 290/903), grammarian, lexicographer, astronomer, mathematician, and Islamic traditionist of Persian origin, who lived at D^navar (q.v.) and in several cities in Iraq in the 9th century. There is little information on his life, but he is known to have attended the lectures of Esháa@q Sekk^t and his son Ya¿qu@b b. Esháa@q, both renowned philologists. JOSEF VAN ESS ,ABUÚ MOH®AMMAD ¿ABD-ALLAÚH b. H®amda@n b. Wahb b. Beær (d. 308/902; incorrectly identified with ¿Abd-Alla@h b. Moba@rak D^navar^, q.v., by Brockelmann, GAL I, p. 204, Suppl. I, p. 334, and Sezgin, GAS I, p. 42), traditionist and háa@fezá (preserver of the Koranic text). He conversed in the circle of Abu@ Zor¿a Ra@z^ (d. 264/878) and seems to have preserved Hadith material going back to Sofya@n T¨awr^ that was not known in Ku@fa, where Sofya@n had lived. ... JOSEF VAN ESS ,ABUÚ MOH®AMMAD ¿ABD-ALLAÚH b. Moba@rak (d. first half of the 10th century), author of a tafs^r (koranic exegesis) entitled al-Wa@zµehá f^ tafs^r al-Qor÷a@n, which is preserved in several manuscripts (Brockelmann, GAL I, p. 204, S. I, p. 334; Sezgin, GAS I, p. 42, in both of which the author is incorrectly identified and his name garbled). The material is presented in a sober fashion, with short explanations and almost without quotation of earlier works; it stands fully in the eastern Persian tradition of Ebn ¿Abba@s and Kalb^ and was transmitted in N^æa@pu@r, as well as in Samarqand. ... , AH®MAD b. Moháammad. See EBN K¨AÚZEN. WERNER SUNDERMANN (Ar. and Pers.< Mid. Pers. de@na@war "having religion, pious, upright"), in Manichean usage originally "the elect." The term was ultimately derived from the Iranian substantive (attested in Mid. Pers. de@nawar, Parth. de@na@£ar, and Sogd. ’e@na@£ar and its feminine derivation ’yn÷£r÷nc, pl. ’y÷£r÷æt). Judging from the Arabic form, the early New Persian form was *de@na@var; the derivation de@na@var^ "follower of the d^na@vara@n" is attested in the plural form de@na@var^a@n in Gard^z^ (ed. ... Ú. TEPE.See DENK¨A TEPE. WOLFGANG FELIX ÈRAÚNÈ. See IRANI, DINSHAH. MARIE LOUISE CHAUMONT (more correctly, Cassius Dio; b. Nicea, Bithynia, ca. 160, d. Nicea, after 229), Roman official whose Rhomaike@ Historia (ed. U. P. Boissevain, 3 vols., Berlin, 1896-1901) is important for the study of Parthian history. He was the son of a government official under Marcus Aurelius and during the reign of Commodus (180-93) went to Rome, where he began his public career. Under Septimius Severus (193-211) he was named pretorius (193) and consul (ca. 211). He accompanied Caracalla (211-17) on his campaign to Armenia in 216, remaining in the east for several years, and under Severus Alexander (222-35) he was proconsul of Africa, then of Dalmatia and Upper Pannonia (225-28), and in 229 consul again. ... . See DIO COCCEIANUS. ROGER BECK , surnamed Chrysostom (golden-mouthed), a travling scholar who in his 36th Oration (known as the "Borysthenian" or "Olbian" from its dramatic setting), written about 100 C.E., purports to summarize a hymn composed by Zoroaster and sung by the magi "in secret rites" (text and commentary in Bidez and Cumont, II, pp. 142-53; tr. H. Lamar Crosby, Dio Chrysostom, vol. 3, Loeb Classical Library, pp. 455-75). The hymn is actually two cosmological myths. In the first (pars. 39-53), the universe is likened to a team of horses corresponding to the elements of fire, air, water, and earth. ... ERNST BADIAN , Greek historian from Agyrium in Sicily, hence called Siculus (the Sicilian). He came to Rome in the middle of the first century B.C.E. and there wrote his Bibliotheca Historica, a universal history in forty books (only 1-5, largely legendary early history, and 11-20, covering 480-301 B.C.E., survive), from the origins to the age of Caesar. The work is a compilation, normally epitomizing one earlier historian at a time, with insertions from Diodorus' other readings and moral reflections of his own, and changing over to another history where the previous one runs out. ... OSMUND BOPEARACHCHI , the satrap of Bactria-Sogdiana, who revolted against his Seleucid soverign Antiochus II (q.v.) and proclaimed himself king, thus laying the foundation of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom. The date of his revolt has been a subject of much debate. It has been placed between 256 and 239 B.C., the majority of scholars arguing for about the year 250. He was succeeded by his son Diodotus II . WOLFGANG FELIX , author of a biographically arranged history of Greek philosophy in ten books that also deals with the Persian Magi, especially in the first book on the origins of philosophy. Of his life nothing is recorded, but according to the internal evidence in his work he must have lived in the 3rd century C.E. Diogenes Laertius gathered his material from (lost) second- or third-hand sources without citing the chain of tradition completely. He claimed to have based his statements upon the chief authorities that he quoted by name, though he rarely knew their works other than by means of citations. ... RüDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. Diony´sios) of Miletus, Greek historiographer, who may have lived in the 5th century B.C.E. and is said to have written a book about Persian history after the death of Darius I (q.v.; cf. Suda, s.v., where five books of Events after Darius and Persika‚, written in the Ionian dialect, are listed among his works). As in the only surviving historical notice, preserved in a scholium to Herodotus, there is reference to the removal of the false Smerdis, it seems probable that the fragment belongs to the introductory, "retrospective" part of Dionysius' books and that the detailed description of Persian history began only with the death of Darius. ... . See FOREIGN RELATIONS PIERRE OBERLING ,Lor tribe belonging to the Ba@la@ Gar^va group and inhabiting a mountainous area between K¨orrama@ba@d and Dezfu@l (q.v.) in the P^æ-Ku@h region of Loresta@n. According to Albert Houtum-Schindler (p. 86), the D^rakvand comprised about 2,000 families in 1294/1877; Arnold Wilson (p. 26), reported about 3,000 families in 1330/1912 and Henry Field (p. 183) about 8,000-10,000 individuals in 1307 ˆ./1928. The absence of more recent data on the tribe suggests that it has lost its separate identity. ... YUTAKA YOSHIDA a Buddhist text in which the Buddha expounds the merits of observing the eight commandments to a parivra@jaka named D^rghanakha. It was translated into Chinese by I-tsing early in the 8th century (Taisho@ TripitÂaka XIV, no. 584) and the complete Sogdian version translated from the Chinese is extant. Its title is rendered in Sogdian as pwty prß÷yrtk ßrzn÷x÷n ’yn’÷ry wp÷rs pwstk "Su@tra spoken by Buddha at the question of a religious man (named) Long-nailed" (cf. ... PHILIPPE GIGNOUX, MICHAEL BATES (< Gk. drakhme@´ "drachma"; Mid. Pers. drahm, Pers. derham), a unit of silver coinage and of weight. MAHMOUD OMIDSALAR (demon, monster, fiend), often confused with g@u@l (orge, ghoul) and jinn in both folk and literary traditions (Masse‚, Croyances, pp. 352-53; Qazv^n^, pp. 383-95), expresses not only the idea of "demon," but also that of "ogre," "giant," and even "Satan." The translators of T®abar^'s commentary render the Arabic ebl^s, (Satan) as d^v (I, p. 32, II, pp. 307, 446, 461, 471, 543, III, p. 551), while at the same time translating Arabic jinn into Persian d^v or par^. This indicates a confusion between the notions of jinn and g@u@l on the one hand, and d^v and par^ on the other (T®abar^, II, pp. ... ROGER M. SAVORY , title of ¿ALIÚ BEG RUÚMLUÚ, a qezelba@æ officer first mentioned at the battle of ˆaru@r (907/1501), in which the Safavid Esma@¿^l I (q.v.) defeated the AÚq Qoyu@nlu@ prince Alvand (Jaha@ngoæa@-ye K¨a@qa@n, p. 138). D^v Soltáa@n was present at the decisive battle of Marv (916/1510), which enabled Esma@¿^l to recover Khorasan from the hands of Moháammad ˆ^ba@n^ (ˆeybak) Khan Uzbek. In 919/1513, after having carried out a punitive expedition in the region of ˆoborqa@n, Andkòu@y, and Balkò (qq. ... KLAUS FISCHER (31°15'-31°16' N, 62°06'-62°09' E), an extensive area of historic remains in the center of an ancient canal system fed by the rivers Helmand and K¨a@æru@d. It is located between the eastern border of the Ha@mu@n-e Aæk^n¿a@m and the lower K¨a@æru@d, about 45 km to the northeast of Zaranj in southwest Afghanistan. FRANçOIS DE BLOIS, C. EDMUND BOSWORTH, FRANçOIS DE BLOIS , archive, register, chancery, government office; also, collected works, especially of a poet. . See JUDICIARY. PRISCILLA P. SOUCEK , 15th-century painter whose work is known primarily from single-page paintings preserved in the Topkapé Sarayé library, Istanbul. His name is inscribed on five pages now mounted in a moraqqa¿ (album; ms. no. H.2160), which contains paintings and calligraphy of various dates, including many linked to Sultan Ya¿qu@b (883-96/1478-90) or other members of the AÚq Qoyunlu@ dynasty (Tanéndé, pp. 38-39). He may also be identified with a poet known as D^va@na Naqqa@æ, mentioned by the early 16th-century writer Sa@m M^rza@ (p. ... SHIRO ANDO, ROGER M. SAVORY See CALIGRAPHY. b. D^vdast OˆRUÚSANÈ.See BANUÚ SAÚJ. MAHMOUD OMIDSALAR (Per. morva@, MUHAMMAD A. DANDAMAYEV, MANSOUR SHAKI, SACHIKO MURATA, AKBAR AGHAJANIAN, JENNY ROSE, MUJAN MOMEN , legal termination of marriage. In the following series of articles only those communities are taken into consideration which are either Iranian or are focussed in Persia. For this reason Jewish and Christian practices have not been included. AKBAR AGHAJANIAN, JENNY ROSE, MOOJAN MOMEN .See JIZAK. . See CERAMICS i. . See HAFT-OWRANG; NOJUÚM. STEPHEN BLUM , a quatrain of sung poetry in many Persian dialects. In popular speech and publications the quatrains are commonly described as tara@naha@-ye maháall^/ru@sta@÷^ (regional/rural songs). Many of the verses, however, are widely diffused in Persia, in part through inexpensive printed collections. Regional differences are perhaps most pronounced in the melodies to which the quatrains are sung . See NOJUÚM. HAMID ALGAR ,the act of offering supplicatory or petitionary prayer, a principal manifestation of Muslim piety. Do¿a@, with the literal meaning "calling" or "summoning," frequently signifies worship as such in the Koran (e.g., 6:56, 17:110, 52:19), but the technical definition of do¿a@ as a distinct practice is "seeking the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a thing with a wording that combines the praise and exaltation of God with the confession of one's own weakness and helplessness" (Taha@naw^, I, pp. ... AH®MAD MAHDAWÈ DAÚM@GÚAÚNÈ , the act of writing charms against various evils. Do¿a@ in this sense refers to spoken or written words assumed to have properties that can either avert harm, cure physical or mental sickness, or bring about a desired effect. A person who makes a living from writing do¿a@s is called do¿a@nev^s. A variety of do¿a@ called ta¿w^dò (amulet) has been common for many centuries (see CHARM). Ta¿w^dò involves suras or verses from the Koran, often the two last suras, which begin with qol a¿u@dòo (Say: I seek refuge), and for this reason these two suras are called mo¿awwedòatayn. ... KLAUS FISCHER (Doab-i Mekhe Zarin; 35°15´-35°16´ N, 67°58´-68°01´ E), a group of archeological sites with numerous pre-Islamic mud-brick ruins on either side of the Sorkòa@b river, on the road from Ba@m^a@n to Doæ^, opposite the entrance to the Kahmard valley. MANSOUR SHAKI, MUHAMMAD A. DANDAMAYEV , production and registration of. .See BALUCHISTAN iii/II. .See AFTÈMUÚN. MAHMOUD OMIDSALAR AND TERESA P. OMIDSALAR, MARY BOYCE, JEAN-PIERRE DIGARD (Canis familiaris; Pers. sag; sagtu@la "puppy"; Av. span-, Median *spaka-; Lor@^ say, la@s "bitch," sayu "puppy" [Digard, 1981, p. 34]; Paæto spay, spie "bitch" [Dupree, p. 49]; Semna@n^ esba‚; Sang. ™sba‚; Kajal^ of K¨alkòa@l esbe‚; T®a@leæ^ of V^zna s™ba; Abya@na^ kuya@). ,MÈRZAÚ MOH®AMMAD H®AYDAR. See Supplement. .See GAÙSARAÚN. .See KAÚRUÚN. WILLEM FLOOR (tobacco projects), referring to the State tobacco-monopoly law (Qa@nu@n-e enháesáa@r-e dawlat^-e dokòa@n^ya@t) of 29 Esfand 1307/20 March 1909 and to the state monopoly of tobacco products itself. .See BAÚZAÚR i. HUBERTUS VON GALL (lit., "shop of David"), rock-cut tomb of the Achaemenid period in the Zagros range a few kilometers southeast of Sar-e Pol-e D¨oha@b, in the province of Kerma@næa@ha@n. It was discovered by Henry C. Rawlinson in 1836 (pp. 38-39), but, owing to its position high on the rock face (12 m above a recess, which is in turn 10 m above the foot of the cliff; cf. Hüsing, p. 15), a plan of the interior of the monument drawn by Pascal Coste in 1840 (Flandin and Coste, IV, pl. 211) remained the sole source of information until 1972, when some details of the plan were corrected by the present author (von Gall, 1974, p. ... MARKUS MODE (lit., "daughter of No@æerva@n"), rock-cut architectural complex with important wall paintings in the Kòolm valley in northern Afghanistan, discovered in 1924 (Godard et al., pp. 65-74, figs. 25-27, pls. XLI-XLIII). Of the two niches in the complex the upper one contains a large painting in a very fragmentary state but of particular iconographic importance. The painted framework consists of an architectural form similar to an arcade, originally resting on four columns. Within the central pair of columns are the remains of a painted personage seated on a throne. ... NASSEREDDIN PARVIN (lit., "Daughters of Iran"), a monthly variety magazine for girls published in Shiraz from 1 Morda@d 1310 ˆ./23 July 1931 to AÚdòar 1311 ˆ./November 1932. The publisher and editor was "Zand-dokòòt ˆ¨^ra@z^" (Fakòr-al-Molu@k Zandpu@r, 1327-71=1331 ˆ./1909-52), one of the pioneers in seeking women's rights in Persia; she founded the Society for women's revolution (Majma¿-e enqela@b-e neswa@n) and was the first woman in Shiraz in modern times to appear in public unveiled (Roknza@da AÚdam^yat, pp. ... CHARLES MELVILLE (d. 29 ˆa¿ba@n 663/16 June 1265), chief wife of the Il-khan Hülegü (Hu@la@gu@; 654-63/1256-65) and granddaughter of Wang (Ong) Khan, leader of the Nestorian Christian Kereyit (Kara@yet) tribe domiciled near present-day Ulan Bator. After Wang Khan's defeat by the future Ùeng^z Khan in 1203 she was given to the latter's youngest son, Tolui (Tu@l^). The marriage was apparently not consummated, and, when Tolui died in 630/1233 she passed into the care of his son Hülegü, who married her during his expedition to Persia in 654-56/1256-58. ... FRED M. DONNER ,family of Arab origin that became politically prominent in western Persia during the 9th century. Some members were also significant Arabic literary figures. The Dolafids belonged to the Arab tribe of ¿Ejl b. Lojaym, among the first Muslim conquerors of central Iraq (cf. Donner, appendices; Caskel, s.v. ¿Igl b. Lugaym; T®abar^, II, p. 994). The precise ancestry of the family within the tribe was the subject of dispute among various informants, however. The first member of the family mentioned in the surviving historical record was Edr^s b. ... AH®MAD MAHDAWÈ DAÚMGÚAÚNÈ (or Doldu@l, in Ar. lit., "large porcupine"), name of a female mule that Moqawqes, governor of Egypt, sent to the Prophet Moháammad as a gift. Toward the end of his life the Prophet gave it and his armor to ¿Al^ b. Ab^ T®a@leb, an act that is viewed by Shi¿ites as one of the important indicators of ¿Al^'s special status. MOOJAN MOMEN , document published under the title E¿tera@fa@t-e s^a@s^ ya@ ya@dda@ætha@-ye Kenya@z Dolqoru@k^ (Political confessions or memoirs of Prince Dolgorukov) in the historical portion of the "Khorasan yearbook," issued in Maæhad in 1322 ˆ./1943. A new edition was published in Tehran the following year, and there have been many others since. According to these memoirs, the Russian Dimitri Dolgorukov came to Persia in the 1830s, converted to Islam, learned Persian and Arabic, and even studied at Karbala@÷; he then repudiated Islam, instigated the Ba@b (q. ... ERICH KETTENHOFEN ,city in the Roman province of Syria conquered together with the surrounding area by ˆa@pu@r I (240-70) during his second campaign against Rome in 252 or 253 (Back, p. 303, ˆKZ, Parth. l. 7, Gk. l. 17; for the date see DICHOÚR). The name is no longer legible in the Middle Persian version of ˆa@pu@r's Res Gestae (cf. Sprengling, pl. 7 l. 10), and the Parthian form dwrhw is mysterious. The identification of Doliche@, on the ancient trade route from Antioch to Edessa, with Dülük in modern Turkey is certain (see Wagner, 1976, sketch 3; on the various forms of the name, see Honigmann, 1923, p. ... M. R. GHANOONPARVAR (or du@lma), Turkish term (Doerfer, III, pp. 203-04) for stuffed vegetable or fruit dishes common in the Middle East and in Mediterranean countries. Versions have been known in Persia since at least as early as the 17th century (Afæa@r, pp. 217, 238-39). M^rza@ ¿Al^-Akbar Khan AÚæpaz-ba@æ^, chef to the court of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96), recorded dolma as a category of Persian cuisine and gave recipes for stuffing grape leaves, cabbage leaves, cucumbers, eggplants, apples, and quinces (pp. ... .See DEYLAMITES i. ERICH KETTENHOFEN ,city in the Roman province of Cappadocia, conquered along with the surrounding area by the Sasanian ˆa@pu@r I (240-70) during his second campaign against Rome (ˆKZ, Parth, l. 8: dwm'n; Gk. l. 18; not extant in Middle Persian; Back, p. 305). It is probably to be identified with Domana, a city mentioned by the geographer Ptolemy (5.7.3); according to the itineraries, it was located on the road between Satala (modern Sadak in Turkey) and Trapezous (modern Trabzon). Ernst Honigmann has suggested a localization at Köse, north of Sadak. ... BERNARD O'KANE ,circular vaulted roofs or ceilings. The variety of forms and decoration of Persian domes is unrivaled. DANIEL BALLAND AND JEAN-PIERRE DIGARD (Pers. háaywa@n-e ahl^; cf. ahl^ kardan/æodan "to domesticate, be domesticated"), a group of animals raised or maintained in captivity so that they can provide products, services, or entertainment. These animals, the methods of raising and exploiting them, their general treatment, and the ways in which they are represented by human beings constitute the "system of domestication" (Digard, 1990, pp. 176-79). This article is devoted to the principal characteristics of the predominant systems of domestication in Afghanistan and Persia, what they owe to neighboring or preceding systems, how they have departed from them, and whether or not it is possible to speak of a typically Iranian system of domestication. ... PETER AVERY ,BESS ALLEN (b. Galesburg, Ill., 7 December 1879, d. Lakeland, Fla., 20 December 1974) and DWIGHT MARTIN (b. Washington, O., 16 December 1884, d. Lakeland, Fla., 11 May 1976), American Presbyterian missionaries and writers about Persia. Bess Allen went to Tehran in 1910 as a teacher at the Iran Bethel Girl's School (renamed Nu@rbakæ School in 1940), a Presbyterian mission school; she subsequently became principal. Dwight Donaldson was a missionary of the American Presbyterian Church in Maæhad from 1915. ... M. R. GHANOONPARVAR , the fatty part of the sheep's tail, traditionally used as a cooking fat, sometimes in melted form, or as an inexpensive meat substitute. Nowadays it is less frequently used because of the harmful effects of animal fat. .See TONBAK. .See DAMAÚVAND. ¿ALÈ AÚL-E DAÚWUÚD AND PIERRE OBERLING , name of a turkicized Kurdish tribe in the K¨oy and Salma@s regions of northwestern Azerbaijan and of the leading family of K¨oy since the 16th century. ˆaraf-al-D^n Bedl^s^ (tr., pt. 1, p. 169) reported that, according to the "most authentic" theory, the Donbol^ came from Bokòta@n, a region between Siirt and Cizre in what is now southeastern Turkey, and the tribe was thus called Donbol^-e Bokòt. Its first leader seems to have been a certain ¿Èsa@ Beg, whose descendants were known as the ¿Isa@ Beg^. ... ,¿ABD-AL-RAZZAÚQ BEG. See ¿ABD-AL-RAZZAÚQ BEG. ,AMÈR BEHRUÚZ. See Supplement. MAHMOUD OMIDSALAR AND TERESA P. OMIDSALAR (Equus hydrunitinus, Equus asinus asinus, etc.; Pers. kòar, dara@z-ga@æ), domesticated species descended from the wild ass (Equus africanus; Uerpmann), probably first bred in captivity in Egypt and western Asia, where by 2500 B.C.E. the domesticated donkey was in use as a beast of burden (Clutton-Brock, p. 65). Because of its jolting gait, it was almost never used in hunting or battle (Clutton-Brock, p. 66; for a rare exception, see Aelian, 10.40, 12.34). In southern Persia remains of the domestic donkey have been identified from the 3rd millennium B. ... NASSEREDDIN PARVIN (lit., "The world"), name of several Persian journals and newspapers. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN (Today's world), name of a weekly magazine published in Tehran and two weekly newspapers founded in Qazv^n and Isfahan respectively. SHEILA BLAIR, MORTAZ˜AÚ MOMAYYEZ (dar o sardar), in Persian architecture major foci of decoration, varying in size and elaboration with the function and importance of the building and the location of the entrance in relation to the total composition. DANIEL BALLAND (Pashto D®ôr™y; Aslanov, p. 432), river in southern Afghanistan, the main tributary of the Arg@anda@b (q.v.). It originates about 2,500 m above sea level in the To@ba highlands of northern Baluchistan, about 50 km east of the Afghan boundary (for details, see Wylie; summarized in Hughes-Buller, p. 14; Gazetteer of Afghanistan V, pp. 199 ff.) and receives the waters of the Arg@esta@n (344 km long) and Tarnak (353 km long) rivers on its right bank before its confluence with the Arg@anda@b below Qandaha@r, at an altitude of 890 m. ... N. L. LUZHETSKAYA ,JOHANNES ALBRECHT BERNHARD (Boris Andreevich; b. Scheierfeld, Saxe-Coburg, Germany, 29 April 1805, d. St. Petersburg, 19 May 1881), pioneer in many areas of Iranian studies in Russia. Dorn studied philology and theology at the universities of Halle and Leipzig, learning Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, Persian, Turkish, Pashto, Sanskrit, and Ethiopian. In 1825 he received a doctorate in theology and philosophy from Leipzig and was appointed lecturer in oriental languages. The next year C. M. Fraehn, director of the Asiatic Museum of the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences in St. ... Ú.See CRANE. .See PEARL. DANIEL BALLAND (sg. Dorra@nay), probably the most numerous Pashtun tribal confederation (q.v.), from which all Afghan dynasties since 1160/1747 have come. It has always played a leading role in modern Afghan politics (Yusufzai; see AFGHANISTAN x). ,AH®MAD SHAH. See AFGHANISTAN x. . See AFGHANISTAN x. HUÚˆANG A¿LAM ,maize or (Indian) corn, Zea mays L. (fam. Gramineae), with many varieties and hybrids (see T®aba@tÂaba@÷^, pp. 140-62). AFSANEH NAJMABADI (b. Tehran, 1295/1873, d. Tehran, ˆahr^var 1344=1303 ˆ./1924), pioneer in female education in Persia. Her father, Sayyed ¿Al^ H®ak^m ˆams-al-Ma¿a@l^, was a physician in the service of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah, but, as was typical of the period, no information on her mother was recorded. Dorrat al-Ma¿a@l^ was educated at home, at first by her father and then by a series of tutors. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN (Pearl of Najaf) . See DÜRRI EFENDI. ¿ALÈ AÚL-E DAÚWUÚD ,a town in Loresta@n province, situated at the foot of Oætora@nku@h, at an altitude of 1,460 m (33° 28' N, 49° 3' E), on the route from Tehran to Kòorrama@ba@d at the confluence of the rivers T^ra and Ma@rbara. The town enjoys temperate summers and fairly cold winters. It owes its rapid growth from a simple village into a sizable town to its location on the Persian railroad, which led to commercial and industrial development in the last few decades. According to the general census (q. ... DANIEL BALLAND ,small town and district on the northern slope of the central Hindu Kush in Afghanistan. The town is situated at the junction of the Sorkòa@b and Andara@b, the valleys of which are traversed by two old caravan tracks linking Kabul with QatÂag@an. The one, along the Sorkòa@b via Ba@m^a@n (q.v.) and the ˆebar pass, was the usual post road at the end of the 19th century (Peacocke, p. 404); the other, along the Andara@b, passed through the Panjæe@r valley and the K¨a@wa@k pass. ... PIERRE OBERLING ,name of two Lor tribes in southern Persia, the Doæmanz^a@r^-e Mamasan^ and the Doæmanz^a@r^-e Ku@hg^lu@ya. AMIN H. TARZI JEAN DURING ,long-necked lute of the tanbu@r family, usually with two strings (do ta@r). Several different types are current in the area between Turkey and Central Asia, sometimes with other names (generally derived from the word tanbu@r). The principal feature is the pear-shaped sound box attached to a neck that is longer than the box and faced with a wooden soundboard. Dota@rs can be classified in several different types. JEAN DURING ,kind of flute consisting of two parallel pipes pierced with holes and fitted with a removable vibrating mouthpiece made by cutting a U-shaped incision into a thin reed. The principle of this instrument is used in different forms in the Mediterranean and western Islamic world (in instruments like the mezma@r, motbej, mejwez, and ±efta, Turk. çifte) and as far east as Central Asia (as in the qoæney). It is attested from as early as the New Kingdom in Egypt (Hickmann, p. 121). The principle of the doza@la flute was described by Fara@b^ (p. ... .See ZAÚHEDAÚN. J. T. P. DE BRUIJN (b. Leiden, 21 February 1820, d. Leiden, 29 April 1883), .See AÛDAHAÚ. ECKART EHLERS ,the carrying away of excess surface water through runoff in permanent or intermittent streams. On Persian territory, because of seasonal variations in the climate, surface runoff also varies considerably at different times and in different places. M. R. GHANOONPARVAR ,in formal Western terms a relatively new art form in Persia, though various types of dramatic performance, including religious plays and humorous satirical skits, have long been a part of Persian religious and folk tradition. Ta¿z^ya (q.v.) is a form of Persian religious drama that developed in the 16th century and commemorates the suffering of Shi¿ite martyrs; it is usually presented in verse and is the only traditional form of Persian drama in which written texts are used (Yarshater, 1979). Traditional comic entertainments are usually presented on special occasions like weddings; they include baqqa@l-ba@z^ (q. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT (or Zarangiana), territory around Lake Ha@mu@n (q.v.) and the Helmand river in modern S^sta@n. The name of the country and its inhabitants is first attested as Old Persian z-r-k (i.e., Zranka) in the great B^sotu@n (q.v. iii) inscription of Darius I (q.v.; col. I l. 16), apparently the original name. This form is reflected in the Elamite (Sir-ra-an-qa and variants), Babylonian (Za-ra-an-ga), and Egyptian (srng or srnká) versions of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions, as well as in Greek Zara‚ngai, Zarangaîoi, Zarangiane@´ (Arrian; Isidore of Charax), and Sara‚ngai (Herodotus) and in Latin Zarangae (Pliny). ... FRANTZ GRENET ,Greek name of a Bactrian city in northern Afghanistan, the first town captured by Alexander the Great after crossing the Hindu Kush (Arrian, Anabasis 3.29.1). Shorter forms (< ancient Iranian drafæa- "banner") include Da‚rapsa (Strabo, 11.11.2), A´drapsa (Strabo, 15.2.10), Dre‚psa (Ptolemy, Geography 6.12.6, confusing its location with that of Marakanda-Samarkand, probably because the rivers flowing near them were both called Dargama‚ne@s, designating the Qondu@z river and the Dargom channel), and Drepsa (Ammianus Mar-cellinus, 23. ... M. L. SWIETOCHOWSKI an art form primarily dependent on expressive line. The high quality of Persian drawings maintained from the late 13th to the early 20th century provides a clear indication that this art form was appreciated by the Persian cultural elite. All artists were trained in ateliers under an arduous apprenticeship system, absorbing through practice and emulation Persian artistic traditions and ideals. AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ (The Babylonian tree), a versified contest over precedence between a goat and a palm tree, composed in the Parthian language, written in Book Pahlavi script, and consisting of about 120 verses. Probably in ancient times the Iranians adopted this literary genre, which has the characteristics of oral literature from Mesopotamia; examples are found in Sumerian and Akkadian texts (Asmussen, 1973, pp. 51-59; Brunner, pp. 194-202). The text has been edited and published from Codex MK, with collations from other manuscripts (Pahlavi Texts, ed. ... HOSSEIN ZIAI i. In pre-Islamic Persia. See Supplement. HIROSHI KUMAMOTO , MARK JAN (b. Amsterdam, 26 April 1911; d. Philadelphia, 16 August 1986), American iranist of Dutch origin. He was born to a family of eminent musicians and studied classics and Indology at the University of Amsterdam, receiving a master's degree in 1937. He then transferred to the University of Utrecht, in order to study Vedic ritual texts with Jan Gonda; his doctoral dissertation was a translation entitled Ma@navagr®hyasu@tra. A Vedic Manual of Domestic Rites (Groningen, 1941). In 1937-38 Dresden studied with Émile Benveniste (q. ... SHAPOUR RASSEKH, SHAPOUR RASSEKH , joint surname adopted by two leading Bahai figures of the 20th century. JEAN KELLENS (or Dri£i-), Younger Avestan noun from the Vide@vda@d; it is not a substantive but an adjective in -i- referring to a defect of the body defined as "the mark of Aºra Mainiiu" (see AHRIMAN; Vd. 2.29) or, in the compound akaran™m.dri£i- "eternal dri£i," to the fly that embodies the demon of corpses (nasu; Vd. 7.2). It is also the name of a dae@uua (see *DAIVA-; Vd. 19.43). It is not certain whether the vowel i in the first syllable is original or whether a derivation from reconstructed *d(h)ráb(h)i- must be assumed. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT ,name of the fifth month (July-August) of the Old Persian calendar, equivalent to Akkadian AÚbu and Elamite Zillatam (several attestations in the Persepolis tablets only; see Hinz and Koch, pp. 1164, 1299-1300, 1305; cf. CALENDARS i). It is one of three month names that are not attested in the original Old Persian form; it can be reconstructed only from the Elamite rendering Tur-na-ba-(iz-)-zí(-iæ), Tu-ur-na-, Tar-na- (and some minor variants). In some instances the variant Tur/Tar-na-ba-(iz-)zí-ya-iæ, reflecting *Dr®naba@jya-, occurs (cf. ... JAMSHEED K. CHOKSY (Mid. Pers. dro@n, Bk. Pahl. dlwn < Av. draonah- "portion of food"; Gujarati Parsi daru@n), Zoroastrian ritual term originally meaning "sacred portion" and designating a ritual offering to divine beings (Y. 33.8), for example, the portion of a sacrificial animal presented to the yazata Haoma (Ho@m; Y. 11.4). In later Zoroastrian tradition, as reflected in the Pahlavi books and contemporary Parsi practice, however, dro@n denotes only the flat, round unleavened wheat bread that constitutes the regular offering. ... (Pers. da@ru@, Pers-Ar. dawa@, pl. adw^a), in medieval Muslim literature any vegetable, mineral, or animal substance that acts on the human body, whether as a medicament, a poison, or an antidote. S®AÚDEQ SAJJAÚDÈ husks, wild tea (±a@y-e ku@h^), almond oil, and castor oil are taken mainly for relief of diarrhea, constipation, stomachache, skin diseases, pellagra, gout, and renal calculus (Jaza@÷er^, pp. 85-88). JEAN KELLENS ,Avestan feminine noun defining the concept opposed to that of aæáa- (q.v.). Controversies about the meaning of the latter word have naturally had implications for the understanding of druj-. The corresponding verbal root in Indic (druh: dru‚hyati) seems to have the basic meaning "to blacken" (Mayrhofer, Dictionary II, pp. 79 ff.), perhaps preserved in Avestan in Yaæt 5.90 and 8.5. In view of the opposition of the two words, if the meaning of aæáa- is "truth," then that of druj- must be "lie," but, if the meaning of the former is "order, justice," than druj- must mean "error, deceit. ... JEAN DURING ,large group of percussion instruments. AH®MAD TAFAZµ˜Zµ˜OLÈ (Pahl. drwdstpt; Syr. lw. drwstbyd; Margoliouth, p. 94; Ar. lw. drwst'bdò) "chief physician" in the Sasanian period. As the title does not occur in the early Sasanian sources and those who are known to have held it were all recorded as having lived toward the end of this period, it seems reasonable to assume that it was a late innovation, on the model of such official titles as dib^rbed "chief secretary." Sometimes drustbed was used in the Pahlavi texts simply as a synonym for bizeæk "doctor, physician" (e. ... JEAN KELLENS (or Drwa@spa@, Druua@spa@, lit., "with solid horses"), Avestan goddess. Her name suggests that she must have been a divinity responsible for the health of horses. From the time of James Darmesteter (q.v.), it has been customary to compare her to the Celtic Epona (Avesta, tr. Darmesteter, II, pp. 431-40). Nevertheless, despite the clarity of her name and the anchoring of her function in Indo-European tradition, she remains enigmatic, for she is a strangely discreet goddess. Although in Avestan Mazdaism the Druua@sp Yaæt (Yt. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. Dry´pe¡tis [Arrian] or Drypêtis [Diodorus]), daughter of Darius III Codomannus (q.v.; Arrian, 7.4.5) and younger sister of Stateira (Diodorus, 17.107.6); in the collective wedding arranged by Alexander the Great (q.v.) at Susa in 324 B.C.E. she was given in marriage to Hephaestion (Arrian, 7.4.5; Diodorus, 17.107.6). After Alexander's death, which was lamented by "Hephaestion's widow," according to Curtius Rufus (10.5.20), his wife, Roxane, out of jealousy, ordered Stateira "and her sister" (i. ... .See ˆAÚPUÚR II. SÈRUÚS ˆAMÈSAÚ , a term in Persian and Arabic prosody designating a poem that can be scanned according to two or more different meters (bahár). Traditionally it has been considered a rhetorical embellishment (bad^¿; q.v.) and known as æe¿r-e molawwan or motatawwan (lit., "variegated poem"). In Persian poetry the two meters ramal (– ¢ – – / JEAN CALMARD (lit., "provided with notches, grooves, vertebrae"), the "miraculous sword" of Imam ¿Al^ b. Ab^ T®a@leb (q.v.), with two blades or points, which became a symbol of his courage on the battlefield. According to some sources, it was taken as booty at the battle of Badr (2/624) by the Prophet Moháammad, who gave it to ¿Al^ at the battle of Oháod (3/625). A voice is supposed to have recited la@ sayf ella@ D¨u'l-Faqa@r wa la@ fata@ ella@ ¿Al^ (There is no sword but D¨u'l-Faqa@r, and there is no one brave but ¿Al^; T®abar^, I/3, pp. ... J. R. PERRY , governor (háa@kem) of K¨amsa province (ca. 1177-94/1763-80) under the Zand dynasty. Of the Im^rlu@ clan of Afæa@rs, which had long been established at Zanja@n, the chief city of the province, D¨u'l-Faqa@r was evidently already a local leader of some consequence before Kar^m Khan Zand (1163-93/1750-79), on his way south after subjugating Azerbaijan, formally appointed him háa@kem of strategic K¨amsa province in 1177/1763; K¨amsa lay between Azerbaijan, G^la@n, and the Zand chieftain's home range in the province of Qalamrow-e ¿Al^ ˆakar (Hamada@n; Röhrborn, p. ... MOH®AMMAD DABÈRSÈAÚQÈ (d. ca. 691/1291), Persian poet and panegyrist of the Il-khanid period. Through the intercession of the vizier K¨úa@ja Moháammad Ma@star^ he obtained the patronage of Ata@bak Yu@sofæa@h I of the Fazµlu@ya branch of the Ata@baka@n-e Loresta@n (q.v.); Yu@sofæa@h was governor of K¨u@zesta@n, Ku@hg^lu@ya, the city of F^ru@za@n (near Isfahan), Golpa@yaga@n, and Loresta@n (672-88/1273-89). D¨u'l-Faqa@r dedicated a number of panegyrics to him. ... JEAN CALMARD , Imam H®osayn's winged horse, known from popular literature and rituals. D¨u'l-Jana@há was mentioned in medieval narratives of H®osayn's martyrdom at Karbala@÷ (maqa@tel), for example, Ebn A¿t¯áam Ku@f^'s 9th-century Keta@b al-fotu@há and al-Loháu@f by Ebn T®a@÷u@s T®a@÷u@s^ (d. 664/1266), which became sources for later Turkish and Persian maqtal-na@mas. In al-Loháu@f the horse, unnamed but said to be descended from the Prophet Moháammad's mount, is supposed to have dipped its head in its master's blood and attacked the enemy. ... HAMID ALGAR "possessor of two tongues," epithet often bestowed upon bilingual poets. It appears to have originated in Arabic as an honorific indicating unusual eloquence in a single language, Arabic, as was the case with Mowallah b. Kat¯^f, a Companion of the Prophet (Sami, p. 2228). Poets writing in both Arabic and Persian were fairly numeorous in Transoxania and Khorasan in the tenth century, a circumstance easily explained by the persistence of Arabic as a major literary idiom in Persian-speaking lands (Zand). So common was the phenomenon of bilingual literary composition in that period that by no means all poets writing in the two languages were designated D¨u'l-Lesa@nayn; the example of H®osayn b. ... FRANCIS RICHARD , FATHER RAPHAEL (b. Jacques Dutertre, Le Mans, France, where he was baptized 27 August 1613 at the cathedral of St.-Julien, d. Isfahan, 1 April 1696), author of important descriptions of Persia. His father was a lawyer attached to the presidial court of Le Mans, a member of the noblesse de robe (a hereditary class of magistrates), and a former magistrate of the town. Young Jacques, after apparently having received a good basic education, decided to enter the Capuchin order and made his profession at the monastery of Le Mans on 16 July 1636, adopting the name Raphaël du Mans. ... GERHARD BöWERING 'L-NUÚNMESáRÈ, ABU'L-FAYZ˜ T¨AWBAÚN b. Ebra@h^m (b. Akòm^m in Upper Egypt, ca. 175/791, d. J^za [Giza], between 245 and 248/859 and 862), early Sufi master. He lived mainly in Lower Egypt (Mesár) and is known to have visited Mecca and possibly also Yemen, as well as traveling extensively in Palestine and Syria, becoming familiar with Syrian asceticism. During his active years he was opposed by two groups: the Ma@lek^ jurists of Egypt, particularly ¿Abd-Alla@h b. ... PIERRE OBERLING (arabicized form of Turk. Dulgadér), a Ghuzz tribe (Tadòkerat al-molu@k, ed. Minorsky, p. 194) that became established mainly in southeastern Anatolia under the Saljuqs. In 738/1337 one of their leaders, Zayn-al-D^n Qara@ja b. D¨u'l-Qadr, founded a principality incorporating the towns of Albesta@n and Mar¿aæ. These princes were clients first of the Mamlu@ks of Egypt and later of the Ottomans. The dynasty came to an end in 928/1522, when ¿Al^ Beg, the tenth ruler, and his entire family were executed by order of the Ottoman Sultan Solayma@n I (926-74/1520-66; Mordtmann; Mordtmann and Me‚nage). ... ELLA LANDAU-TASSERON , watering place near Ku@fa in Iraq where a battle was fought between Arab tribesmen and Persian forces in the early 7th century. In the 6th century the Sasanians relied on the Arab Lakhmid dynasty, with its capital at H®^ra in Iraq, for defense of their southwestern frontier against incursions by Arab tribes. Nevertheless, in the second half of the century Arab tribes sometimes defeated Lakhmid forces and also attacked Persian caravans (Ja@d al-Mawla@ et al., pp. 2-5, 94-98, 107-08; H®ell^, p. ... Ú'L-QARNAYN.See ESKANDAR. HAMID ALGAR (b. Shiraz, 1290/1873, d. Tehran, 25 K¨orda@d 1332 ˆ./15 June 1953), for thirty years leader (qotÂb) of a principal branch of the Ne¿matalla@h^ Sufi order. The title D¨u@'l-R^a@satayn ("possessor of two kinds of supremacy") refers to his reportedly exceptional command of both the exoteric and esoteric sciences (Nurbakhsh, p. 117). He is said to have received this title from Ahámad Shah (1327-44/1909-25), but his father and predecessor, H®a@jj ¿Al^ AÚqa@ Wafa@-¿Al^æa@h (d. ... 'L-RÈAÚSATAYN.See FAZ˜L B. SAHL. .See AˆRAF GÚAZNAVÈ. GHERARDO GNOLI ,feature peculiar to Iranian religion in ancient and medieval times. There is general agreement on this point, though some scholars have minimized the importance of dualistic elements in Zoroastrian doctrine and even denied their existence, in order to emphasize monotheistic or crypto-monotheistic aspects (e.g., Shroff; Moulton, pp. 125-26; Gray, 1929, p. 3), perceived as incompatible with any form of dualism (cf. Duchesne-Guillemin, 1958, pp. 1 ff.; idem, 1962, pp. 385 ff.; Herrenschmidt, pp. 217 ff.). From a strictly religious-historical perspective, however, dualism should not be conceived as opposed to monotheism (as polytheism must be); on the contrary, it can be viewed as "monotheism itself in two opposite and contrary aspects" (Pettazzoni, pp. ... SUSSAN SIAVOSHI (Dobayy), second largest of the seven emirates constituting the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) on the southern shores of the Persian Gulf. It rivals Abu Dhabi (Abu@ Z®ab^) for preeminence within a federal structure that provides for considerable autonomy among its constituents (Dubai, p. 29). The twin cities of Dubai and Daireh (Dayra) are located around a creek (kòawr) and have thus functioned as a center of commerce on the Persian Gulf. The emirate encompasses about 3,200 km2, and in 1993 it had an estimated 501,000 inhabitants, 27 percent of the total population of the U. ... HUÚˆANG A¿LAM (mor@@g@a@b^ < mor@g@-e a@b^ "aquatic fowl" or ordak < Turk. ördäk), technically any species of the family Anatidae but in Persian popular usage including similar waterfowl from other families, particularly some geese and grebes. M. R. GHANOONPARVAR ,beverage made of yogurt and plain or carbonated water and often served chilled as a refreshing summer drink or with meals, especially with kebabs or ±elow-kaba@b (q.v.). The term occurred in Persian as early as the 11th century, when it apparently meant skim milk to which yogurt was sometimes added (Dehkòoda@, s.v.). Traditionally du@g@ was made by shaking a sheepskin (see CHURNS AND CHURNING) filled with milk and yogurt until the fat separated and could be removed. Today it is more often made simply by beating the yogurt with a spoon or in a blender, then adding still or carbonated water, salt, and dried mint, celery leaves, or other herbs. ... MAHMOUD OMIDSALAR "beverage of unity," concoction made from adding hashish extract (jowhar-e háa^æ) to diluted yogurt (ˆahr^, VI, pp. 412, 423). The resulting tonic is drunk by certain mystics as a hallucinogen during their rites. ¿Al^-Akbar Dehkòoda@, in his compendium of Persian proverbs and dicta (1339 ˆ./1960, I, p. 255), quoted a verse from Kama@l-al-D^n K¨ojand^ (d. 803/1399) in which the use of the narcotic by a Sufi sheikh is mentioned. Apparently some less scrupulous Sufis used the drink to attract followers (ˆahr^, VI, p. ... D. N. MACKENZIE ,the name of Zoroaster's mother, which appears in several different spellings in the Pahlavi texts, mostly more or less corrupted from an original attempt at representing the Avestan form. The De@nkard has consistently the best spelling, dwkt÷wb\, to be pronounced Dugdo@w or Du©do@w. In different manuscripts of selections from Za@dspram (5.1) it appears corrupted to dwktk\ (possibly for *dwktwk) and dwtkwb (probably from *dwktwb). In the manuscripts of the Greater Bundahiæn it is always written dw©t÷by (TD1 203. ... .See DOLAFIDS. GERD GROPP (or Domoko), administrative center of the eastern region of the Khotan oasis in Chinese Turkestan (q.v.). About 20 km to the north are the ruins of Old Domoko, a settlement abandoned in 1840. Manuscript fragments to which the name Dumaqu or Domoko has become attached were actually excavated by native treasure hunters in the numerous ruined towns of the region dating from the 6th-8th centuries; they were purchased by traveling scholars from dealers on the spot or in Kaægar and Khotan (Gropp, pp. 23-25, 364, 368, fig. ... WILLEM FLOOR ,human and animal excrement (pehen, peh^n "cow, horse dung," sarg^n "cow dung" [for etymology, see Emmerick], peækel "sheep, goat dung," ±alg@u@z "bird dung," madfu@¿, bora@z "human dung," ku@d "natural fertilizer"), widely used in Persia and Afghanistan for fuel and fertilizer. KLAUS FISCHER (Dong Qeælaq), group of pre-Islamic and Islamic archeological sites on the Ema@m S®a@háeb plain in the Qondu@z province of Afghanistan, about 10 km south of the Oxus, 37° 10' N, 68° 59' E. The pre-Islamic sites date mainly from the Hephthalite-Turkish period (5th-9th centuries), and there are also traces of Islamic settlements of the 10th-13th centuries (Ball and Gardin, I, no. 307). Earlier traces include abandoned canal systems providing evidence that artificial irrigation was practiced in this area from prehistory. ... DAVID B. EDWARDS ,LOUIS (b. Greenville, N.C., 23 August 1925, d. Durham, N.C., 21 March 1989), American anthropologist who specialized in Afghan studies ( PIERRE LERICHE, D. N. MACKENZIE , ruined city on the right bank of the Euphrates between Antioch and Seleucia on the Tigris, founded in 303 B.C.E. by Nicanor, a general of Seleucus I. It flourished under Parthian rule. The site is in modern Syria, on a plateau protected on the east by a citadel built on bluffs overlooking the river, on the north and south by wadis, and on the west by a strong rampart with powerful defensive towers. Its military function of the Greek period was abandoned under the Parthians, but at that time it was the administrative and economic center of the plain extending 100 km between the confluence of the K¨a@bu@r and Euphrates rivers and the Abu@ Kama@l gorge to the south. ... (b. Sehore, Bhopal State, India, 14 February 1850, d. Polden, Somerset, England, 8 June 1924), British diplomat and envoy to Tehran at the end of the 19th century. The second son of a British military family, he was educated in England and entered the Indian Civil Service in 1870. During the second Anglo-Afghan War (q.v. ii; 1878-80) he served as political secretary to General Sir Frederick Sleigh Roberts at Kabul. In 1893, as foreign secretary to the government of India, he returned to Kabul to negotiate the northern and eastern boundaries of Afghanistan (see BOUNDARIES iii). ... JEAN KELLENS ,Avestan word, attested once in the Older Avesta (Y. 32.14), in the Younger Avesta the preferred and exclusive epithet of haoma, the ritual liquid. Although the equivalent term in Sanskrit duro‚sáa(s)- is attested three times, in only one instance is it connected with the soma. It is therefore not certain that the single Old Avestan usage refers to haoma; another possibility is strongly suggested by the fact that it occurs in the form du@raoæ™m, the object of the causative sao±aiia- "to set alight," whereas in the Rigveda (4. ... D. N. MACKENZIE ,according to the Pahlavi tradition the name of two legendary personages in the history of Zoroastrianism. The Pahlavi spelling dwl÷- or dwlyd-slwb\ is ambiguous (despite Pazand Dura@sro) and points to an Avestan original, either *Du@ra@- or, more likely, *Du@rae@srauuah-, literally "far-famed" (cf. Av. Du@rae@sr@u@ta-). RüDIGER SCHMITT of Samos (Gk. Doûris), Greek historiographer of the early Hellenistic period (b. ca. 340 B.C.E., d. ca. 270 B.C.E. or at least after 281 B.C.E.). Duris attended the lectures of Theophrastus of Eresus and was said to have been tyrant of his native town, perhaps as heir to his father, Scaeus (Athenaeus 4.128a, 8.337d). ROGER M. SAVORY (or Dormeæ) KHAN b. ¿Abd^ Beg TAVAÚÙÈ ˆAÚMLUÚÚ, powerful Qezelba@æ amir, brother-in-law and confidant of Shah Esma@¿^l I (907-30/1501-24; ¿AÚlama@ra@-ye sáafaw^, pp. 148-49; H®ab^b al-s^ar, Tehran, IV, pp. 555, 558). In 909/1503 Du@rmeæ Khan was appointed governor of Isfahan but remained at court in Tabr^z and sent M^rza@ Shah H®osayn Esáfaha@n^ to act for him (Ta@r^kò-e ˆa@h Esma@¿^l, fol. ... NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,weekly of politics and culture edited and published by the Persian writer, scholar, and filmmaker ¿Abd-al-H®osayn Sepanta@ (b. Tehran, 1286/1907, d. Isfahan, 1348 ˆ./1969) in Bombay from 9 AÚdòar 1307 ˆ./30 November 1928 to Farvard^n 1308 ˆ./March 1929. TAHSIN YAZICI (Dorr^ Afand^), AH®MAD (b. Van, date unknown, d. Istanbul, 1135/1722), Ottoman poet, civil servant, and diplomat who served as ambassador to Tehran and wrote Sefa@rat-na@ma, the first Turkish account of Safavid Persia. Nothing is known of his early life and education; he made his career in Istanbul, rising through the bureaucratic ranks. MURIEL ATKIN (Pers. Doæanba "Monday"; in Russian known as Dyushambe until 1929, Stalinabad from 1929 to 1961, and Dushanbe after 1961), capital and most populous city of Tajikistan. It is located in the Hisor (Pers. Háesáa@r, Russian Gissar) valley, at an average altitude of approximately 823 m, on the Dushanbe river (Russian Dushanbinka), the lower course of the Varzob (Pers. Varza@b) at the confluence with the Luchob (Lu@±a@b). According to tradition, the name reflects an earlier practice of holding a market in the area on Mondays. ... . See MO¿AYYER-AL-MAMAÚLEK. CHAHRYAR ADLE (d. probably Qazv^n, shortly after 972/1564), master calligrapher, the only artist whom Shah T®ahma@sb I (930-84/1524-76) kept with him after having gradually dismissed all the others from his direct service (Boda@q, fol. 111a; Qa@zµ^ Ahámad, p. 99; tr. Minorsky, p. 147). Although Du@st-Moháammad may have been involved with ornamentation or other activities connected with the art of the book (Sa@m M^rza@, pp. 138-39; Qa@zµ^ Ahámad, p. 99; tr. Minorsky, p. ... . See DOÚST MOH®AMMAD KHAN. CHAHRYAR ADLE (also Du@st-e D^va@na "fool, eccentric," Du@st-e Mosáawwer; d. India in 1560 or shortly afterward), master painter, not to be confused with the contemporary calligrapher Du@st-Moháammad b. Solayma@n (q.v.; D¨¨oka@÷). It is remotely possible that he was identical with Du@st-Moháammad b. ¿Abd-Alla@h Herav^ Qa@tÂe¿ (Adle, 1993, pp. 235-38; see CUT PAPER). WILLEM FLOOR , from the 16th century to the present, encompassing commercial, political, and cultural contacts, including Persian studies in the Netherlands. Until the 16th century the Dutch knew little of Persia and nothing of its language. Franciscus Raphelengius (1539-97), a professor at Leiden University, drew up a short list of Persian words based on the first Persian text ever printed, the translation of the Pentateuch published in Hebrew characters in Istanbul in 1546 (see BIBLE vii; ÙAÚP). Raphelengius called attention to the similarities between certain Persian and Dutch words, but until the older Iranian and Indian languages became known in the 19th century (see CODICES HAFNIENSES) this first attempt at comparative Indo-European linguistics could lead no farther. ... MANSOUR SHAKI (Av. du‘aºhu: Yt. 19.44, dao‘ahu-: Vd. 19.47; OIr. *dauæaxva-; Mid. Pers. dwæháw\/doæaxw/duæox; Inscriptional Middle Persian dwæháwy; Man. Mid. Pers. dwæwx/duæox; Man. Parth. dwjx/do@‘ax; Arm. lw. d‘ox; lit., "evil existence") "hell" (q.v.). ANTONIO PANAINO (Av.; OPers. duæiya@ra; AirWb., col. 759; Kent, Old Persian, p. 192), a compound (Duchesne-Guillemin, 1936, pp. 145, 192) meaning basically "bad year" or "bad harvest," attested only in Tiætar Yaæt (Yt. 8), a hymn dedicated to the star Sirius (Tiætriia) that incorporates the myth of the liberation of the waters. The compound occurs both as a neuter noun (8.36) and as a feminine adjective (here bahuvrihi, lit., "whose year is bad") applied to a pairika@ "witch" (8.51, 8.54-55) and is conceived as the antithesis to huiia@iriia- "good year" (Duchesne-Guillemin, 1936, p. ... ERICH KETTENHOFEN ,city in Armenia located at 40° N, 44° 41´ E, north of Artaxata (q.v.) on the left bank of the Azat (Garn^±a@^), about 35 km south of the present Armenian capital at Yerevan. It remained a significant center from the Sasanian period to the 13th century, and its pleasant climate was mentioned by many authors (for maps, see Hewsen, 1987; idem, 1988a; idem, 1988b; idem, 1989). BORIS LITVINSKY (b. St. Petersburg, 26 June 1907, d. Moscow, 8 June 1954), Russian scholar of Iranian studies. The son of an economist, he spent his youth in Norway and in 1924-26 studied with Georg Morgenstierne at the University of Oslo, specializing in Iranian studies. He continued his studies, particularly in ancient and modern European and eastern languages, at the University of Leningrad with V. V. Bartol'd, A. A. Fre¥man, A. A. Romaskevich, and others until 1930. In 1930-31 D'yakonov was a researcher in both the regional museum and the Uzbek Scientific Research Institute in Samarqand, and in 1931 he spent several months in a similar position at the Ukrainian Institute of Oriental Studies in Kharkov. ... .See CARPETS ii; PIGMENTS. |