STEVEN C. ANDERSON, WILLIAM L. HANAWAY, JR. (Ar. and Pers. ¿oqa@b; also obsolete Pers. da@l< Mid. Pers. da@lman; also obsolete Pers. and Mid. Pers. a@loh), large, diurnal, raptorial birds of the family Accipitridae in several genera (45-90 cm long, wingspan 110-250 cm). . See ELEMENTS IN ZOROASTRIANISM. HABIB BORJIAN, XAVIER DE PLANHOL, MANUEL BERBERIAN .Persia and Afghanistan lie on the great alpine belt that extends from the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean through the Indonesian archipelago and forms the world's longest collision boundary, between the Eurasian plate in the north and several former Gondwanan blocks in the south, including the so-called "Iranian plates" and "Afghan plates" (Schöler, pp. 29f.). Hence, it is not surprising that they are regions of high seismic activity. MARK HORTON, DEREK NURSE, FAROUK TOPAN, WILL. C. VAN DEN HOONAARD , Persian relations with the lands of the East African coast, particularly Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. R. W. FERRIER, JOHN R. PERRY (THE BRITISH), a trading company incorporated on 31 December 1600 for fifteen years with the primary purpose of exporting the staple production of English woolen cloths and importing the products of the East Indies. (THE DUTCH). See DUTCH-PERSIAN RELATIONS. ANNE KROELL (THE FRENCH), a company established in 1664 to conduct all French commercial operations with the Orient. Colbert, minister of Louis XIV, had been aware of the great profits earned by the Dutch and English merchants in importing and selling Asian goods to the French (Kaepplin, p. 3). He wanted to deprive foreigners of such a profitable market and, therefore, founded a chartered company modeled on the Dutch company, which could, with the support of a reviving merchant marine and the protection of the king's vessels, carry on trade with countries east of the Cape of Good Hope. ... Nicholas SIMS-WILLIAMS , term used to refer to a group of Iranian languages most of which are or were spoken in lands to the east of the present state of Persia. In terms of both historical and typological linguistics, the distinction between Western and Eastern Iranian is generally regarded as the most fundamental division in Iranian dialectology. Each of these two major groups is sometimes subdivided along the opposite axis, giving a potential four-way distinction between South-Western, North-Western, South-Eastern, and North-Eastern Iranian. ... JEAN DURING HAMID ALGAR (or EBAÚH®ATÈYA),a polemical term denoting either antinomianism or groups and individuals accused thereof. It occurs generally in the context of condemning pseudo-Sufis, although it is sometimes used in connection with a variety of other religious deviants. The word is derived from eba@háat, which in the terminology of Islamic jurisprudence means the permissibility which is inherent in all things unless canceled or modified by specific provisions of the law; the error of the antinomians lies in their rejection of all such provisions. ... MUHAMMAD A. DANDAMAYEV (Aram. Abar Nahara@, "Beyond/Across the river"), the Akkadian name used in Assyrian and Babylonian records of the 8th-5th centuries B.C.E. for the lands to the west of the Euphrates—i.e., Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine (Parpola, p. 116; Zadok, p. 129; see ASSYRIA ii). These regions apparently passed from Neo-Babylonian to Persian control in 539 B.C.E. when Cyrus the Great conquered Mesopotamia. A. B. KHALEDOV (b. St. Petersburg, 1899, d. Orel, 1937), scholar of early Persian poets writing in Arabic. Born in the family of a surgeon of German origin, Eberman studied Arabic and Persian in 1917-21 at the Department of Oriental Languages at the University of Petrograd. As a researcher he was active only from 1919 to 1930, working at the Asiatic Museum of the Academy of Sciences (researcher, first rank, 1919-20) and the State Academy of the History of Material Culture (researcher, second rank, 1920-30). In 1924-29 he taught Arabic at Leningrad University (docent, 1925-29). ... . See EBER-NAÚRI. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN (lit., "communication"), title of five Persian language newspapers. HAMID ALGAR in Persian Sufi Tradition. The word Ebl^s, a Koranic designation for the devil, appears to derive ultimately from the Greek diabolos. Some authorities have nonetheless imaginatively connected it with Arabic ublisa ("he was rendered hopeless"), with reference to the accursedness that befell Ebl^s as a result of his rebellion (Maybod^, I, p. 145). Of the eleven Koranic verses in which the name Ebl^s occurs (2:34, 7:11, 15:31-32, 17:61, 18:50, 20:116, 26:95, 34:20, 38:74-75), ten refer to this rebellion and the events immediately preceding and following it; the exception, 26:95, speaks of "the hosts of Ebl^s" (jonu@d Ebl^s) being cast into Hellfire on the Day of Judgement. ... . See SáAÚHáEB B. ¿ABBAÚD. STEPHEN LAMBDEN (1270-1337/1854-1919), Bahai teacher and one of the "hands of the cause" (see AYAÚDÈ-E AMR-ALLAÚH). He was one of two Bahai sons of Mirza ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m Esáfaha@n^ (d. 1290/1872), the Shi¿ite mojtahed, a crypto-Babi and Bahai, and Belq^s Kòa@nom. His zealous Bahai teaching in Zanja@n, Qazv^n, Tehran, Yazd, Kerma@n, and elsewhere led to his frequent imprisonment, for the first time in 1295/1878. At various times resident or imprisoned in Abhar, between Qazv^n and Zanja@n, he was entitled Ebn(-e) Abhar ("son of Abhar") by Baha@÷-Alla@h (q. ... See ¿ABD-AL-HáAMÈD B. ABU'L HáADÈD. TODD LAWSON , Moháammad b. Zayn-al-D^n Abi'l-H®asan ¿Al^ b. H®osa@m-al-D^n Ebra@h^m (b. ca. 837/1433-34; d. after 25 D¨u ÷l-Qa¿da 904/4 July 1499). Shi¿ite thinker. He lived and taught in his home town of Ahása@ in Bahárayn, Najaf, and Maæhad during the last half of the 15th century. His best known work, the al-Mojl^, which is actually his commentary and super-commentary on a kala@m treatise by himself, is important as an example of the immediate scholastic precursor to the kind of Shi¿ite intellectual synthesis which would flower during the Safavid period and come to be called háekmat-e ela@h^ and whose most famous exponent was Molla@ Sáadra@ (d. ... LUTZ RICHTER-BERNBURG ABU'L-QAÚSEM ¿ABD-al-RAH®MAÚN b. ¿Al^ b. Ah®mad NAYˆAÚBUÚRÈ (N^æa@pu@r, 5th/11th century), medical author known in the century after his death, at least in Khorasan, as "the second Hippocrates" (Bayhaq^, p. 107), and reportedly a student of Avicenna (q.v.; Ebn Ab^ Osáaybe¿a, II, p. 22). His commentaries on Hippocrates' Aphorisms (Fosáu@l) and Prognostics (Taqdemat al-ma¿refa) Galen's De usu partium (Mana@fe¿ al a¿zµa@÷) Masa@÷el fi'l-táebb of Háonayn b. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (204-80/819-93), litte‚rateur (ad^b) and historian of Baghdad, of a Khorasani family. His extensive adab (q.v.) works include treatises on poets and singing, praised by Abu'l-Faraj Esáfaha@n^ in his Keta@b al-ag@a@n^, and the partially extant literary anthology Keta@b al-mant¯u@r wa'l-manzáu@m (Cairo, 1326/1908), used by, among others, Abu@ H®ayya@n Tawhá^d^ (q.v.) in his al-Basáa@÷er wa'l-dòakòa@÷er (see the list of Ebn Ab^ T®a@her's works in Ebn al-Nad^m, ed. ... . See BANUÚ AMAÚJUÚR. . See ¿ABD-ALLAÚH B. ¿AÚMER. IHSAN ABBAS , cognomen of two famous viziers of the 4th/10th century: Abu'l-Fazµl and his son Abu'l-Fathá. The father of the first was called H®oseyn. Tawhá^d^ claims that this H®oseyn was of humble origin, a nakòkòa@l (wheat-sifter) in the grain market of Qom (Akòla@q al-waz^rayn, p. 82). This, however, is probably not true. After occupying major administrative posts, Háosayn was appointed chief of the chancery (d^wa@n al-rasa@÷el) at the court of the Sa@ma@nid amir Nu@há b. ... WILLIAM C. CHITTICK (b. 17 Ramazµa@n 560/28 July 1165; d. 22 Rab^¿ II 638/10 November 1240), the most influential Sufi author of later Islamic history, known to his supporters as al-ˆaykò al-akbar, "the Greatest Master." Although the form "Ebn al-¿Arab^," with the definite article, is found in his autographs and in the writings of his immediate followers, many later authors referred to him as 'Ebn ¿Arab^', without the article, to differentiate him from Qa@zµ^ Abu@ Bakr Ebn al-¿Arab^ (d. ... JOHN E. WOODS (b. Damascus, 791/1389, d. Cairo, 854/1450), literary scholar and biographer of Tamerlane (T^mu@r). According to the autobiography quoted by Ebn Tag@r^berd^, when T^mu@r conquered Damascus in 803/1401, Ebn ¿Arabæa@h and his family were transported to T^mu@r's capital, Samarkand. He spent the next eight years in Transoxiana and Chinese Turkestan, where he learned Persian and Mongolian and studied with Sayyed ˆar^f Moháammad Jorja@n^, Sa¿d-al-D^n Mas¿u@d Tafta@za@n^, and ˆams-al-D^n Moháammad Jazar^. ... STEPHEN LAMBDEN MÈRZAÚ ¿ALÈ-MOHáAMMAD (b. Maæhad 1267/1850; d. Tehran, 1347/1928), prominent Bahai missionary. He was given the honorific designation Ebn(-e) Asádaq in certain Bahai scriptural writings. Toward the end of his life Baha@÷-Alla@h counted him a living martyr and referred to him as ˆah^d ebn-e ˆah^d ("martyr, son of a martyr"). He was a son of the ˆaykò^, Ba@b^ and Baha'i Molla@ S®a@deq Moqaddas-e Kòora@sa@n^ (d.1306/1889), who was entitled Esm-Alla@h al-Asádaq by the Ba@b. ... D. S. RICHARDS (b. Jaz^rat Ebn ¿Omar [modern Cizre, in eastern Turkey] 4 Joma@da@ I 555/13 May 1160; d. Mosul, ˆa¿ba@n 630/June 1233), major Islamic historian and important source for the history of Persia and adjacent areas from the Samanids to the first Mongol invasion. . See ¿AT®T®AÚˆ. DANIEL GIMARET tazilite theologian (d. late 10th century), member of the so-called "school of Basára" and a partisan of the ideas of Abu@ Ha@æem Jobba@÷^. Although it has been said that in his youth he had met Abu@ Ha@æem, his main teachers were two eminent disciples of the latter, Abu@ ¿Al^ b. K¨alla@d and later Abu@ ¿Abd-Alla@h Basár^. He was himself the first teacher of the Qa@zµ^ ¿Abd-al-Jabba@r. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (d. Marv, 510/1116-17), Persian writer and boon-companion (nad^m), whose manual for courtiers preserves otherwise lost information on the later Ghaznavids. Presumably a native of Ka@æa@n, Ebn Ba@ba@ worked in western Persia, Baghdad, and finally Khorasan, probably at the court of the Saljuqid Sultan Sanjar. His main fame is as author of the Keta@b ra÷s ma@l al-nad^m, written for one Amir Ra÷^s Sa¿d-al-Molk Abu'l-Fathá Moháammad (ed. M. S®. Badaw^, 2 vols. ... SHEILA S. BLAIR (Ba@bu@ya), family of Persian builders, luster potters, and tile makers, descended from the Shi¿ite scholar Ebn Ba@bu@ya al-S®adu@q (d. 382/991; q.v.) and active in the 6th to 8th/12th to 14th centuries in central Persia. Several members are known. MARTIN MCDERMOTT (Ba@bu@ya), SHAIKH S®ADUÚQ ABUÚ JA¿FAR MOH®AMMAD b. Abu'l-H®asan ¿Al^... Mu@sa@ Qom^ (b. Qom after 305, probably about 311/923; d. Ray, 381/991), author of one of the authoritative four books of Imami Shi¿ite Hadith, Man la@ yaházµoroho'l-faq^h. . See BAÚBAÚ KUÚHÈ. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , conventional name for an other-wise unknown author of Fa@rs-na@ma, a local history and geography of the province of Fa@rs written in Persian during the Saljuq period, so-called because his ancestors came from Balkò in eastern Khorasan (Balkò^-ne‘a@d, p. 3; the form "Ebn al-Balkò^" is used in Kaæf al-záonu@n, ed. Flügel, IV, p. 344, no. 8681). His grandfather was mostawf^ (chief accountant) for the taxation of Fa@rs around 492/1099 under Ata@bak Rokn-al-Dawla or Najm-al-Dawla K¨oma@rteg^n, who had been appointed governor there by Sultan Bark^a@roq (q. ... CHARLES F. BECKINGHAM , ˆAMS-AL-DÈN ABUÚ ¿ABD-ALLAÚH MOHáAMMAD (b. Tangier, 17 Rajab 703 /25 February 1304; d. Morocco, 770/1368-9), the most famous Muslim traveler. A Berber from Tangier, he claims to have traveled extensively in Africa, the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, and China. His Toháfat al-nozázáa@r f^ g@ara@÷eb al-amsáa@r wa ¿aja@÷eb al-asfa@r, known as the Rehála (Journey), professes to be a chronological narrative of his journeys from his departure from Tangier as a pilgrim in Rajab 725/June 1324 to his arrival in Fez, Morocco, after a journey to Mali in D¨u'l-qa¿da 754/December 1353. ... HUÚˆANG A¿LAM (not Ahámad-al-D^n as in EI2 III, p. 737), Andalusian botanist and pharmacologist. He was born in Malaga (Ar. Ma@laqa; hence his nesba Ma@laq^) in the second half of the 6th/12th century, and died in Damascus in 646/1248 (for the scanty biographical data available about him, see Leclerc, Histoire II, pp. 225-29; idem, in Traite‚ I, pp. vi-ix; Brockelmann, GAL I, p. 492, S I, p. 896; Ben Mra@d, I, pp. 169-76). He is best known for his encyclopedic Ja@me¿ (so titled by himself [Bu@la@q ed. ... See ABUÚ ¿ABD-ALLAÚH B. AL-BAYYE¿. ROGER SAVORY , author of the Sáafwat al-sáafa@÷, a biography of Shaikh Sáaf^-al-D^n Esháa@q Ardab^l^ (d. 935/1334), founder of the Safavid order of Sufis and the eponym of the Safavid dynasty. Ebn Bazza@z was a desciple of Shaikh S®adr-al-D^n Ardab^l^ (d. 794/1391-92), the son and successor of Shaikh S®af^-al-D^n. The work, also entitled al-Mawa@heb al-san^ya f^ mana@qeb al-S®afaw^ya, deals mainly with Shaikh S®af^-al-D^n's miracles and sayings and contains little of a biographical nature (see Browne, Lit. ... TAHSIN YAZICI , Persian historian and man of letters. He was the son of the scribe (monæ^) Majd-al-D^n Moháammad, who had worked under ˆams-al-D^n Moháammad, grandfather of ¿Ala@÷-al-D^n Jovayn^. His mother B^b^ Monajjema was the daughter of Kama@l-al-D^n Semna@n^ and granddaughter of the faq^h Moháammad b. Yaháya@. Judging from an endowment record (waqf^ya; Turan, p. 87), the name of his grandfather was H®asan. His date of birth and school training are unknown. ... LUTZ RICHTER-BERNBURG , prominent family of physicians of Gonde@æa@pu@r at court during the early ¿Abbasid period. Notwithstanding their continued oral competence in Persian and the Persian aspects of their identity, the Bokòt^æu@¿ family used Syriac and Arabic in their medical writings. Eminent members of this family are the following: MARCO SALATI (or H®asan^), known as ¿Alam-al-Hoda@ (d. after 525/1132), Imami traditionist and author of a heresiography in Persian. He and his brother Mojtaba@ transmitted Hadith directly from Ja¿far b. Moháammad Du@ryast^ and, through ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n b. Ahámad N^æa@bu@r^, from Shaikh T®u@s^, Sayyed Razµ^, and Sayyed Mortazµa@. The famous traditionist and biographer Montajab-al-D^n Qom^ (504-85/1110-80) studied with and transmitted from him and from his brother. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (d. Ahva@z 467/1074), vizier to the ¿Abbasid caliph al-Qa@÷em from 15 Rab^¿ II 453/9 May 1061 to 4 D¨u'l-háejja 454/9 December 1062. He seems to have been a native of Fa@rs, where he had been a wealthy merchant connected with the Buyid Abu@ Ka@l^ja@r Marzba@n (q.v.). With the arrival of the Saljuqs in Iraq, the caliph was once more able to choose his own vizier, and Ebn Da@rost wrote to al-Qa@÷em from Shiraz asking for the vizierate, offering a large sum of money and stating that he required no eqtÂa@¿ (q. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (438-86/1046-93), last vizier of the Great Saljuq Sultan Malekæa@h (r. 465-85/1072-92). Born of a secretarial family in Fa@rs, he served the Saljuq slave amir QotÂb-al-D^n Sa@vteg^n in southern Persia and Iraq during the early part of Malekæa@h's reign. Sa@vteg^n commended him to the sultan, who first made him intendant of the harems and private property of various of his sons, then treasurer and overseer of the palace buildings, and finally, when his capabilities had been amply demonstrated, head of the chancery (D^va@n al-enæa@÷ wa'l-tÂog@ra@) in succession to Kama@l-al-Molk Abu'l-Mokòta@r Zawzan^. ... . See BARDESANES. SEEGER A. BONEBAKKER (b. Fasa@, 258/871; d. Baghdad, S®afar 347/May 958), grammarian and lexicographer of Persian origin. Though he shared his father's interest in Hadith (Ta÷r^kò Bag@da@d IX, p. 429), his main pursuits were philological. No books by him have survived except a Keta@b al-kotta@b (ed. L. Cheikho, Beirut, 1927); perhaps the Adab al-ka@teb listed by Ebn al-Nad^m (Fehrest, ed. Flügel, p. 63) and, possibly, a K¨abar Qoss b. Sa@¿eda (Sezgin, GAS II, p. 182) are also his. ... HERMAN G. B. TEULE (Syr. bar ¿Ebra@ya@, Lat. Bar Hebraeus), ABU'L-FARAJ (b. MalatÂ^a, 622/1225; d. Mara@g@a, 685/1286), Syriac historian and polymath. His laqab Ebn al-¿Ebr^ alludes to the place of origin of his family—¿Ebra on the Euphrates, near MalatÂ^a (Malitene)—not to a Jewish origin. Baptized as Yoháanno@n, he was ordained a bishop of the West Syrian or Jacobite Church at the age of twenty and took the name Gregory. In 663/1264 he was elected "Maphrian of the East," the highest dignitary of the West Syrian Church after the Patriarch of Antioch, in charge of the Jacobite Christians of the "Persian (i. ... DANIEL GIMARET (270-326/884-938), Mu¿tazilite theologian. According to K¨atÂ^b Bag@da@d^ (IV, p. 309), he was of Turkish descent, which appears to be confirmed by the "name" (in fact a title) of his grandfather, if read as such. His surname, Ebn al-Ekòæ^d (also read Ekòæ^d,ò Ekòæa@d, or Ekòæa@dò) probably indicates that he was descended from a princely family of Sogdia or Farg@a@na (q.v.; see also EK¨ˆÈD). According to Ebn H®azm (IV, p. ... GUL A. RUSSELL (fl. late 14th-early 15th cent.), a descendent of a Shirazi family of jurists and physicians, is the author of two extant Persian works: a medical compilation entitled the Kefa@ya-ye moja@hed^ya and an illustrated anatomy text known as the Taær^há-e mansáu@r^. CHARLES MELVILLE , historian, probably from AÚmol, who flourished around the turn of the 7th/13th century. He is the author of the earliest surviving history of T®abaresta@n, on which he was engaged around 603/1206 (400 years after the martyrdom of Imam ¿Al^ al-Rezµa@, q.v.; Ebn Esfand^a@r, I, p. 203) and which he was still writing ten years later (I, p. 82). According to his own account, Ebn Esfand^a@r was in the service of the Bavandid (see AÚL-E BAÚVAND) ruler H®osa@m-al-Dawla Ardaæ^r (d. ... MARCO SALATI (756 or 757-841/1355-1437), Imami scholar and jurist. A native of H®ella, he spent most of his life there, where he taught at the Zayn^ya school, and in Karbala@÷, where he died and was buried. His teachers included ¿Al^ b. K¨a@zen H®a@÷er^, Meqda@d Soyu@r^, Ebn al-Motawwaj Bahára@n^, all former students of Moháammad b. Makk^ ˆah^d-e Awwal, and Jama@l-al-D^n b. A¿raj ¿Am^d^, from whom he obtained the eja@za (q.v.). He also visited Jezz^n in Jabal ¿AÚmel, where in Moháarram 824/January 1421 he received an eja@za from Z˜^a@÷-al-D^n Abu'l-H®asan ¿Al^ ¿AÚmel^, son of ˆah^d-e Awwal. ... . See AÚL-E FARÈGÚUÚN. . See AH®MAD B. FAZ˜LAÚN . See BAYHAQÈ, Z®AHÈR-AL-DÈN. CHARLES MELVILLE , librarian and historian (b. 642/1244; d. Baghdad, 723/1323). His family originated in Marv-al-Ru@d in Khorasan; the name FowatÂ^ derives from the occupation either of his or his father's mother as a seller of waist wraps (Ar. fu@tÂa, pl. fowatÂ). He was enslaved by the Mongols at the siege of Baghdad (656/1258) and taken to Azerbaijan. Two years later Nasá^r-al-D^n T®u@s^ appointed him librarian of the Mara@g@a observatory. There he wrote the now lost Tadòkerat man qasáada'l-rasáad (a biographical dictionary of astronomers; the notices it contained were probably incorporated into the Talkò^sá; see Modaress Razµaw^, esp. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (or Ebn Pu@la@d), military adventurer, probably of Daylam^ origin, active in northern Persia during the Buyid period (early 5th/11th century) and typical of the soldiers of fortune characterizing the "Daylam^ intermezzo" of medieval Persian history. In 407/1016, he revolted against the Buyids (Ebn al-At¯^r, IX, pp. 268-69). He is described as base-born; but he collected a following of soldiers and demanded the governorship of Qazv^n from Majd-al-Dawla Rostam, the feeble Buyid ruler of Ray and Jeba@l, and his mother Sayyeda. ... . See Supplement. ANAS B. KHALIDOV , traveler and geographer of the 4th/10th century. Biographical data on him are exclusively derived from his single extant work on geography, which bears the title S®u@rat al-arzµ (Configurations of the earth) in the oldest manuscript, dated 479/1086, of its last version. Years of his birth and death are not known. His nesba points to a descent from Nasá^b^n in Upper Mesopotamia. The earliest dates given by him about himself indicate he stayed also in Lower Mesopotamia: soon after 320/932 at Tekr^t and in 325/936 at Baghdad (pp. ... HEINZ HALM (or Farahá) b. H®awæab b. Za@dòa@n Najja@r Ku@f^, known also as Mansáu@r al-Yaman (d. 302/914), Isma¿ili da@¿^ (q.v.) and founder of the Isma¿ili community in northern Yemen. He came from the neighborhood of the Narses canal (Nahr Nars) in the countryside (sawa@d) of Ku@fa south of present-day H®ella in Iraq, where he was occupied as a linen weaver and manufacturer of nars^ cloth. According to other sources, he was a carpenter or a joiner. ... LUTZ RICHTER-BERNBURG , also known as Osta@dò (b. in T®abaresta@n, no later than the early 350s/960s; d. in or after 422/1031), author of, inter alia, propaedeutic epistles on philosophy and medicine and of a gnomology of Greek wisdom, and generally renowned as a litterateur. Of Qom^ origin (Ebn Esfand^a@r, p. 125, tr. Browne, pp. 54, 77f., n. 5) or of "ancient" Ra@z^ stock (Ya@qu@t, Odaba@÷ V, pp. 168 f.), Ebn Hendu@ came from a family in the secretarial profession; he can be said to be a representative of the well-educated scribal class so prominent during the ¿Abbasid period. ... D¨ABÈHá-ALLAÚH S®AFAÚ (or K¨u@sf^), MOH®AMMAD, a poet of the 9th/15th century. Living in the village of K¨u@sf, near B^rjand, Ebn H®osa@m was a farmer by trade and remained unattached to any of the rulers and powerful men of his time. It appears from his works that he was a learned Shi¿ite, well versed in literature, jurisprudence, and the biographies and traditions relating to major figures in Islam—an expertise that he put to good use in his qasá^das dedicated to them. He also knew Arabic language and literature and included a few Arabic bayts in his qasá^das. ... WILFERD MADELUNG , traditionist with Shi¿ite leanings (b. Baghdad 23 or 24 S®afar 284/1 or 2 April 897, d. Baghdad 15 Rajab 355/7 July 966). A student of Ebn ¿Oqda (d. 332/943; q.v.), the foremost Kufan traditionist of his time, he transmitted from a large number of other traditionists and traveled to Egypt, Syria, and Persia to study and teach. For some time he was associated with the Buyid vizier Ebn al-¿Am^d. Ebn al-Je¿a@b^ had a prodigious memory, even by the standards of traditionists (Tanu@kò^, IV, p. ... WILFERD MADELUNG (or al-Jonayd^), ABUÚ ¿ALÈ MOHáAMMAD b. Ahámad Ka@teb Eska@f^, Imami jurist. His nesba indicates that he came from Eska@f, or Eska@f Bani'l-Jonayd, a district of Nahrawa@n between Baghdad and Wa@set east of the Tigris (Ya@qu@t, Bolda@n I, p. 252). He could not have been born much later than 290/903, since he transmitted from the Wa@qef^ scholar H®omayd b. Z^a@d, who died in 310/922. It is not known how closely Ebn al-Jonayd associated with the excommunicated Imami scholar Moháammad b. ... . See Supplement. MICHAEL G. CARTER , philologist and Koran scholar. He was born in Hamada@n and traveled in 314/926 to Baghdad while still a young man, where he studied the linguistic sciences under both Basran and Kufan masters, principally the Basrans Ebn Dorayd and Abu@ Sa¿^d S^ra@f^, the Kufans Abu@ Bakr Anba@r^ and Abu@ ¿Omar Za@hed GÚola@m T¨a¿lab, and NeftÂawayh of the mixed school. He also received instruction in qera@¿a@t from Ebn Moja@hed and in Hadith from Moháammad b. ... FRANZ ROSENTHAL (b. 1 Ramazµa@n 732/27 May 1332; d. 26 Ramazµa@n 808/17 March 1406), the historian famous for the general theory of history and civilization brilliantly expounded in his Moqaddema . DANIEL GIMARET tazilite theologian (d. 2nd half of 3rd/10th century) of the so-called "school of Basára," partisan of the ideas of Abu@ Ha@æem Jobba@÷^. He had been Abu@ Ha@æem's first disciple at ¿Askar Mokram, then at Baghdad. His own followers included the two future teachers of Qa@zµ^ ¿Abd-al-Jabba@r, Abu@ ¿Abd-Allah Basár^ and Abu@ Esháa@q b. ¿Ayya@æ (q.v.; Ebn al-Nad^m, ed. Tajaddod, p. 222; ¿Abd-al-Jabba@r, Fazµl, pp. ... W. MONTGOMERY WATT , philosopher. He was born in 331/942, presumably in Baghdad; his father, a Nestorian Christian, was apparently a wineseller (kòamma@r). He studied logic and other philosophical subjects under the noted philosopher Yah®ya@ b. ¿Ad^, and medicine under Jebra@÷^l b. ¿Obayd-Alla@h b. Bok¨t^æu@¿ (q.v.). The names of his books have long been known from the Fehrest of Ebn al-Nad^m and other bio-bibliographical works, but it is only in recent decades that mss. ... See Supplement. See FATH® B. K¨AÚQAÚN. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , military commander of the Ghurids, and connected, according to Ju@zja@n^, with the district of Gorzeva@n on the headwaters of the Morg@a@b in the province of Gu@zga@n in northern Afghanistan. . See ¿ABDALLAÚH B. K¨AÚZEM. . See Supplement. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (or K¨orrada@dòbeh), ABU'L-QAÚSEM ¿OBAYD-ALLAÚH b. ¿Abd-Alla@h (fl. 3rd/9th century), author of the earliest surviving Arabic book of administrative geography. He was not, apparently, the first geographer to write in Arabic, but he is the first whose book has survived in anything like its original form. His grandfather K¨orrada@dòbeh was a Zoroastrian who converted to Islam at the urging of the Barmakids (q.v.). His father ¿Abd-Alla@h was by 201/816-17 al-Ma÷mu@n's governor in T®abaresta@n, where he campaigned in the mountains and dislodged the local ruler ˆahr^a@r b. ... . See ¿ALÈ B. ¿ÈSAÚ B. MAÚHAÚN. . See BANUÚ MAÚJUÚR. See AÚL-E MAÚKUÚLAÚ. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (Mardu@ya), AHMAD b. Mu@sa@ b. Mardawayh b. Fu@rak Es®faha@n^, scholar of Isfahan in the Buyid period (323-410/935-1019), who wrote in the fields of tradition, tafs^r (Koranic exegsis), history, and geography. He studied Hadith in Iraq and in his native town and was the pupil of such leading traditionists as Ebn Manda and Ab@u@ Sahl Qatátáa@n. His Koran commentary is lost but is quoted in Ebn H®ajar's Esáa@ba; his selections from the S®ah®^h® of Bokòa@r^ appear likewise to be lost. ... D. M. DUNLOP (Marzba@n), ABUÚ AH®MAD ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN. b. ¿Al@^ b. Marzba@n T®ab^b Marzba@n^ (d. Tostar, Joma@da@ I 396/February-March 1006), administrative official under the Buyids. MARTIN MCDERMOTT (Mattu@ya), ABUÚ MOHáAMMAD HáASAN b. Ahámad b. Mattawayh, Mu¿tazilite theologian of the Basran school, a student of Qa@zµ^ ¿Abd-al-Jabba@r (d. 415/1025). Where Ebn Mattawayh lived and the date of his death are not known. Wilferd Madelung has established that his Majmu@¿ was written rather soon after ¿Abd-al-Jabba@r's death and that the late date sometimes given for Ebn Mattawayh's death as 468/1075 or 469/1076 has no foundation. . See MESKAWAYH. . See ¿ABDALLAHÚ B. MO¿AÚWÈA. . See ¿ABDALLAH B. MOBAÚRAK. . See ABUÚ DOLAF YANBUÚ¿È. . See Supplement. J. DEREK LATHAM (b. Go@r, the present F^ru@za@ba@d, Fa@rs, ca. 103/721, d. Basára ca. 139/757), chancery secretary (ka@teb) and major Arabic prose writer. Ebn al-Moqaffa¿ was of noble Persian stock and bore the name Ro@zbeh/Ru@zbeh before his comparatively late conversion to Islam from Mani-chaeism. He was the son of an Omayyad tax-collector named Da@du@ya, named Moba@rak on conversion and nicknamed "the cripple-handed" (al-moqaffa¿), whose disability was said to have resulted from torture for embezzlement (Sourdel, p. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , LAYT¨ b. Fazµl, a client (mawla@) and governor of S^sta@n 199-204/815-19. Previously governor of Egypt in 182-87/798-803 (Kend^, pp. 139-41), he was appointed governor of S^sta@n by the caliph Ma÷mu@n in place of the discredited Moháammad b. Aæ¿at¯. Facing stiff opposition from the outgoing governor and a local ¿ayya@r (q.v.) leader, he took up his post by making an alliance with the Kharijite leader H®amza b. AÚdòarak. Once in contol in Zarang, the provincial capital, he kept himself in power by conciliating both Kharijites and ¿ayya@rs, giving Sistan four years of prosperity until the new governor of Khorasan, GÚassa@n b. ... IHSAN ABBAS (564-637/1168-1239), historian of Erbel. Both his father and his uncle, S®af^-al-D^n ¿Al^, who translated GÚaza@l^'s Nasá^háat al-molu@k from Persian into Arabic, were also financial administrator (mostawf^). Abu'l-Baraka@t did not limit himself to arithmetical knowledge, which was essential for such an office, but was also well versed in rhetoric, prosody, grammar, and Hadith. Erbel in his days was an independent and prosperous city-state under the rule of Mozáaffar-al-D^n Kögobor^ (r. ... . See H®ELLÈ, ¿ALLAÚMA. . See ABU'L-WAZÈR MARVAZÈ. . See AL-FEHREST. See NAWBAK¨TÈ FAMILY. See ABUÚ SAHL NAWBAKòTÈ. See NAWBAK¨TÈ, H®ASAN B. MUÚSAÚ. D¨ABÈH®-ALLAÚH S®AFAÚ , Timurid poet (b. 757/1356; d. ca. 837/1433). Son of Amir Nosáratæa@h, governor of K¨ojand under T^mu@r, he pursued a career as a poet, despite retaining the title amir. After a period of travel in Persia and India, he settled in Samarkand. He wrote panegyrics for a number of rulers and high officials including the Delhi Sultan GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n Tog@loqæa@h II (r. 790-91/1388), Sultan K¨al^l b. M^ra@næa@h b. T^mu@r, who was in Samarkand in 807-12/1404-09, and Sultan Ba@yqara@, governor of Era@q and Fa@rs in 817-20/1414-17. ... RICHARD W. BULLIET , Shi¿ite vizier of the caliph al-Na@s®er from 590/1194 to 592/1195 (b. ca 522/1128). A Persian born in Shiraz, Ebn al-Qas®s®a@b went at a young age to Baghdad where his father was a butcher (whence his name) in Darb al-Bas®r^ya. Entering government service, he became an expert on finance and taxation and in 578/1182-83 a protege of the powerful Shi¿ite super-intendant of palace affairs (osta@dò al-da@r) Ebn al-S®a@háeb. After his patron fell from favor in 583/1188, Ebn al-Qasásáa@b found a post in the chancellery (d^va@n al-enæa@÷). ... MARTIN MCDERMOTT (d. Ray, before 319/931), one of the most prominent and active Imami theologians. He had a major role in the development of Shi¿ite Islam in its formative period during the first century of the occultation of the Twelfth Imam. Little biographical information is available about Ebn Qeba. Starting out as a Mu¿tazilite master of theology (kala@m), he converted to Shi¿ism and contributed to an early stage of Mu¿tazilite influence in Imami theology. Ebn Qeba was actively engaged in continuous oral and written debates with scholars belonging to other schools of Shi¿ism, particularly Zaydis. ... FRANZ ROSENTHAL , (213-276/828-889), important early philologist in the widest sense of the term and author of numerous works on what is known as the "Arab sciences," including the religious sciences dealing with the Koran and Hadith. MARTIN MCDERMOTT (d. Baghdad, 368/978 or 369/979), Imami traditionist and jurist, a disciple of Abu@ Ja¿far Kolayn^ and teacher of Shaikh Mof^d. He apparently first studied in Qom and later traveled as far as Egypt in search of traditions. He also recounted traditions from his father, who was a companion of Sa¿d b. ¿Abd-Alla@h Aæ¿ar^ Qom^, from his brother ¿Al^, Abu@ ¿Amr Kaææ^, ¿Al^ b. H®osayn b. Mu@sa@ b. Ba@bawayh, and from many others. His pupils included H®osayn b. ... . See Supplement. See ¿ABDAÚN B. RABÈT®. JOSEF VAN ESS (or Re@vand^), . See EBN RAÚVANDÈ. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (d. after 290/903), Persian author of a geographical compendium. He was from Isfahan, where the name Rosta is attested in this period (Ebn Rosta, I, p. 151; Abu@ No¿aym Esáfaha@n^, pp. 162, 316), and it was probably there that the book was written. He himself mentions in his book that he had been in Medina—apparently his only significant journey outside his native Persia—in 290/903 (pp. 73, 75; tr. Wiet, pp. 79, 81). His book is extant in two manuscripts (British Library, Add. 23,378; Cambridge suppl. ... See H®OSAYN B. RUÚH®.® JEAN CALMARD (k. Ku@fa 66/686), commander of the Omayyad troops at Karbala@÷. Son of the famous Arab general Sa¿d b. Ab^ Waqqa@sá, he had just been made deputy-governor (na@÷eb) of Ray by ¿Obayd-Alla@h b. Z^a@d (see EBN ZÈAÚD) and was to go to Dastaba@ to quell a Daylamite rising when he was called back to check H®osayn b. ¿Al^'s insurrection. It was only under the threat of losing his post that he finally obeyed and marched at the head of 4,000 men, reaching Karbala@÷ on 3 Moháarram 61/3 October 680. ... WILFERD MADELUNG family name of two Imami traditionists. See ABUÚ ¿ALÈ AH®MAD. WILFERD MADELUNG , a leader and envoy of the Carmatians (q.v.). In ˆawwa@l 366/May-June 977 he occupied Ku@fa at the head of 1,000 Carmatians supporting the claim of the Buyid Azµod-al-Dawla to the rule of Iraq against that of his cousin ¿Ezz-al-Dawla. Later he became the permanent representative of the Bahrain QarmatÂ^s to the court of Azµod-al-Dawla (q.v.). In 369/979-80 he was sent by ¿Azµod-al-Dawla from Hamada@n on a mission to Basára but soon returned to his court. No doubt for political reasons, Azµod-al-Dawla maintained close relations with him. ... HOSSEIN ZIAI (b. Sa@va, fl. early 12th century), Persian philosopher and logician. After serving as a judge in his native city, he became disillusioned with public life and moved to N^æa@pu@r, where he had more contact with other scholars. He earned his living by copying philosophical texts. He was often cited in the later Persian philosophical tradition, though he has remained almost unknown to Western historians of philosophy and logic. His works on logic, in which he made innovative proposals for the use of Persian in place of Arabic terms, were especially influential. ... MOHAMMAD ALI AMIR-MOEZZI (or Abu@ ¿Abd-Alla@h) ZAYN-AL-DÈN (or ¿Ezz-al-D^n, Raæ^d-al-D^n) MOH®AMMAD b. ¿AL^ b. ˆahra@æu@b b. Ab^ Nasár b. Abi'l-Jayæ (b. Sa@r^, Ma@zandara@n; d. Aleppo, 22 ˆa¿ba@n 588/2 September 1192), the most illustrious Imami scholar of the 12th century. He was also called, though rarely, Ebn K^a@-Kay from the Persian name of his ancestor Abu@ Nasár, (not his grandfather ˆahra@æu@b, pace Scarcia Amoretti) meaning "great sovereign" (AÚqa@ Bozorg, n. ... See AVICENNA. . See AHáMAD B. ¿OMAR B. SORAYJ. IHSAN ABBAS (d. 322/933), poet and critic. An ¿Alawid from the Hasanid line, he was born, brought up, and educated in Isfahan, which, in his days, was a great center of learning. Very little is known about him. It seems that he did not travel abroad to meet learned shaikhs but was content with the local masters he met. The remaining fragments of his poetry contain some information about his activities in his native town. His d^va@n was known to Ebn K¨alleka@n (d. 681/282), who quotes it, acknowledging that he knows nothing about the poet himself. ... WILFERD MADELUNG , Imami scholar. The Banu@ T®a@wu@s, named after their ancestor Moháammad T®a@wu@s, were a family of Hasanid æar^fs well established in H®ella in the 6th/12th century. Ahámad's mother was a daughter of the Imami scholar Warra@m b. Abu'l-Fera@s (d. 605/1208-09); through his father, he was descended from a daughter of the Shaikh Abu@ Ja¿far Moháammad b. Háasan T®u@s^. His more prominent brother Razµ^-al-D^n ¿Al^ (q. ... ETAN KOHLBERG (b. H®ella, 15 Moháarram 589/21 January 1193; d. Baghdad, 5 D¨u'l-qa¿da 664/8 August 1266), Imami author, scholar, and bibliophile, called Dòu'l-háasabayn "possessing two distinctions" because he was descended from both H®asan and H®osayn b. ¿Al^ b. Ab^ Táa@leb. CHARLES MELVILLE , historian and naq^b of the ¿Alids in H®ella (b. 660/1262 ?; d. after 709/1309 ?); his dates of birth and death remain speculative (Ebn al-T®eqtÂaqa@, 1860, pp. xvi-xviii; 1895, introd., p. 14). . See ¿ABD-AL-HáAMÈD B. WAÚSE¿. . See S®AÚ÷N-AL-DÈN ¿ALÈ ES®FAHAÚNÈ. AHMAD KARIMI-HAKKAK , a poet of the 8th/14th century. He was born in 685/1286-87 (Rypka, p. 261; Ba@sta@n^ Ra@d, p. yd) in Faryu@mad, a center of culture in western Khorasan, into a family of landed gentry; he died on 8 Joma@da@ II 769/30 January 1368 (¿Abd-al-Razza@q Kòúa@f^, II, p. 101). JEAN CALMARD (b. ca. 28/648), Omayyad governor responsible for the death of the Imam H®osayn b. ¿Al^. He was the son of Z^a@d b. Ab^h, a favorite of Mo¿a@w^a, and a Persian slave called Marja@na. He was given the governorship of Khorasan in 54/673 at the age of twenty-five, and soon afterward, he was appointed governor of Basára, where he subdued Kharijite unrest (T®abar^, II, pp. 168, 172, 185-87). At the accession of Yaz^d I (r. 60-64/680-83), he forestalled the planned Shi¿ite rebellion in Ku@fa by intimidating the chiefs of the main tribes and publicly executing known agents of Imam H®osayn. ... AMNON NETZER , the name of the first patriarch of the Hebrew people. See ABUÚ ESH®AÚQ EBRAÚHÈM. EIr. (d. 166/777-78), prominent Sufi and ascetic of 2nd/8th century. Ebra@h^m was born to a notable Kufan family in Balkò, migrated with his tribe from Khorasan to Syria before 137/754, and was killed in a military expedition against Byzantium in about 160-66/777-83. In Sufi legends various glamorous tales are attributed to Ebra@h^m's repentance and abdication from the governorship of Balkò and his conversion to asceticism (e.g., Abu@ No¿aym, VII. pp. 367-95; VIII, pp. 3-58; Ebn Asa@ker, II, pp. ... SHEILA S. BLAIR , Safavid architect mentioned on two tiles: one in the dome of the tomb of Shaikh ¿Abd-al-S®amad at NatÂanz and another, dated 1072/1661-62, in the south wall of the south ayva@n of the congregational mosque at Isfahan (Godard, p. 261). The latter inscription does not specify what work was involved, but the only restoration known to have been carried out in the mosque during the reign of Shah ¿Abba@s II (1052-77/1642-67) was the addition to the horizontal part of the facade's rectangular inscription of the south ayva@n (Godard, pp. ... See TAHERIDS. MUNIBUR RAHMAN (or H®ar^r?), author of a general history called Ta@r^kò-e ebra@h^m^ or Ta@r^kò-e homa@yu@n^. Nothing is known about his life. According to Sa¿^d Naf^s^ (Nazám o natòr I, p. 355), he lived at the court of the Mughal emperor Homa@yu@n (r. 937-64/1530-56), where he compiled his history around 957/1550. The book begins with the story of Adam and comes down to the events of Homa@yu@n's reign until 956/1549 (or 957/1550; for a list of its contents see Ethe‚, Catalogue, no. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , etc., Ghaznavid sultan (r. 451-92/1059-99). Ebra@h^m succeeded his brother Farrokòza@d in GÚazna on 19 S®afar 451/April 6, 1059 (Bayhaq^, ed. Fayya@zµ, p. 483) at the age of twenty-seven; he and Farrokòza@d were virtually the only survivors from the general massacre of Ghaznavid princes perpetrated by the usurping Turkish @gola@m commander T®og@rïl in 443/1051-52. All subsequent Ghaznavid sultans were from the progeny of Ebra@h^m alone. His reign marks a rallying of Ghaznavid fortunes during the middle period of the empire's existence, after the disasters of Mas¿u@d I's and Mawdu@d's sultanates, when Jeba@l, Khorasan, and Choresmia had been irrevocably lost to the Saljuqs. ... See BÖRÈ. . See ¿AKKAÚS-BAÚˆÈ. . See AMÈN-AL-SOLT®AÚN. See ZAYN-AL-¿AÚBEDÈN MARAÚGÚA÷È. TAHSIN YAZICI , Turkish poet and lexicographer. His father Hoda@y^ S®a@lehá, who had been educated in Persia, was appointed by the Ottoman Sultan Moháammad II as shaikh of a za@w^a in Mog@la in southwestern Turkey. ˆa@hed^ was born there; since he was seventy-six years old when in 951/1544 he composed his Golæan-e asra@r, the year of his birth must have been 875/1470. His father died when he was only ten years old and he had to work as an apprentice to a silk merchant (kòazza@z). ... . See FAÚRUÚQÈ. SHEILA S. BLAIR , Persian metalworker named in the inscription in Kufic script on the copper door knockers removed from a city gate in medieval Ganja (Soviet Kirovabad, Republic of Azerbaijan) and taken to the convent of Gelat¿i in Imeretiya, just east of Kutaisi in Georgia. According to the inscription, the gate was erected in 455/1063 during the reign of the Shaddadid ˆa@vu@r b. Fazµl under the supervision of a local judge named Abu'l-Faraj Moháammad b. ¿Abd-Alla@h. The position of ironsmith (háadda@d) was apparently so important in early Islamic times that Ebra@h^m b. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (or Yena@l; d. 451/1059), early Saljuq leader. The name Èna@l/Yena@l comes originally from an old Turkish title already attested in the early 4th/10th century by the traveler Ahámad b. Fazµla@n (q.v.), confirmed by Moháammad K¨úa@razm^'s mention (p. 120) of yena@l-tigin as a title of the Og@uz (Bosworth and Clauson, pp. 6, 10-11; Doerfer, Elemente IV, pp. 196-99). Ebra@h^m Èna@l is described as a uterine half-brother of T®og@rel and Ùag@r^ Beg (q. ... ABBAS AMANAT (b. 1158/1745, d. 1215/1800 or 1216/1801), lord mayor (kala@ntar) of Shiraz during the late Zand era, the first grand vizier (sáadr-e a¿záam), and a major political figure of the Qajar period. GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN , Khan of Qara@ba@g@ in late 18th century. Born in 1730, he was the son of Pana@h Khan of the Java@næ^r tribe, which lived in the plains of Qara@ba@g@ (Ba@mda@d, I, p. 10). Na@der Shah Afæa@r (q.v.) had forced the tribe and its khans to submit to him and to accompany him to Khorasan. After Na@der's death, Pana@h Khan returned to Qara@ba@g@ and managed to penetrate the eastern sector of the Armenian enclave of mountainous Qara@ba@g@ (Qara@ba@g@^, pp. ... . See AFSHARIDS. . See GÚAFFAÚRÈ. . See Z®AHÈR-AL-DAWLA. . See LODÈ DYNASTY. EVERETT ROWSON , the most celebrated musician at the court of Ha@ru@n al-Raæ^d and a central figure in the development of the Iraqi school of music under the early ¿Abbasids. He was born in Ku@fa in 125/742-43 to Persian parents who had recently moved there from Arraja@n in Fa@rs, reportedly to escape the exactions of a tyrannical Omayyad governor (A@g@a@n^ V, p. 2). His full name was Abu@ Esháa@q Ebra@h^m b. Ma@ha@n b. Bahman b. Nosk, but he later referred to himself as Ebra@h^m b. ... MARIANNA S. SIMPSON , Safavid prince, patron, artist, and poet generally referred to as Soltá@a@n Ebra@h^m M^rza@ (b. D¨u'l-qa¿da 946/April 1540; d. 5 D¨u'l-háejja 984/23 February 1577). . See ABUÚ ESH®AÚQ NAZ®Z®AÚM. . See S®AH®H®AÚF-BAÚˆÈ. . See ˆARQÈ. JOHN R. PERRY , nephew of Na@der Shah, claiming the Afsharid throne briefly (1161-62/1748-49). Ebra@h^m was born the second of four sons of Moháammad-Ebra@h^m Beg, Na@der's younger brother, and was first named Moháammad-¿Al^. After his father's death on a campaign in 1152/1739, he took the name Ebra@h^m Beg. During the 1740s he was military commander (sarda@r) of Azerbaijan and campaigned successfully against the Safavid pretender Sa@m M^rza@ at Ardab^l. On Na@der Shah's assassination in 1160/1747 Ebra@h^m's elder brother ¿Al^qol^ Khan was raised to the throne as ¿AÚdel Shah by his S^sta@n^ supporters and, electing to stay in Maæhad, sent Ebra@h^m (then aged about twenty-two) to govern Isfahan and adjacent regions. ... CARL W. ERNST (b. about 947/1540-41), historian of the ¿AÚdelæa@h^ dynasty (q.v.) of B^ja@pu@r. He traveled from Persia to India as a merchant, and from the age of twenty served Sultan ¿Al^ ¿AÚdelæa@h as a steward (kòúa@nsa@la@r) and scribe. In 1005/1596-97, he received from Sultan Ebra@h^m ¿AÚdelæa@h an appointment as ambassador to Ahámadnagar; he also held posts as governor of the B^ja@pu@r (qq.v.) fort and treasurer. ... PRISCILLA P. SOUCEK , Timurid prince, ruler of Shiraz, military commander, and renowned calligrapher (796-838/1394-35). At his instigation and with his assistance ˆaraf-al-D^n ¿Al^ Yazd^ wrote his biography of T^mu@r (Tamerlane), the Záafar-na@ma. Ebra@h^m himself achieved renown as calligrapher, particularly in the tòoltò script, which he employed in both Koranic manuscripts and architectural inscriptions. See ABU'LQAÚSEM EBRAÚHÈM SOLT®AÚN. PRISCILLA P. SOUCHEK , also known as M^rza@ ¿Amu@, a calligrapher specializing in the nasta¿l^q script. One of the principal students of M^rza@ GÚola@m-Rezµa@ Esáfaha@n^ (d. 1307/1889-90), he was active during the reign of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah Qa@ja@r (r. 1264-1313/1848-96). Although some albums of his calligraphy are also known, Ebra@h^m is chiefly remembered as the designer of architectural inscriptions for religious structures in Tehran, Ray, and Qom. Dated examples of his work range from 1291/1874 to 1308/1890-91. ... See RAÚMANDÈ. See ¿ABD-AL-REZ˜AÚ EBRAÚHÈMÈ See ABU' l-QAÚSEM KHAN KHAN EBRAÚHÈMÈ. EIr. , a monthly magazine first published on 15 Bahman 1334 ˆ./4 February 1956 as the organ of Tu@da party prisoners under the auspices and with the facilities of the Office of Tehran's Military Governor, General Teymu@r Bakòt^a@r. Its format was thirty-eight, and later sixty-six, 16.5 x 23 cm pages, priced at 10 rials. MUNIBUR RAHMAN , pen name of Sayyed MOH®AMMAD-QAÚSEM, author of ¿Ebrat-na@ma, a history of the reigns of Awrangze@b's successors, namely Baha@doræa@h (d. 1124/1712), Jaha@nda@ræa@h (d. 1124/1713), and Farrokò-s^ar (d. 1131/1719), till the fall of the Sayyed Brothers (1135/1723). Very little is known about him. His father's name was Sayyed Borha@n-Alla@h, who spent much of his life traveling in Deccan, Lucknow, and Multan. In 1130/1717-18 ¿Ebrat left his native town Lahore for Delhi and entered the service of Am^r-al-Omara@÷ H®osayn-¿Al^ Khan as administrator of revenues and finance. ... . See HEBREW AND JUDEO-PERSIAN. STUART C. BROWN (Ekba@ta@n, present-day Hamada@n), capital of the Median empire, summer capital of the Achaemenids, and satrapal seat of the province of Media from Achaemenid to Sasanian times. ECKART EHLERS ,the study of organisms, both flora and fauna, in relation to their environments. The biosphere generally encompasses the thin outer shell of the earth, which includes soil and surface rocks, bodies of water, the lower atmosphere, and the life forms that inhabit these zones. The biosphere of Persia is divided into several ecosystems, determined mainly by geographical (climatic differentiation, topography, soil type, etc.) and biological (vegetation, wild life, etc.) factors (see BAÚRAÚN; CLIMATE; DESERT). ... XAVIER DE PLANHOL i.ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY The high plateau and its external relations. The heartland of the Iranian world, encompassing both Persia and Afghanistan, is an arid high plateau, from which communication with the outside world is extraordinarily difficult. In the north there is an almost continuous barrier running from the Caucasus to the Alborz (qq.v.) and thence to the mountains of Khorasan and the Hindu Kush; it can be crossed only through narrow gorges (like the Darband pass, the Saf^dru@d valley, and the passes of the Kopet Dag and the Hindu Kush), and the difficulties are compounded by such obstacles as the Caspian Sea (q. ... ROBERT C. HENRICKSON ii.IN THE PRE-ACHAEMENID PERIOD Pre-Median Persia was a crucial economic component of ancient southwest Asia from the earliest times (Voigt and Dyson; Dyson, 1987; Voigt, 1987; E. Henrickson, 1989). Throughout its prehistory and early history, interregional diversity of economic scale and complexity characterized Persia. Gross topography, climate (q.v.), ecology (q.v.), and natural resources formed a regionally diverse mosaic of subsistence and economic potentials, ultimately reflected in cultural regions. ... MUHAMMAD A. DANDAMAYEV iii.IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD. The Achaemenid empire, extending from the Indus river to the Aegean sea, comprised such economically developed countries as Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, Babylonia, Elam, and Asia Minor, lands which had their long traditions of social institutions, as well as Sakai, Massagetai, Lycians, Libyans, Nubians and other tribes undergoing the disintegration of the primitive-communal phase. Therefore, the socioeconomic structure of the empire was characterized by extreme diversity (Dandamaev and Lukonin, pp. ... RIKA GYSELEN iv.IN THE SASANIAN PERIOD. The Sasanians, who inherited the economic conditions left by the Parthians, were quick to forge an economic state so powerful and distinctive that its fame spread well beyond their political frontiers and their period. Although it is impossible in this brief article to take note of all the factors that shaped Sasanian economic power, whether successively or in conjunction, it is possible to highlight several elements that contributed to its particular character, which became a model for the economic evolution of the Near East. ... M. HASHEM PESARAN ix.IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD From Rezµa@ Shah's rise to power to his abdication (1299-1340 ˆ./1921-41). Upon seizing power, Rezµa@ Shah's priority was to establish the authority of the state over the whole country and to build a strong central bureaucracy. He formed a national army, introduced conscription, and set about the establishment of social and economic infrastructures and the reform of the country's financial, administrative, legal, and educational systems (for details of these reforms, see Banani and Savory; for an economic assessment of the economy under Rezµa@ Shah, see Yaganegi, Baldwin, Bharier, Issawi, 1971, Lenczowski, 1978, Katouzian, Wilber, and Karshenas; see also EDUCATION; FINANCE). ... ANN K. S. LAMBTON MARIA E. SUBTELNY vi.IN THE TIMURID PERIOD The Timurid invasions against the Kartid rulers of Khorasan, which began in 783/1381, caused socioeconomic dislocation and unprecedented wholesale destruction and pillaging of towns, as well as brutal massacres of their populations (or, in more fortunate cases, the extraction of ransom money, large-scale confiscations, and the deportation of classes of people possessing specialized skills). Once he was established, T^mu@r's (d. 807/1405) main concern, in the tradition of the Chingizid (see ÙENGÈZ) models he sought to emulate, was to secure trade routes and to reestablish the exchange economy, with a view to enriching the Transoxanian base of his empire. ... BERT FRAGNER vii.FROM THE SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS The first Safavid king, Esma@¿^l I (907-30/1501-24), initiated a process of political and religious change in Persia that profoundly affected the economic structure. During the three centuries 1500-1800 the technology, organization, and ethnography of Persian agriculture, animal husbandry, manufacturing, and accounting underwent partial change. HASSAN HAKIMIAN viii.IN THE QAJAR PERIOD At the outset of the Qajar dynasty, the Persian economy displayed the characteristics of a traditional economy disintegrating under the stress of political anarchy. Several decades of external invasions, internal strife, and endemic lawlessness, exacerbated by the decline of transcontinental trade routes, had brought widespread decay and decline, if not near complete exhaustion, to the economy. VAHID F. NOWSHIRVANI x.UNDER THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC Introduction. The 1979 revolution and the establishment of the Islamic Republic in Persia has had a profound impact on the economy of the country. Since 1979 there have been marked changes in the economic policies, institutions, and structure of the country, in addition to major economic dislocation and disruption of production. Not all the changes have resulted directly from the revolution; many other factors, such as the protracted and costly war with Iraq, trade and financial sanctions, as well as wide fluctuations in the world oil market have also shaped the developments after the revolution. ... M. SIDDIEQ NOORZOY xi.IN MODERN AFGHANISTAN HABIB BORJIAN xii.IN TAJIKISTAN $1,000,000 percentage at constant 1974 prices 1,000 tons billion rials, percentage of shares in parentheses in billion rials in billion rials in billions of rials at constant 1371 ˆ./1992 prices, factor cost in billions of rials (in millions of U.S. dollars) in 1,000s of ha, Irrigated land ANN K. S. LAMBTON, MARIA E. SUBTELNY, BERT FRAGNER, HASSAN HAKIMIAN, M. HASHEM PESARAN, VAHID F. NOWSHIRVANI, M. SIDDIEQ NOORZOY, HABIB BORJIAN $1,000,000 percentage at constant 1974 prices 1,000 tons billion rials, percentage of shares in parentheses in billion rials in billion rials in billions of rials at constant 1371 ˆ./1992 prices, factor cost in billions of rials (in millions of U.S. dollars) in 1,000s of ha, Irrigated land FAKHREDDIN AZIMI (Ar. ¿Ada@lat "justice"), H®EZB-E, Persian political party founded by ¿Al^ Daæt^ (q.v.) in December 1941. After the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Persia in August 1941 Daæt^, until then an ardent supporter of Rezµa@ Shah (1924-41), was one of the first Majles deputies to defy him publicly and to advocate investigating the conduct and record of his regime (Modòa@kara@t-e Majles, 1 Mehr 1320 ˆ./23 September 1941). He subsequently assumed a more prominent role, including formalizing his network of friends as the ¿Eda@lat Party. ... .See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION. AMIR HASSANPOUR (Pers. and Ar. Adab), pen name of the Kurdish poet ¿Abd-Alla@h Beg b. Ahámad Beg Ba@ba@m^r^ Misába@há-al-D^wa@n (b. Arman^ Bola@g@^, a village northeast of Bu@ka@n in western Azerbaijan, 1277/1860, d. ca. 1297 ˆ./1918). He was born into a family of landed nobility that traced its descent from the local Mukr^ rulers and educated first at the local mosque and then in Tehran, though he returned home after only a year. Edeb led a life of leisure, traveling and engaging in music, painting, and poetry. ... SAMUEL LIEU (Aram. and Syr. Urhai/Orha@i; Ar. Roha@÷), now Urfa in southeastern Turkey, former capital of ancient Osrhoene. It is situated on a limestone ridge, an extension of the ancient Mount Masius in the Taurus mountains of southern Anatolia, where the east-west highway from Zeugma (in the vicinity of modern Birecik) on the Euphrates to the Tigris met the north-south route from Samosata (Somaysa@tá) to the Euphrates via Carrhae (H®arra@n). Edessa was held successively by the Seleucids, Parthians, and Romans. ... KARIM EMAMI (Pers. v^ra@yeæ, a neologism; Ar.-Pers. tahdò^b, tanq^há, now obsolete; rarely p^ra@yeæ, parda@kòt), the techniques of preparing a text for publication, now widely practiced at the major publishing houses in Persia. (Pers. a@mu@zeæ o parvareæ; earlier Ar. Per. ta¿l^m o tarb^at) in Iranian-speaking areas. MUHAMMAD A. DANDAMAYEV i.IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIODLittle is known of the training of children during the Achaemenid period. In two Elamite documents from Persepolis drafted in the 23rd regnal year of Darius I (499 B.C.E.) "Persian boys (who) are copying texts" are mentioned (Hallock, nos. 871, 1137); the texts in question are records of the issue of grain to twenty-nine individuals and wine to sixteen. It is possible that the boys were learning Persian cuneiform script, which was probably known only to a few scribes, as it was used mainly for royal triumphal inscriptions. ... AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ ii.IN THE PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODSNo concrete evidence on education in Parthian times has survived. It may be postulated, however, that it was similar to education in the Sasanian period. Information about the latter period is confined mainly to education of princes, the nobility, the clergy, and administrative secretaries (dab^rs, q.v.). Most peasants were illiterate, but most urban merchants were probably acquainted at least with writing and calculation (Christensen, Iran Sass., p. 416). JALÈL DUÚSTKòúAÚH AND EQBAÚL YAGÚMAÚ÷È iii.THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (MAKTAB)Before the establishment of a modern educational system in Persia in the early 20th century children received their early and intermediate education in the maktab (or maktab-kòa@na, lit., "place of writing") under the tutelage of an a@kòu@nd (q.v.), mulla (clerical teacher), or mo¿allem (teacher), who worked alone or occasionally with one or two assistants. Women often served as instructors (zan a@kòu@nd, zan a@qa@, or molla@ ba@j^) in maktabs. ... CHRISTOPHER MELCHERT iv.THE MEDIEVAL MADRASAIn the Middle Ages the madrasa (lit., "place to study" Ar. darasa "to study"; for discussion of darasa as a technical term meaning "to study jurisprudence" and darrasa meaning "to teach jurisprudence," see Makdisi, 1961, pp. 10-11) was a college for the professional study of the Islamic sciences, particularly jurisprudence (feqh) but also the Koran, Hadith, and such ancillary fields as Arabic grammar and philology, knowledge of which helped in understanding sacred and legal texts. The so-called "foreign sciences," like philosophy and medicine, which also formed part of a learned education, were most often studied in the teachers' homes, as was literature when conceived as a field apart from the Islamic sciences. ... SAYYED ¿ALÈ AÚÚL-E DAÚWUÚD ix.PRIMARY SCHOOLS A movement to introduce modern primary education into Persia began in 1315/1897, when the newly appointed grand vizier, M^rza@ ¿Al^ Khan Am^n-al-Dawla (q.v.), initiated his modernizing reforms. In that year, under his patronage, H®a@j^ M^rza@ H®asan Roæd^ya founded the first modern primary school in Tehran. Roæd^ya had already established the first Persian school in Erevan in 1300/1883 and the first modern primary school in Tabr^z in 1305/1888, though in the latter city he had met with continued resistance from conservative religious authorities (¿olama@÷; Roæd^ya, pp. ... ¿ABBAÚS ZARYAÚB v.THE MADRASA SHI¿ITEPERSIAFoundation and expansion. After the introduction of the institutionalized madrasa by Nezáa@m-al-Molk in the late 11th century (see iv, above) Shi¿ite madrasas were also founded in Persia and Iraq. For example, by the mid-13th century madrasas had been established in such Persian cities as Qom (eight; Calmard; Mottahedeh, pp. 179-80; Madelung, pp. 77-84; Qazv^n^, pp. 194-95; Modarres^ T®aba@tÂaba@÷^), Ray (seven), Ka@æa@n (four), AÚba (two), Sa@va (two), and Vara@m^n (two). ... ¿ABD-ALLAÚH MARDUÚKò¨ vi.THE MADRASA IN SUNNI KURDISTAN Preparation for the madrasa. Until the mid-20th century the pursuit of education in Kurdistan was possible only through mosques, as only mullas were literate. Concomitant with their function as places of worship, mosques served as social centers and as rest houses for travelers and itinerant mendicants. Every mosque also contained a chamber called a háojra, where the mulla offered lessons in religion and theology free of charge to Muslim boys. Boys, though very seldom girls, began their studies at the age of seven years. ... AHMAD ASHRAF vii.GENERAL SURVEY OF MODERN EDUCATION A modern system of national education emerged in Persia in the 1920s and 1930s, after the Pahlavi state had been founded; during this period the influence of the religious establishment was minimized, and the government gained control over schools, expanding enrollment at all levels. TUÚRAÚN MÈRHAÚDÈ viii.NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS The beginnings of formalized preschool education in Persia can be traced back to about 1270/1891, when Armenians in Jolfa@, near Isfahan, founded a kindergarten, which continues to function today. By 1298/1919 there were a few kindergartens in Tehran and other cities, primarily founded by missionaries and minority groups. They included Margaret Soru@‘^a@n's (or Soru@r^a@n's) establishment in Tehran (founded in 1328/1910) and that of ˆu@æan^k K¨a@nza@d^a@n, in Tabr^z, which were open only to Armenians. ... AH®MAD BÈRAˆK x.MIDDLE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLSModern secondary education in Persia was originally based on the 19th-century European humanistic system, which was focused on general knowledge and building character, rather than on professional or vocational training. This basic European philosophy dominated the Persian secondary-school system until the 1960s, when reforms were introduced by American advisers. AH®MAD BÈRAˆK XI.PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUPS Despite government intervention in educational matters since the foundation of Da@r al-fonu@n (q.v.) in the mid-19th century, the initial expansion of modern education in Persia was promoted by foreign missionaries and private individuals, usually philanthropists, who considered that national progress lay in expansion and development of the educational system. In 1315/1898 a group of citizens formed Anjoman-e ta÷s^s-e maka@teb-e mell^ya (Council for the Foundation of Private Schools), later renamed Anjoman-e ma¿a@ref (q. ... ˆAHLAÚ KAÚZ®EMÈPUÚR xii.VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS MOH®AMMAD BAHMANBEYGÈ, NAÚS®ER MÈR, MOH®AMMAD PUÚRSARTÈP, AND EIr. xiii.RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1329/1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources necessary to implement these laws, and, in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts, fearing that "dangerous ideas" might disrupt traditional agrarian relations (S^a@s^, pp. 126-31). As a result, rural education underwent a sluggish growth in this period. ... SAMINEH BAGHCHEHBAN-PIRNAZAR xiv.SPECIAL SCHOOLS Children with special educational needs include the gifted, slow learners, the physically handicapped, the emotionally disturbed (na@-sa@zega@r), and the blind and the deaf. In Persia education for such children basically consists of instruction in reading, writing, other elementary-school subjects, and some vocational training. Blind pupils and some deaf pupils can, however, with the help of interpreters, advance through secondary school and sometimes even university. MAJD-AL-DÈN KEYVAÚNÈ xix.TEACHERS'-TRAINING COLLEGES Da@neæga@h-e tarb^at-e mo¿allem, the oldest institution for educating teachers in Persia, was founded as Da@r al-mo¿allem^n-e markaz^ (see xviii, above) in Tehran in 1336/1918. It has gone through various phases and changes of name since. Its purpose was to train primary-school teachers, and the curriculum was equivalent to that of a secondary school. In addition, courses in philosophy, logic, and principles of education were offered (Ra@hnema@-ye Da@neæga@h, p. ... EIr. xv.FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA Modern education was introduced to Persia in the 19th century by European and American religious institutions and military advisers. From 1251/1836, when the first modern elementary school was founded by the American mission in Urmia, until the early 20th century scores of foreign schools were founded by Christian missionaries, the Alliance Universelle Israe‚lite (q.v.), and secular educators in Tehran and provincial towns. In addition, religious minorities in Persia founded modern schools. ... AH®MAD BÈRAˆK AND EIr. xvi.SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS No standardized schoolbooks existed in Persia before the advent of the modern educational system. The first were written by European teachers at the Da@r al-fonu@n (q.v.) in the mid-19th century. They were translated by Persian assistants and printed at the school's own press for distribution only among the students. A collection of fifteen textbooks from the Da@r al-fonu@n held in the library of the Ministry of Education (Weza@rat-e a@mu@zeæ o parvareæ) shows that the emphasis was on mathematics and the exact sciences: Jabr o moqa@bela by Alexandre Buhler (tr. ... DAVID MENASHRI xvii.HIGHER EDUCATION Higher education in the modern sense was first introduced in Persia under the Pahlavis (1925-78) and through a continuing process of reform played a central role in social change in the country. EQBAÚL YAGÚMAÚ÷ È xviii.TEACHERS'-TRAINING SCHOOLS The first institution specializing in the training of elementary-school teachers in Persia, Da@r al-mo¿allem^n-e markaz^ (Central Teachers' College), was founded in a private house in Tehran in 1336/1918. The first director was Abu'l-H®asan Foru@@g@^ (q.v.; d. 1959), younger brother of the well-known statesman D¨aka@÷-al-Molk Foru@g@^ (q.v.; Mo¿^n, VI, p. 1351; Dehkòoda@, s.v.). A comparable institution for women (Da@r al-mo¿allema@t) opened in 1339/1921. ... ˆAHLAÚ KAÚZ®EMÈPUÚR xx.ADULT EDUCATION The first adult-literacy classes in Persia were organized by constitutionalists at primary schools in Tehran and provincial towns in 1327/1909, but those efforts did not outlast the chaos of the period following the Constitutional Revolution (q.v. v; H®ekmat, p. 376). The first national campaign for adult literacy was initiated in 1936 by ¿Al^-Akbar Da@var (q.v.), at that time minister of finance and one of the main architects of modernization under Rezµa@ Shah (1924-41). ... AFSHIN MATIN-ASGARI xxi.EDUCATION ABROAD The Qajar period. Persian awareness of a need to learn from Europeans arose in the wake of major military defeats and territorial losses in two wars with Russia in the early 19th century. In 1226/1811 Crown Prince ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.) and his vizier, M^rza@ Bozorg Qa@÷em-Maqa@m, sent two Persians to study in England, followed by five more in 1230/1815. They were to study engineering, medicine, and military technology. Among the second group were M^rza@ S®a@leh® ˆ^ra@z^, who wrote the first detailed account of a parliamentary system published in Persia and in 1252/1836 issued the first Persian printed book and newspaper, and M^rza@ Ja¿far Khan Tabr^z^, who as Moæ^r-al-Dawla became a close adviser to Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96; Mahábu@b^, Mo÷assasa@t I, pp. ... GOLNAR MEHRAN Once having received the secondary-school diploma, students who wish to enter a university take an additional one-year course geared to the highly competitive university entrance examination. Those with technical-vocational diplomas can also choose further technical and managerial training offered through two-year "associate programs," without taking the one-year university-preparation course. Although the Ministry of education (Weza@rat-e a@muzeæ o parvareæ) is ultimately responsible for administering the university-preparation program, the curriculum is based on the requirements of the universities. ... AFSANEH NAJMABADI EIR. M. MOBIN SHORISH HABIB BORJIAN ˆAHLAÚ KAÚZ®EMÈPUÚR, AFSHIN MATIN-ASGARI, GOLNAR MEHRAN, AFSANEH NAJMABADI, EIR., M. MOBIN SHORISH, HABIB BORJIAN clear and direct (Èzad^, p. 51). S. MOINUL HAQ (b. Ahmadnagar, date unknown, d. Dawlata@ba@d, 1190/1776; Malka@pu@r^, pp. 205-09), Deccani biographer and poet in Urdu and Persian. According to his own account (Tadòkera-ye b^nazá^r, pp. 33-34; cf. Belgra@m^, pp. 241-42), he was born and spent his early years in the Nezáa@mæa@h^ capital, Ahmadnagar (q.v.), but later moved to Dawlata@ba@d. After completing his studies in Persian and Arabic, theology, law, and medicine, he practiced as a physician. He also became interested in poetry and studied with AÚza@d Belgra@m^ (q. ... FRANçOIS DE BLOIS ,a family of officials and poets from Qazv^n, reputed descendants of the caliph Abu@ Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans (13th century). They came to prominence with five brothers, all of whom held high posts under the Mongols. . See BAÚDENJAÚN. .See SAYF-AL-DÈN ¿EMAÚD-AL-DÈN EGÚLAMEˆ .See NASTARAN. EDDA BRESCIANI, PHILIP HUYSE, HEINZ HEINEN, RUTH ALTHEIM-STIEHL, JONATHAN M. BLOOM, SHAHROUGH AKHAVI, E. YARSHATER, MOH®AMMAD EL SA¿ÈD ¿ABD AL-MO÷MEN, LUDWIG W. ADAMEC ,relations with Persia and Afghanistan. .See HERBEDESTAÚN. .See HERBED. COSROE CHAQUERI (¿Al^-a@ba@d^; b. Sa@r^, Ma@zandara@n, 1262/1883, d. Baku, ca. 1938), second most prominent figure in the the Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran (H®oku@mat-e jomhu@r^-e æu@raw^-e Èra@n), the radicalized second phase of the Jangal^ movement in the years 1920-21 (see COMMUNISM i). Ehása@n-Alla@h was born into a Bahai family and educated at Da@r-al-fonu@n (q.v.) in Tehran, where he learned French. Radical European political literature thus became accessible to him. ... See FARAÚBÈ KAMBIZ ESLAMI (d. Tehran, ˆawwa@l 1278/April 1862), seventeenth son of ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.) and governor of several regions in Persia during the reigns of Moháammad Shah (1250-64/1834-48) and Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96) Qajar. He was named governor of Yazd shortly after Moháammad Shah had appointed H®a@j^ M^rza@ AÚqa@s^ (q.v.) premier in 1251/1835 and most probably on the latter's recommendation. Within two years, however, Kòa@nlar Khan was transferred from Yazd to Kerma@n and S^sta@n, where he suppressed a Baluch revolt. ... ÈRAJ AFˆAÚR (1255-1310/1839-92), first son of Farha@d M^rza@ Mo¿tamed-al-Dawla Qa@ja@r (q.v.) and maternal grandson of Moháammad-¿Al^ M^rza@ Dawlatæa@h (q.v.). Initially, he served as personal attendant (a@ju@da@n-e háozµu@r; K¨ormu@j^, p. 258) to the shah with the title Eháteæa@m-al-Molk. In 1282/1865 he was governor of Kohg^lu@ya and Behbaha@n. There he had a 15 km water canal constructed, which connected the river Ta@b with Behbaha@n and improved the local economy. ... MEHRDAD AMANAT , also known as Mas¿u@d Davallu@ (b. 6 ˆa¿ba@n 1279/27 January 1863; d. 6 Bahman 1314 ˆ./26 January 1936), governor, diplomat, and speaker of the Persian Parliament (Majles; Plate I). He was the youngest son of Moháammad-Rahá^m Khan Qa@ja@r Davallu@, a highly influential chamberlain (háa@jeb-al-dawla) under Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah. At age nine, while continuing his traditional education in Arabic and Persian, he was sent to the Da@r-al-fonu@n (q. ... NASSEREDDIN PARVIN , weekly newspaper published in Tabr^z by ¿Al^qol^ Khan Tabr^z^, known as S®afarov, who had distributed political æab-na@mas (lit. night letters) in 1310/1892. Seven issues of Ehát^a@j appeared between 12 Moháarram and 1 Rab^¿ I 1316/3 June-20 July 1898. The meaning of its title (Need) alluded to Persia's dependence on foreign manufactures. Its satirical articles on this subject led Moháammad-¿Al^ M^rza@, the crown prince, and his chief steward (p^æka@r) Am^r-Nezáa@m Garru@s^ (q. ... See GÚAZAÚLÈ. (b. 27 September 1906 in Leipzig; d. 3 July 1989 in Würzburg), German scholar of oriental studies, particularly of Iranian onomastics, lexicography, and dialects (Plate I). DEVIN J. STEWART (lit. permission, license, authorization), a term describing a variety of academic certificates ranging in length from a few lines to many fascicles. Giving, receiving, and collecting such certificates grew from the science of Prophetic tradition and became an essential part of Islamic education in nearly all academic fields. Three main types of certificate developed in the medieval period: 1. the certificate of transmission (eja@zat al-rewa@ya); 2. the certificate of memorization (¿arzµ, ¿era@zµa); and 3. ... DEVIN J. STEWART (consensus), a technical term in Islamic jurisprudence (osáu@l al-feqh). Opposed to kòela@f (dissent, disagreement), ejma@¿ is defined by most jurists of the four Sunni schools and by many later jurists of the Twelver and Zaydi Shi¿ite schools as the unanimous agreement of authoritative Muslim jurists on a given point of the law (e.g., Jowayn^ [Shafi¿ite, d. 478/1085] p. 11; Qa@zµ^ Abu@ Ya¿la@ [Hanbalite, d. 458/1066], I, p. 170; Ba@j^ [Malikite, d. ... S. PETER COWE (or Echmiadzin; Arm. Eèmiacin; Tk. UÚ± Kel^sa@), currently designation of three separate but interrelated entities: the cathedral and monastic complex which forms the residence of the supreme patriarch and catholicos of all the Armenians, the city in which this complex is located, and the district of which the latter is the administrative center. The name means "The Only-begotten descended" and is associated with a vision vouchsafed to the first primate of Armenia, St. Gregory the Illuminator, soon afer the Christianization of the court in 314 C. ... ARON ZYSOW Ejteha@d is an Arabic verbal noun having the literal sense of exerting effort. Both ejteha@d and its derivatives, including the active participle mojtahed, are used in Islamic literature in several distinct senses. Although as a technical legal term it has been variously defined, according to what is perhaps the most illuminating definition common to Sunni and Shi¿ite writers, ejteha@d is the "expending of one's utmost effort in the inquiry into legal questions admitting of only probable answers" (masa@÷el záann^ya; ¿Alla@ma H®ell^, p. ... JANET AFARY (FEAM; lit., Social-Democratic party), an organization founded in 1905 by Persian emigrants in Transcaucasia with the help of local revolutionaries. It played an important role during the Constitutional Revolution of 1324-29/1906-11 (q.v.) by introducing radical ideas and by taking part in the struggle for the restoration of the Constitution in 1908-09. Members of the organization maintained close links with the Hemmat party, a radical-democratic party organized by Transcaucasian revolutionaries of both Muslim and non-Muslim origins. ... .See ECBATANA. JAMES RUSSELL , Gk. Akilise@ne@, region along the Euphrates in northwest Armenia. Here stood the temple and estate of Anahit at Ere@z (see ARZENJAÚN). Strabo (11.12.3) describes the site, because of whose fame and prominence the region was known also as Lat. Anaetica, Gk. Anaitis kho@ra. After Chris-tianization, a necropolis of the patriarchs of the Armenian Church was located in the province, at T¿il (Semitic l-w, "Hill"), where there had been a shrine of Ana@h^d (q.v.). J. BEÙKA (Ekrom), MOH®AMMAD b. ¿Abd-al-Sala@m, known as Da@molla@ Ekra@m±e (contemporary Tajik: Domullo Ikrom±a), a Bukharan scholar and madrasa teacher (1847-1925). He was born in Bukhara, where he received a traditional madrasa ecducation. In 1896 he traveled to the Near East, where he acquainted himself with a more favorable intellectual milieu, which he compared to that in Bukhara. Upon returning to Bukhara, he used his new experience and the writings of Ahámad Da@neæ (q. ... J. BEÙKA (Jalol Ikrom^; 1909-93), considered to be Tajikistan's most important fiction writer and playwright of the Soviet period. He was born in Bukhara to the family of a judge. He attended Samarkand's teachers training college and moved to Dushanbe in 1930, where he spent a year in prison during the 1930 purges. F. GRENET AND N. SIMS-WILLIAMS , Arabo-Persian form of a Sogdian royal title attested in Sogdian script as (÷)xæy’ (more anciently and more commonly written by means of the ideogram MLK÷ ) and in Manichean script as (÷)xæy(y)’. The Old Turkish title æad may be a dialectal variant of the Sogdian word, which is almost certainly etymologically identical with OPers. xæa@yaƒiya-, Mid. Pers. and NPers. æa@h "king" (Bosworth and Clauson, pp. 6-7; Sims-Williams, 1985, p. 163, n. 61; and Yoshida, 1988, p. ... .See KÈMÈAÚ IQTIDAR HUSAIN SIDDIQI (700-52/1300-51), author in Persian and secretary (dab^r) at the courts of the Tughluqid sultans GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n To@g@loq (720-25/1320-25) and his son GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n Mo-háammad (725-52/1325-51). He joined the royal chancery at an early age and eventually became GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n Moháammad's private secretary (dab^r-e kòa@sásá), who sent him in 1328 to the court of the Il-khanid Abu@ Sa¿^d (q.v.) in Persia to negotiate military alliance against Tarmaæ^r^n, the Chaghatay prince of Transoxiana and GÚazna. ... MARIA EVA SUBTELNY , the citadel of Herat (referred to in the sources as qal¿a, háesáa@r), located on an elevation adjacent to the north wall of the old city (Esfeza@r^, I, p. 77), and actually consisting of two parts, the stronghold proper—a rectangle of fired brick measuring about 18 x 42 m, and a larger area to the west of unfired brick, roughly 60 x 25 m—that were originally buttressed by 25 towers (only 18 of which were recorded in the late 1970s), which reflect various periods of construction (Allen, pp. ... W. THACKSTON , a master calligrapher of the chancery ta¿l^q style from Herat (fl. mid 10th/16th cent.). Ekòt^a@r never left his native city and worked, according to Qa@zµ^ Ahámad, for thirty years on the chancery documents of the Safavid prince Sultan Moháammad K¨oda@-banda, who was appointed governor of Khorasan in 943/1536 and later ruled as shah from 985/1578 to 996/1588. Examples of his work are held by museums. One specimen of K¨úa@ja Ekòt^a@r's work, dated Ramazµa@n 959/August-September 1552, has been published by Shen Fu, Glen D. ... DAVID PINGREE (choices, elections), a term used in Islamic divination and astrology in at least four principle meanings: RUDI MATTHEE PAUL E. WALKER , a self-professed brotherhood of piously ascetic scholars. In order to advertise and propagate their special mix of philosophy and religion, the Ekòwa@n al-S®afa@÷ wrote a lengthy account of all the known sciences and how the study of each in turn contributes to help liberate the soul and set it on a course toward a future angelic existence once detached from its earthly prison upon the death of the body. HAMID ALGAR, J. W. MORRIS, JEAN DURING (or ¿Al^æa@h; 1895-1974), innovative and charismatic leader of one branch of the Ahl-e H®aqq (q.v.) and author of several texts on its teachings. M. asef Na¿im-SiddiquI , a poet of the 17th century from Asada@ba@d, a village near Hamada@n. He spent a few years in Shiraz studying and then moved to Isfahan, where he stayed for about two years, working at a coffeehouse and associating with poets like H®ak^m ˆefa@÷^ (Nasára@ba@d^, pp. 255-56; Awháad^, apud Gol±^n-e Ma¿a@n^, Ka@rva@n I, pp. 94-95; Belgra@m^, p. 85). In 1018/1609 he went to Khorasan and from there, via Kabul and Qandaha@r to Agra, India, where he arrived in 1021/1612. ... . See ¿AT®T®AÚR. S. MOH®AMMAD DABÈRSÈAÚQÈ , poet and professor of Islamic law and philosophy (b. in Qomæa, ca 1320/1902; d. in Tehran, 1354 ˆ./1975). His ancestors had emigrated from Bahrain to Qomæa (present-day ˆahrezµa@) near Isfahan during the reign of Na@der Shah (1148-60/1735-47). Mahd^ learned the basics of Islamic sciences under Shaikh Molla@ Ha@d^ Farza@na in his native town Qomæa before moving to Isfahan to study Islamic jurisprudence (feqh), osáu@l, and philosophy. Then he moved to Maæhad, where he continued his studies under Ad^b N^æa@bu@r^ (q. ... .See PHILOSOPHY. ELIZABETH CARTER, R. K. ENGLUND, MIRJO SALVINI, FRANÇOISE GRILLOT-SUSINI, FRANÇOIS VALLAT, SYLVIE LACKENBACHER ,ancient country encompassing a large part of the Persian plateau at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. but reduced to the territory of Susiana in the Achaemenid period. The name Elam is derived from Greek Aylam, itself borrowed from Hebrew ¿Ela@m; the Elamites called their country Ha(l)tamti/Hatamti "lord country," which the Akkadians rendered Elamtu and the Sumerians designated with the ideogram NIM "high, elevated." See ALBORZ. . See ALBORZ COLLEGE. David O. Morgan , envoy, messenger, or official traveling on government business during the Mongol period and thereafter. The Mongols were especially insistent on the sacrosanct status of ambassadors, especially their own; and the murder of an el±^, together with the ill-treatment of two others, helped precipitate Ùeng^z Khan's (q.v.) invasion of the Sultan Moháammad K¨úa@razmæa@h's empire in 616/1219. Fakhreddin Azimi, Shaul Bakhash J. T. P. De Bruijn (Ar. martò^a, Pers. mu@ya), poetry of mourning in Persian literature. The Western term elegy covers a wider range of themes, most of which are represented in the Persian tradition. The frequent complaints of the transience of life and the cruelty of fate, of disasters or of personal grievances (the so-called æakw^ya@t) are elegiacal in this broad sense, but they are not included in the present article, which is restricted to poems lamenting the deaths of individuals. Mansour Shaki, Mansour Shaki François De Blois (Pers. p^l, f^l). Although elephants are normally associated with the humid tropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, in antiquity their natural habitat extended more widely. According to Assyrian and Egyptian sources, elephants lived wild on the middle Euphrates and it was there that the ancient Babylonians encountered the animal that they called p^ru or pe@ru, from which name is derived the words for "elephant" in the Iranian languages: Old Persian p^ru- (attested only in the meaning "ivory"), Middle and New Persian p^l, Sogdian py’, K¨úa@rizmian pyz. ... Edda Bresciani (Greek version of ancient Egyptian Ibw "the country of the elephants," Aram. Yb), the largest island in the Nile, opposite Syene (ancient Egyptian Swn "market," modern Aswa@n). The island was always the administrative center of the southernmost province of Egypt, controlling the first cataract and the main frontier post en route to Nubia, but during the Achaemenid occupation (525-402, 342-332 B.C.E.) the military garrison (Aram. haila) increased in importance. The rab haila "commander of the army" had military jurisdiction over Upper Egypt as far as Memphis, though he lived in Syene. ... F. R. C. Bagley (1893-1970), British historian of medicine in Persia. After attending Oxford University, he volunteered for war service and was commissioned in the British army and posted to India in 1914; he transferred to the Indian army in 1918 but was invalided out in 1919. He became a medical student and qualified at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London. From 1925 to 1931 he was physician to the British legation at Tehran. He took part in negotiations on the transfer of quarantine stations in the southern ports, became an honorary physician to the shah, and acquired a lifelong interest in Persian medicine, together with a thorough knowledge of Persian and a fair knowledge of Arabic. ... See ELÈJAÚ BAR ˆÈNAÚJA.Ú Tahsën Yazici (b. in Sütlüce, Rajab 1266/May 1850; (Ar. El^ya b. ˆ^na@; Lat. Elias Nisibenus), prominent Nestorian polyhistor (Nisibis, 975-1049). His work is an important source for Sasanian history. In 1002 he was made bishop of Be@t¯ Nuha@dre@ in Adiabene, and in 1008 metropolitan of Nisibis (Nasá^b^n). He wrote in Syriac and Arabic on theological issues, i.e., apologetics against Muslims and other Christian churches and treatises on ethics, asceticism, and canon law. He also wrote scholarly works, e.g., a Syriac grammar and a Syriac-Arab lexicon. ... Aram Arkun , GRIGOR E. (1880-1951; pseud. V. Vasakuni, P. Andre@asean, V. Turean, G. Margarean, G. Ast¬uni, and Hn±¿akean), an active figure in Persian and Armenian politics, the press, and literature during the first half of the 20th century. E¬ikean fled oppression in his native Ottoman empire in December 1896. Radicalized, he was forced to leave the Caucasus for Persia in 1902. He joined the Armenian Social-Democratic Hn±¿akean party and formed its first group in Raæt in 1904 (Dehga@n, pp. ... Robert W. Thomson ,author of History of Vardan and the Armenian War, a detailed account of the Armenian rebellion against Yazdegerd II (439-57) in 450, which was prompted by his persecution of their Christian faith. The leader of the resistance was Vardan, prince of the Mamikonean family. According to E¬iæe@, the Byzantine emperor refused to intervene, and the Armenian army was defeated at Avarayr (q.v.), southeast of Mount Ararat, in June 451. Vardan was killed, surviving nobles were imprisoned in Persia, and the leading clergy was martyred. ... Peter Jackson , the name of two Mongol generals. See ASSYRIA. HUÚˆANG A¿LAM ,any of several species of hardy deciduous ornamental or forest trees of the genus Ulmus L. (fam. Ulmaceae), typically called na@rvan in Persian. See MÈR DARD. See REJAÚL, ¿ELM-E. Nassereddin Parvin , title of two Persian magazines. EQBAÚL YAGÚMAÚ÷È ,a high school in Tehran with 500 students studying experimental sciences, mathematics, and economy. It was the second school established in Tehran to offer modern education. It was founded in Du'l-háejja 1315/May 1898 by Anjoman-e ma¿a@ref (q.v. Council of Education) as a result of Anjoman's disagreement with the principal of Roæd^ya school over the disbursement of funds. The school included an elementary section (Ebteda@÷^ya) for boys between seven and twelve years of age and an advanced section (¿Elm^ya) for boys who could read and write Persian fluently. ... See RHETORICS. Malcolm E. Yapp (1779-1859), author of an important description of Afghanistan. He was a British Indian official who rose to become governor of Bombay. He was the fourth son of the eleventh Baron Elphinstone, a minor Scottish peer of modest circumstances. John Perry (?-1751), English merchant, seaman and shipbuilder for Na@der Shah Afæa@r. From 1734 onward the British merchants of the Russia Company were permitted to transit Russia to trade with Persia, crossing the Caspian Sea in Russian vessels. In 1739 Elton, an "enterprising but indiscreet Englishman" (Malcolm, II, p. 102) arrived at Estara@ba@d (Astara@ba@d) and secured the royal assent to market goods directly in Persia, bypassing the shah's middlemen. Elton next resolved to challenge Russia's monopoly of navigation on the Caspian Sea. ... Peter Jackson (d. 633/1236), first Sultan of Delhi. A member of the Ölberi tribe (for the correct spelling, see Golden) of the Qip±aq, he was enslaved at an early age and purchased in Delhi by Qotáb-al-D^n AÚybeg, then one of the military commanders in India on behalf of the Ghurid Sultan Mo ¿ezz-al-D^n Moháammad b. Sa@m (r. 599-602/1203-6). He rose in his master's favor, obtaining the post of am^r-e æeka@r (master of the hunt) and in succession the governorship of Gwalior and the eqtáa@¿s of Baran and Bada@÷u@n, and married AÚybeg's daughter. ... C. Edmund Bosworth John F. Hansman semi-independent state frequently subject to Parthian domination, which existed between the second century B.C.E. and the early third century C. E. in the territories of K¨u@zesta@n (Susiana), in southwestern Persia. C. Edmund Bosworth , the eldest of three brothers who came to power in western Persia as military adventurers and founded the Buyid dynasty (q.v.). ¿Al^ ruled in Jeba@l from 320/932 and in Fa@rs from 322/934 as head of the family. Their rise to power forms part of the Deylamite resurgence which characterized the 4th/10th century (See DEYLAMITES ii.). Kathryn Babayan (ca. 1025-1112/1615-1701), poet and court historiographer (majlesnev^s, wa@qe¿anev^s) for nearly three decades (1055-85/1645-74), under Shah ¿Abba@s II (r. 1052-77/1642-66) and Shah Solayma@n (r. 1077-1105/1666-94) during the first eight years of his reign. Toward the end of Solayma@n's reign (1101/1689-90) he attained the position of grand vizier. Finally, after nine years of service, he was forced to retire from the grand vezierate (1110/1699). Two years later, in his late eighties, he died in Isfahan, during the reign of Shah SoltÂa@n Háosayn (r. ... J. T. P. De Bruijn , mystic and poet of the 8th/14th century who used ¿Ema@d or, more rarely, ¿Ema@d-e Faq^h, as a pen name. He was born in Kerma@n toward the end of the 7th/13th century. Both his father, Mahámu@d Faq^h, and ¿Ema@d-al-D^n were religious scholars and mystics whose spiritual pedigree reached back, through the teacher Nezáa@m-al-D^n Mahámu@d, to Zayn-al-D^n ¿Abd al-Sala@m Ka@mu@÷^, a companion of ˆeha@b-al-D^n Abu@ H®afsá ¿Omar Sohravard^ (d. ... Donald S. Richards , an eminent 13th-century government servant and man of letters, born in Isfahan in 519/1125, either on 2 Jom@ad@a II/6 July or in ˆa¿b@an/October. After a period in ¿Abbasid service in Iraq, he moved at the age of 41 to a career of greater fame in Syria, although he acknowledged himself to be a product of the central ¿Abbasid milieu (Bonda@r^, 1971, p. 104). He died in Damascus on 1 Ramazµa@n 597/5 June 1201 (for basic biographical notices, Ebn Kalleka@n, ed., ¿Abba@s, V, pp. ... Emilie Savage-Smith , the most prominent member of a 16th-century family of physicians in Shiraz. His grandfather, also named ¿Ema@d-al-D^n Mahámu@d, had been physician to Shah Esma@¿^l I (r. 907-30/1501-24). The younger ¿Ema@d-al-D^n Mahámu@d studied medicine with his father and taught a number of students himself. Early in his career ¿Ema@d-al-D^n Mahámud was in the service of ¿Abd-Alla@h Khan Osta@jlu@, governor of ˆ^rva@n. After incurring the governor's wrath, he received the punishment of spending one night outdoors in the cold and snow. ... C. Edmund Bosworth (399-440/1009-48), amir of the Buyid dynasty in the period of that family's decadence and incipient disintegration, being the last effective ruler of the line. He ruled over Fa@rs and Kòu@zesta@n 415-40/1024-48, in Kerma@n from 419/1028 and in Baghdad nominally 416-18/1025-27 and in actuality from 435/1044 until his death in Joma@da@ I 440/October 1048. Maria E. Subtelny , a vizier of the Timurid Sultan H®osayn Ba@yqara@ (r. 875-912/1470-1506; q.v), executed in Herat in 903/1498. Although the exact date of his appointment is not known, according to K¨úa@ndam^r (Dastu@r, p. 433), he held the post of vizier for almost twenty years. He was the maternal uncle of Kama@l-al-D^n H®osayn and Raæ^d-al-D^n ¿Abd-al-Malek, the sons of his more famous contemporary Nezáa@m-al-Molk Qewa@m-al-D^n K¨aura@f^, appointed vizier by Sultan H®osayn in 876/1471-72. ... (ca. 961-30 Rajab 1024/ca. 1554-15 August 1615), one of the most celebrated nasta¿l^q calligraphers of Persia. He was born in Qazv^n to a family of Sayf^ H®asan^ sayyeds who had been associated for years with the Safavid court in such capacities as librarian or accountant. He is reported by modern authors (Huart, pp. 239-42; K¨al^l, p. 5) to have studied calligraphy under three well-known calligraphers of the time: ¿Èsa@ Beg Rangka@r, Ma@lek Deylam^, and Moháammad-H®osayn Tabr^z^. ... ¿ABD-ALLAÚH FORAÚDÈ calligrapher (b. Qazv^n, 27 Farvard^n 1245 ˆ. /16 April 1866; d. Tehran, 26 T^r 1315 ˆ./17 July 1936). Son of Moháammad, a qaba@la-nev^s (scrivener), Moháammad-H®osayn was a member of the Ne¿mat-Alla@h^ Sufi order. He received his early education in Qazv^n. Before settling in Tehran, he spent some time in Iraq and Maæhad, where he lived as a scribe, working mainly in the naskò style. Upon the recommendation of Am^r Baha@dor, he was asked by Mozáaffar-al-D^n Shah to copy the ˆa@h-na@ma, which was completed in 1315/1897-98 (Tehran, 1322/1904). ... See NEZ®AÚM-AL-MOLK. TAQÚI PUÚR-NAÚÚÚMDAÚÚÚRÈAÚÚÚN , well-known poet of the first half of the 6th/12th century. His real name is not known, but his reputation as ¿Ema@d^, according to his contemporary Ra@vand^, derives from the title of his first patron ¿Ema@d-al-Dawla Fara@marz b. Rostam (q.v.), the ruler of Ma@zandara@n from 515/1121(Ra@vand^, p. 210). Some hagiographers and, following them, most modern scholars maintain that he was a native of ˆahr^a@r of Ray (AÚtaækada, pt. III, p. 1039; Naf^s^, NazÂm o nat¯r I, p. ... See IMAM AND IMAMATE; ÙAHAÚRDAH MA¿SUÚM. See MAHDÈ. See JOVAYNÈ. , leader of the congregational prayer performed at midday on Fridays. This prayer, comprising two prayer cycles (rak¿as) preceded by a sermon (kòotÂba), normally takes the place of the regular noon prayer with four rak¿as. Customarily the ema@m-e jom¿a both delivers the sermon and leads the prayer, though his title refers only to the latter function. Mehrdad Shokouhi , two archeological sites in Afghanistan. See MAHDÈ. See¿AMAÚMA. Seeimam and imamate. Cyrus Mir Fakhreddin Azimi , politician (b. K¨oy, 1901, d. Paris 9 Nov., 1966). He was one of nine sons of the prominent religious dignitary and Majles deputy M^rza@ Yaháya@ Ema@m-e Jom¿a K¨o÷^. He was educated in Tehran and Belgium, where, in the second half of the 1930s, he studied economics and finance and married a Belgian national. Upon his return to Persia, he was employed by the Ministry of Finance. In the post-1941 era Ema@m^ joined the ¿Eda@lat party, remaining a close lifelong friend of its leader, ¿Al^ Daæt^ (qq. ... J. T. P. De Bruijn , Persian poet of the Mongol period, also noted for his learning (b. in Herat; d. in Isfahan in 686/1287). During the decade 650-60/1250-60 he wrote panegyrics for the Qara Khitai rulers of Kerma@n and their officials. His residence in Kerma@n more or less coincided with the reign of Qotlog@ Terken (Tarka@n) ¿Esámat-al-Donya@ wa'l-D^n (655-81/1257-82 or 83), a period of cultural prosperity in the history of that province (cf. Lambton, "Kirma@n," pp. 161-62; idem, Continuity, passim). ... SeeSHI¿ISM. Roger M. Savory ,son of the celebrated Georgian @gola@m Alla@hverd^ Khan (q.v.). Ema@m@qol^ Khan is first mentioned as governor of La@r in Fa@rs in 1018/1610 (Eskandar Beg, II, p. 807; tr. Savory, II, p. 1010). On the death of his father in 1022/1613, Shah ¿Abba@s appointed Ema@mqol^ Khan to succeed him as governor-general (beglarbeg) of Fa@rs; he retained the post of governor of La@r and held the rank of an amir of the d^va@n (Eskandar Beg, II, p. 871; tr., p. 1084). In 1029/1619-20 Ema@mqol^ Khan was put in charge of the blasting operations necessitated by Shah ¿Abba@s's plan to link the headwaters of the Ka@ru@n and Za@yandaru@d rivers and thus augment the water supply of his capital, Isfahan (Eskandar Beg, II, p. ... H®OSAYN MAHáBUÚÚBÈ ARDAKAÚÚNÚÈ (b. 14 ˆawwa@l 1211/ 9 March 1796, date of death not known), the twelfth son of Fath®-¿Al^ Shah Qajar; his mother was Begom Ja@n Qazv^n^ (SoltÂa@n-Ahámad M^rza@, pp. 35, 206). When only eleven years old, he received the title ^l-kòa@n^ and was made chief of the royal guards (sarkeæ^k±^-ba@æ^), a post he held from 1222/1807 until the death of his father in 1250/1834 (Montazááam-e na@sáer^ III, p. 1487). In 1238/1822 he was appointed governor of Qazv^n but returned to his previous post within a year. ... Hamid Algar, PARVÈZ VARJAÚÚVAND ,a shrine believed to be the tomb of a descendent of a Shi¿ite Imam. In addition to ema@mza@da, such structures are also known as a@sta@na (lit., threshold), marqad (resting place, mausoleum), boq¿a (revered site), rawzµa (garden/tomb), gonbad (dome), maæhad (place of martyrdom), maqa@m (site/abode), qadamga@h (stepping place), and torbat (dust, grave). See CLOTHING, CRAFTS, TEXTILES. Barbara D. Metcalf (b. Thana Bhawan, India, 1233/1817, d. Mecca, 1317/1899), spiritual guide and scholar. He belonged to a scholarly family of Fa@ru@q^ shaikhs. In 1249/1833 he went to Delhi, where he joined the reformist circle of Moháammad-Esháa@q Dehlav^ (1192-1257/1778-1841; Metcalf, pp. 71-72). At Dehlav^'s urging he rejected his given name, Emda@d H®osayn, and took what was regarded as the more religiously correct name, Emda@d-Alla@h, by which he is known. In 1263/1846 he undertook the háajj and visited Moháammad-Esháa@q, who had by then emigrated to Mecca. ... Mansour Shaki (Exposition [of Zoroastrian doctrines] by EÚme@d, son of Aæawahiæt), a major 10th-century Pahlavi work comprising forty-four questions (pursiæn) put by a priest (a@sro@n), AÚdur Guænasb, son of Mihr-a@taæ, grandson of AÚdur Guænasb, to the saint (hufraward) EÚme@d, son of Aæawahiæt, the high priest (mo@beda@n mo@bed) of the Zoroastrian community, and his answers. Riva@yat, also an Arabo-Persian word meaning "narration, exposition, exegesis," was used in post-Sasanian times by the Zoroastrian clergy for the Middle Persian nige@z. ... See GEMS. John D. Yohannan ,distinguished American transcendentalist, philosopher, and poet (b. 25 May 1803, Boston, Mass.; d. 27 April 1882, Concord) Only two other major Western authors have contributed as much to the cultivation of Persian poetry as Emerson: Goethe (q.v.) in the early years of the 19th century and Edward FitzGerald (q.v.) in the later years. Equally notable has been the reverse influence exerted by Persian poets upon Emerson's own work. His sources were almost exclusively two books by the German author Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall: Der Diwan von Mohammed Schemseddin Hafiz (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1812-13) and Geschichte der schönen Redekünste Persiens (Vienna, 1818). ... See HUMAN MIGRATION. TAHSËN YAZICI ; b. Solayma@n^ya in Persia, 1261/1845, d. Istanbul, 28 ˆa¿ba@n 1342/5 April 1924), Turkish poet and man of letters who also wrote in Persian. He was born to one Ahámad Efend^ and received a madrasa education in Solayma@n^ya. In 1284/1867 he was appointed assistant chief clerk of the city, and he continued to serve in a variety of Ottoman administrative posts throughout his career. After moving to Istanbul, to a position in the Ministry of Fnance, he also taught Persian at the Eyüb Ru¶tiye (Ayyu@b Roæd^ya) middle school. ... See AMIR. See UNITED ARAB EMIRATES. Jirí Beuàka , Sufi poet of Arab descent, born in 1688 in Sanga@rak, Afghanistan, died in 1749 in Bukhara. He studied in the Bukhara madrasa and remained in that town until his death. He left a d^va@n with g@azals, qet¿as, and roba@¿^s. Of the many manuscripts of his d^va@n in the libraries of the former Soviet Union, twelve are in the Manuscript Fund of the Tajik Academy of Sciences in Dushanbe, one of which was written in the last year of the poet's life. M. Amani ,economic activity in which one engages and employs his or her time and energy. Before the first general census was carried out in 1956, there were no comprehensive data available on the active population in Persia on a national scale. Since 1956, the data provided by successive censuses (q.v.) and surveys make it possible to analyze the level of employment and economic activity. Whatever their inaccuracy in recording, interpretation or classification, these data provide a general idea of the situation and how it has evolved. ... David Yeroushalmi ,the name or most likely the penname (takòallosá) of the Jewish-Persian poet of Isfahan and Ka@æa@n. Together with his 7th-8th/13th-14th century predecessor ˆa@h^n, he is one of the two most prominent and beloved poets of Judeo-Persian literature. Since Wilhelm Bacher's pioneering study on ˆa@h^n and ¿Emra@n^ in 1907 a large number of ¿Emra@n^'s works have been uncovered and much new light has been shed on the poet's life and times, and his literary output. ... See CONCESSIONS. Daryush Shayegan (4 vols., Paris, 1971-73), the magnum opus of Henry Corbin (q.v.), consisting of essays summarizing most of the major themes that defined his scholarly career and revealing his intellectual grasp of Persian philosophical thought. The four volumes are devoted respectively to the four distinct but parallel itineraries by which he believed himself to have found the way to the heart of Persian spirituality: Volume I to different aspects of Twelver Shi¿ism, the phenomenon of the holy book, and the cycle of prophethood and wala@yat (sainthood); Volume II to ˆeha@b-al-D^n Sohravard^ and the Persian platonists; Volume III to theories of love and mystical lovers in the work of Ru@zbeha@n Baql^ and the connections between Shi¿ism and Sufism apparent in the works of H®aydar AÚmol^, S®a@÷en-al-D^n Torka Esábaha@n^, and ¿Ala@-al-D^n Semna@n^; and Volume IV to the school of Isfahan, including M^r Da@ma@d, Molla@ S®adra@, and Qa@zµ^ Sa¿^d Qom^, as well as the Shaikhi school, the twelfth imam, and chivalry in general, along with a general index (see below). ... EIr., Layla S. Diba (m^na@,possibly a dialect form of m^nu@ < Mid. Pers. me@no@g "uncorporeal, spiritual, the world beyond, heaven" < *"sky" < "blue," meaning "glass, luster, enamel" [Horn, Etymologie, s.v. m^no@; for the u@-/a@- variation in words derived from OIr. -u stems, cf. Av. ba@zu-, Pers. ba@zu@, Sogd. £a@za@; Av. p™r™su-, Pers. pahlu@, Sogd. prsa@]; another possibility is Av. minu- "jewel" [AirWb., col. 1186] > Ahmad Ashraf (1311-61 ˆ/1932-82), political scientist and translator. He was born in Tehran into a middle-class family of religious scholars. He received his bachelor's degree in political science in 1333 ˆ./1954 from Tehran University and his master's and doctorate in politics in 1958 and 1962, respectively, from the London School of Economics, London University. As a youth, he was a member of the Tu@da party, but after the 1953 coup d'e‚tat (q.v.) he joined K¨al^l Malek^'s Socialist League (Ja@ma¿a-ye sos^a@l^stha@). ... Sheila S. Blair ,Timurid builder or tile maker of the 15th century. He reportedly built or decorated the dome of the Qobba-ye sabz (Green Dome) in Kerma@n. Sir Percy Sykes, the first European to refer to the building, reported that an inscription (now lost) was read to him stating that the building was the work of the master K¨úa@ja ˆokr-Alla@h and the master ¿Ena@yat-Alla@h, son of the master Nezáa@m-al-D^n, the architect (me¿ma@r) from Isfahan, and was constructed in 640/1242, which is probably a misreading since stylistically the building dates to the 15th century. ... Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi , (b. in Burhanpur, 19 Joma@da@ I 1017/31 August 1608; d. in Delhi on 19 Joma@da@ I 1082/23 September 1671), Sufi and scholar, descendant of an old respected Lahore family that had converted to Islam in Punjab. The family had risen to prominence as scholars, Sufi saints, and officers in the 15th century. Neither ¿Ena@yat-Alla@h nor his younger brother Moháammad-S®a@lehá mentioned their father's home; he seems to have moved from Lahore to Burhanpur as a servant of the Mughal state (Moháammad-S®a@lehá, III, p. ... Elton L. Daniel , an alphabetically arranged reference work which seeks to provide scholarly articles relating to "all aspects of Iranian life and culture." Elton L. Daniel , a reference work of fundamental importance on topics dealing, according to its self-description, with "the geography, ethnography and biography of the Muhammadan peoples." Published under the auspices of E. J. Brill, it exists in two editions. The first edition was published during the period 1913-1938 and supervised by a distinguished editorial board which eventually included M. Th. Houtsma, T. W. Arnold, Basset, Hartmann, A. J. Wensinck, W. Heffening, E. Le‚vi-Provençal, and H. A. R. Gibb. It appeared in three simultaneous but not completely identical versions—one in French, one in German, and one in English, the latter comprising four volumes and a supplement totalling almost five thousand densely printed pages and approximately nine thousand articles arranged alphabetically. ... Ûiva Vesel and Hu@æang A¿lam Pre-modern. In Persia, as in other Islamicized lands, the notion of an encyclopaedia developed out of the "need for inventory" of the knowledge acquired through numerous translations of foreign (mainly Greek) scientific texts subsidized by Baghdad (Arnaldez et al., p. 448). The newly introduced sciences were variously combined with indigenous sciences. The first Persian author who distinguished himself in the encyclopaedic field was Abu@ Nasár Fa@ra@b^ (d. 339/950) in his EhÂsÂa@÷ al-¿olu@m, composed in Arabic (ed. ... See ENTSIKLOPEDIYAI SOVIETII TOJIK. See FOUNDATIONS. See SUPPLEMENT. See GREAT BRITAIN. D. N. Mackenzie, John D. Yohannan, Michael Beard, Kar^m Em@amÈ i. Persian elements in English. ULRICH MARZOLPH (b. Shiraz, 1921, d. Tehran, 25 ˆahr^var 1372 ˆ./16 September 1993), eminent Persian folklorist. He was born into an educated and clerical family. After receiving his early education in Shiraz he studied political science at Tehran University. Later he traveled to Geneva and visited other cities in Europe. He felt himself intellectually indebted to H®asan Wah®^d Dastgerd^, M oháammad-Taq^ Malek-al-ˆo¿ara@÷ Baha@r (q.v.), and Jala@l Homa@÷^ (q.v.). ... See BIBLE. See ÈNJUÚ. See AK¨NUÚK¨. J. C. REEVES ,attributed to the seventh antediluvian biblical patriarch Enoch (Genesis 5.21-24), which show Iranian influence. Judging from the number of citations and allusions to Enochic "books" and "apocalypses," many such works circulated among Jewish and Christian groups during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine eras. Ancient estimates of Enoch's books range from T®abar^'s "thirty scrolls" (I, pp. 173-74) to the assuredly fantastic "360 books" (variant "366") of 2 Enoch ("short" 10.7). Only two indubitably Enochic books have been recovered to date, conventionally designated 1 Enoch and 2 Enoch (the so-called "3 Enoch" is a modern misnomer). ... See revolution of 1978-79. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN , a newspaper published by Abu'l-H®asan Ban^-S®adr and supporting his political views. It was published in three runs. . See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION. See WHITE REVOLUTION. JÜRGEN PAUL (composition), the process of creating or composing something as well as the result of this process and the rules of the art; it denotes a genre of prose literature, copies, drafts, or specimens of official and private correspondence. Enæa@÷ collections are extant in Arabic, Persian, and Turkic (Ottoman and Eastern). The authors or compilers, when they are known, frequently were high officials: scribes, secretaries, (kotta@b, monæ^s) in the secretariat (d^va@n al-rasa@÷el or d^va@n al-enæa@÷; see DÈVAÚN). ... M. ASIF NAIM SIDDIQUI , Urdu-Persian poet and writer (b. in Moræeda@ba@d in 1169/1756 and d. in Lucknow in 1233/1818; Pervez, p. 23). His forefathers are said to have emigrated to India from Najaf during the reign of Farrokòs^ar (1124-31/1713-19; Sandelav^, fol. 43). In 1763, hostilities in Moræeda@ba@d forced his father, Ma@æa@-Alla@h Khan, to move to Fayzµa@ba@d and then to Delhi. Only sixteen years of age, Enæa@÷-Alla@h Khan joined the poets in Nawwa@b ˆoja@¿-al-Dawla's employ in Fayzµa@ba@d (Sandelav^, fol. ... (The Perfect Human Being), a key idea in the philosophy and ethics of Islamic mysticism. L. P. ELWELL-SUTTON (lit. "Awakening"), a Persian newspaper published in Karbala@, Iraq, in 1333/1914 by M^rza@ ¿Al^ AÚqa@ ˆ^ra@z^ Lab^b-al-Molk (S®adr H®a@æem^, Jara@÷ed o majalla@t I, pp. 282-83), editor of Mozáaffar^ published in Bu@æehr and Mecca (Browne, Press and Poetry, nos. 322,323). Twenty-one issues were published in 1333/1914; the name was then changed to H®aq^qat (three issues), then to Enteqa@m (one issue), and to GÚayrat-e Karbala@ (four issues), presumably as result of suppression (S®adr H®a@æem^, Jara@÷ed o majalla@t I, pp. ... FAKHREDDIN AZIMI ,¿ABD-ALLAÚH H. BORJIAN (Tajik Soviet Encyclopedia), the first general encyclopedia of Tajikistan, published in the Tajik Persian language and Cyrillic alphabet (8 vols., Dushanbe, 1978-88). It includes more than 23,000 articles (VIII, p. 197) in a total of 4904 pages plus 242 folios (mostly in color) of additional figures and maps. Each volume measures 20 x 26 cm, printed in a triple-column format. It was published in a run of 15-23,000 copies. ESKANDAR FIROUZ, DANIEL BALLAND , efforts to protect natural resources, wildlife, and ecosystems and to control pollution in Persia. See ANZALÈ. NICHOLAS SIMS-WILLIAMS of, Christian legend attested by texts in many languages. A page of the manuscript C2 (preserved in the Turfan collection of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Orientabteilung, and most recently edited by Sims-Williams, pp. 154-57) was identified by Martin Schwartz as belonging to a Sogdian version of the legend. See EP¿REM KHAN. FRANÇOIS DE BLOIS ,narrative poems of legendary and heroic content. Classical Persian literary theory did not recognize the epic as a distinct genre and included works discussed here under the general heading matònaw^. Modern Persian critics have coined for them the term háama@sa-sara@÷^, roughly "heroic poetry." These works, however, have nothing in common with the Arabic monorhyme poetry that medieval compilers associated with the term háama@sa, i.e., "enthusiasm." The poems discussed here are composed in rhymed couplets, almost always use the motaqa@reb meter, and are generally quite long. ... See PLAGUES. J. T. P. DE BRUIJN ,originally a Greek word meaning "inscription" and denoting in Western literatures a genre of short poems characterized by their contents and style rather than by a specific prosodic form. The term epigram is most often used for satire and light verse, but it has also been applied to aphoristic poetry (cf. the German equivalent Sinngedicht, literally "poetic maxim"). A proper epigram should be concise and pithy, with a display of wit which provides the poem with a pointed conclusion. ZIYAUD-DIN A. DESAI ,the study of inscriptions, particularly their collection, decipherment, interpretation, dating, and classification. JACQUES DUCHESNE-GUILLEMIN (b. ca. 315 [?] near Eleutheropolis, Judaea; d. 403 in Constantia, Cyprus), bishop of Constantia on Cyprus, founded on the remains of Salamis. His main work is the Pana‚rion (Latin title, Adversus Haereses), in which he attacked eighty heresies. In this work (1.1.6; cf. Jackson, p. 188, 244) Epiphanius questioned the validity of the assertion that the Mesopotamian Nimrud (Gk. Nebro@´th) was identical with Zoroaster. The assertion was based on the following: Astrology and magic were invented by Nimrud (a corrupt form of Ninurta, the god, influenced by Nimrud, the city); the same is said of Zoroaster, hence Zoroaster was identical with Nimrud. ... HASSAN B. DEHQANI-TAFTI , a diocese of the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, one of thirty-seven independent churches of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The Episcopal Church in Persia was established by British missionaries in the 19th century but was never part of the Church of England and is today predominantly Persian. The Anglican churches of the world, most of whose members are neither native speakers of English nor of Anglo-Saxon origin, regard themselves as being part of "the holy, catholic, and apostolic Church," i. ... See MANICHEISM. See CORRESPONDENCE. ARAM ARKUN (Pers. Yeprem/Efrem; 1868-1912), Armenian revolutionary and important military leader of the Constitutional Revolution (q.v.). Ep¿rem Dawt¿ean (Asribe@kean) was born of an Armenian family in Barsum See EHáTÈAÚJ.. AHMAD ASHRAF , (b. in Maæhad, 27 Ramazµa@n 1327/14 Oct. 1909; d. in Tehran, 14 AÚdòar 1356 ˆ./25 Nov. 1977), prime minister, minister of the Royal Court, head of National Iranian Oil Company, and professor of medicine. The fifth of eleven children of M^rza@ Abu@ Tora@b Khan Moqbel-al-Saltáana (Eqba@l-al-Tawl^a), a landowner in Maæhad and member of the Fourth Majles (1921-23), Manu@±ehr completed elementary school in Maæhad and graduated from the Da@r al-fonu@n (q. ... MOH®AMMAD-TAQÈ MAS¿UDIYA (b. Alvand, near Qazv^n, ca. 1248/1869, d. Tabr^z, probably 1973), singer of Persian traditional music. After his father, Molla@ Mu@sa@ Za@re¿ Qazv^n^, a farmer and mullah, died, Abu'l-H®asan, then seven years old, moved to Qazv^n, where he lived until the age of twenty. He then moved to Tabr^z, where he studied traditional Persian music with H®a@jj Molla@ Kar^m Qazv^n^, one of the best singers of his time and highly esteemed at the court of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1314/1848-96). ... ÈRAJ AFˆAÚR (b. 1314/1896-97 in AÚæt^a@n, d. 21 Bahman 1334 ˆ./10 February 1956 in Rome), scholar and man of letters. He was born into a family of poor bathkeepers in AÚæt^a@n, a township near Ara@k (q.v.). In order to contribute to the family's income he started working as a carpenter's apprentice at a very young age, but his own desire for learning and his mother's encouragement finally made him start his primary education at the age of fourteen. The family moved to Tehran in 1327/1909, where they made friends with the Najma@ba@d^ family who helped Eqba@l attend ˆerkat-e Golesta@n school. ... See IQBAÚL. See PUBLISHERS. See EQBAÚL AÚD¨AR. See NEZ®AÚMÈ, ESKANDAR-NAÚMA. See KERMAÚNÈ, AFZ˜µAL-AL-DÈN. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,name of two separate series of a Persian newspaper published and edited in Tehran by the journalist, poet, novelist, and translator, ¿Abba@s Kòal^l^ (b. Najaf, 1311/1893, d. Tehran, 1350 ˆ./1971, q.v.). Kòal^l^, a member of a prominent clerical family in Iraq, fled to Persia reportedly after being sentenced to death by the British for his anti-British activities. In Tehran, however, he worked as translator for the pro-British daily Ra¿d. Eqd@am was published as follows: C. EDMUND BOSWORTH ,a small town of medieval Fa@rs, now in the modern rural subdistrict of the same name (lat. 30° 54' N., long. 52° 40' E.). It lies in the Zagros Mountains, and the mediaeval geographers placed it therefore in the sards^r or cold zone. Administratively, it was in the ku@ra of EsátÂakòr, and is described by the early geographers as populous, with a fortress, running water, and extensive agricultural lands where wheat and fruit were grown. It does not seem to have played any historical role. ... See CLIME. A. K. S. LAMBTON The eqtáa@¿in its various forms is one of the most persistent and important tenurial, economic and social institutions of medieval Persia. It was also found in the Mamluk sultanate, the Ottoman empire, under the Omayyads of Spain, in the Delhi sultanate, and the Mughal empire. It survived in a modified form as an institution until the 20th century in Persia but under a different nomenclature. From the 14th century the term soyu@rg@a@l was used to designate certain types of eqtÂa@¿; in the 15th century the term toyu@l (or teyu@l) came to be used interchangeably with soyu@rg@a@l, but by the 16th century the two terms designated different aspects of the institution. ... See Economy. GHERARDO GNOLI (Inscr. Mid. Pers. e@r [÷yly], plur. e@ra@n [÷yl÷n, ÷yr÷n]), an ethnonym, like Old Persian ariya- and Avestan airya-, meaning "Aryan" or "Iranian." There are no sufficient reasons to distinguish sing. e@r semantically from plur. e@ra@n, the ethnic reference of which is indisputable. The translation of Middle Persian inscription e@r as "noble" is therefore untenable (Gignoux, 1972, p. 18; Gnoli, 1986; Gignoux, 1990, p. 46). Middle Persian e@r may derive from an Old Iranian epenthetic form, such as Av. ... P^R@AYA YA@GM@A@@÷^ (lit. national will), a pro-British political party founded on 23 Bahman 1322 ˆ./19 January 1944 by Sayyed Z˜^a@÷ al-D^n T®aba@tÂaba@÷^ (1891-1969), a devout anglophile politician and journalist, who had supported the aborted 1919 Anglo-Persian Treaty (q.v.) and coengineered with Brigadier Rezµa@ Khan (later Rezµa@ Shah) the British-supported coup d'e‚tat of 1921 (q.v.). After serving 100 days as prime minister and spending over 22 years in exile in Palestine he returned home in September 1943 to mobilize the rightist factions against the pro-Soviet Tu@da party. ... D. N. MACKENZIE . The word e@ra@n is first attested in the titles of Ardaæ^r I (q.v.), founder of the Sasanian dynasty. On his investiture relief at Naqæ-e Rostam in Fa@rs, and subsequently on his coins, he is called ÷rtháætr MLK÷n MLK÷ ÷yr÷n/Ardaæ^r æa@ha@n æa@h e@ra@n, in Mid. Persian, MLKYN MLK÷ ÷ry÷n/æa@ha@n æa@h arya@n, in Parthian. His son ˆa@pu@r I, while using the same style for his father, referred to himself as MLK÷n MLK÷ ÷yr÷n W ÷nyr÷n/æa@ha@n æa@h e@ra@n ud ane@ra@n/, Parth. ... .See AÚMAÚRGAR. RIKA GYSELEN (Kawa@d [has] made EÚra@n peaceful), name of a Sasanian province (æahr) created by Kawa@d I (r. 488-531). It was possibly the H®olwa@n region; if so, it bordered the provinces of ˆahrazu@r (Sya@razu@r) and Garmegan. RIKA GYSELEN ,name of a Sasanian town occurring in post-Sasanian sources only. H®amza Esáfaha@n^ situated this Sasanian foundation between H®olwa@n and ˆahrazu@r. See EÚRAÚN. D. N. MACKENZIE ,the Middle Persian designation of the territory of the Aryans. It is the development of an OIr. *arya@na@m waièah (cf. the similar Man. Sogd. and probably Parth. ÷ry÷nwyjn, i.e., Arya@nwe@‘an; Henning, pp. 55, 73). Differing only in the use of the genitive plural 'of the Aryans' for the adjective 'Aryan,' it corresponds to the Avestan airyan™m vae@èo@. This is first used in the Yaæts to name the place where Zaraƒuætra, 'famed therein' (Y. 9. ... RIKA GYSELEN (Kawa@d[has] arranged EÚra@n), name of a Sasanian province (æahresta@n) created by Kawa@d I (r. 488-531) in his reorganisation of the empire. H®amza Esáfaha@n^ called it Èra@n watÂa@rat Kawa@d and mentioned that it contained rosta@qs belonging to Qom (H®amza, pp. 25, 38). RIKA GYSELEN (EÚra@n, glory of ˆa@pu@r), Sasanian province (æahresta@n) containing Susa and probably created by ˆa@pu@r II (r. 309-379). Though Susa was given the epithet e@r-kar "made Iranian," the capital of the province was actually Karkòa, renamed EÚra@n-xwarrah-ˆa@bu@hr-æahresta@n for the occasion. The toponym was often deformed in the post-Sasanian period (see Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, p. 58, n. 1). RIKA GYSELEN (EÚra@n, glory of Yazdegerd), Sasanian province probably created by Yazdegerd II (438-457). The city cannot be identified with any certainty, but it is likely that it was located in the north of the Sasanian province of Gorga@n. JEAN DURING ,musical mode mentioned for the first time in the 11th century by Kayka@vu@s b. Eskandar (p. 196) among some ten modes; it is also listed as one of twelve frets (parda) by N^æa@bu@r^ (p. 100) toward the end of the 12th century. According to N^æa@bu@r^, transposing the register of ¿Era@q a half-tone downward produces Mokòa@lef; both modes, as well as Esáfaha@n (q.v.), were played at midnight (QotÂb-al-D^n ˆ^ra@z^, p. 102, cf. Forsat-al-Dawla, p. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH "Persian Iraq," the name given in medieval times to the largely mountainous, western portion of modern Persia. The geographers (EsátÂakòr^, p. 195; Ebn H®awqal, pp. 357-58, tr. Kramers and Wiet, pp. 349-50; Moqaddas^, pp. 384-86; H®odu@d al-¿a@lam, tr. Minorsky, p. 131; Ya@qu@t, Bolda@n [Beirut], II, p. 99) describe it as bounded by Fa@rs and K¨u@zesta@n on the south, Mesopotamia (i.e., Iraq proper) on the west, Azerbaijan, Deylam and Qu@mes on the north and the Ku@h-e Kargas and Great Desert on the east. ... WILLIAM C. CHITTICK (b. Komja@n, a village near Hamada@n, ca. 610/1213-14, d. Damascus 688/1289), Sufi poet and author. A biography that may be as late as the beginning of the 9th/15th century provides most of what is known about his life (publ. in Koll^ya@t, pp. 46-65); many of the anecdotes supply context for his @g@azals and have little historical significance, though they do suggest that ¿Era@q^, like Ahámad GÚaza@l^ and Awháad-al-D^n Kerma@n^ (qq.v.), was known as a æa@hedba@z, i. ... See ARBELA. JENS KRÖGER ,KURT, leading historian of Sasanian and Islamic art (b. 9 September 1901 in Hamburg, d. 30 September 1964 in Berlin). Erdmann's career and numerous publications were closely connected to the Islamic Department of the Berlin State Museums, of which he was director from 1958 until his death. He also taught Islamic art at the universities of Berlin, Bonn, Cairo, and Hamburg. From 1951 to 1958, he was professor of Islamic art at the University of Istanbul. KEITH HITCHINS , king of Kakheti, 1744-62, and king of Kartli-Kakheti in Caucasus, 1762-98 (b. 1720, or, according to Toumanoff, 7 October 1721, d. 11 January 1798). In Persian sources Erekle is referred to as Erekl^ Khan, wa@l^ of Georgia, since the shahs considered him a vassal. WILLIAM W. MALANDRA ,the name of a minor goddess. One of a number of abstract deities who appear in the Avesta only in formulaic invocations of divinities, she is the hypostasis of ™r™ti-. Although most interpreters follow Bartholomae (AirWb, col. 350) in taking this feminine noun to mean approximately 'energy' on the assumption that it is etymologically identical to OInd. rátí- f. ("attack"; cf. Mid. Pers. ardig "battle"), there is no assurance that the two words are to be compared (Mayrhofer, Wörterbuch I, p. ... GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN and ROBERT H. HEWSON, GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN and ROBERT H. HEWSEN ,ancient city and modern capital of the Republic of Armenia (40° 08´ N, 44° 10´ E). See ARZENJAÚN. GERHARD BÖWERING (lit., knowledge), Islamic theosophy. In its generic use, the term ¿erfa@n as describing Islamic "theosophy," is a broad and somewhat amorphous concept adopted by 20th century scholarship for intellectual developments that combine Sufi thought and Twelver Shi¿ite philosophy. The modern use of the term (1) emphasizes the mystico-philosophical side of Sufism and Shi¿ism, in contra-distinction to the organized practice of Sufism (tasáawwof) and to the rational speculation and legalistic reasoning of Shi¿ite theology (kala@m) and law (feqh); (2) it stresses the intuitive side of Islamic thought and wisdom (háekma), traced back to ˆeha@b-al-D^n Yaháya@ Sohravard^ and ¿Ebn al-¿Arab^, as against the tradition of deductive philosophy (falsafa), associated with Ebn Roæd (d. ... NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,title of two Persian magazines and a newspaper. HABIB BORJIAN (Hasan Alikòonovi± Mamadkòonov; b. 3 March 1900 at Samarkand; d. 22 June 1973), Tajik translator and writer. Raised in a lower middle class family, he went to both native schools and a Russian gymnasium (probably in Baku, where his father may have worked). In 1916, he received a degree in accounting from St. Petersburg through a correspondence course. He held various positions, mostly as a translator, in Uzbekistan's industries until 1933, when he started teaching Persian at the State University of Samarkand, a job he continued until his retirement in 1960. ... JOHN R. PAYNE The most generally accepted definition of an ergative construction (Dixon) begins with the notion that languages utilize three primitive syntactic relations, referred to as S, A, and O: GHERARDO GNOLI MOUNTAIN, mentioned in a chapter of the Bundahiæn devoted to mountains (TD2, p. 76, l. 15; p. 78, ll. 11-12). The passage includes references to Hamada@n and K¨úa@razm, and says that EÚri± az ko@f Apurse@n rust e@ste@d "has grown from Mount Hapo@rse@n" (Bundahiæn, tr. Anklesaria, p. 95, chap. 9.15). The name seems equivalent to the Pahlavi form of the Avestan hero *Airyae@ca (Christensen, p. 23; Boyce, Zoroastrianism I, p. 104), son of Thrae@taona. ... DJALAL KHALEGHI-MOTLAGH , expressed in Persian by the neologism adab^ya@t-e erot^k, is not a clearly defined genre since the concept of what is "erotic" varies considerably from time to time and place to place. In general, it may be regarded as encompassing a variety of works in prose and poetry dealing with human love relationships, ¿eæq, most particularly in their physical aspects. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,title of two Persian newspapers and a magazine. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,the first women's periodical in Afghanistan, published weekly in Kabul from 27 H®u@t 1299 to 19 T¨awr 1300 (16 March-9 June 1921). The editor was Asma@r Sommayya, the Syrian wife of Mahámu@d T®arz@^, the famous Afghan politician, poet, and journalist. Since Somayya did not know Persian, another woman of the T®arz^ family, Ru@háafza@, was managing editor, and both were listed on the masthead (as "A-R" and "R-A"). In all probability, Mahámu@d T®arz^, at that time foreign minister, played a large role in determining the contents. ... MARIA E. SUBTELNY , a Persian agricultural manual completed in Herat in 921/1515 by Qa@sem b. Yu@sof Abu@nasár^, who was previously identified in the scholarly literature simply as Fa@zµel Herav^ (e.g., Petrushevski¥, p. 26; Tumanovich, p. 40). It has been called the most important medieval Persian agronomic work discovered so far, and the highpoint of the development of the genre (Lambton, 1977, p. 161; Vesel, p. 101). It consists of an introduction and eight chapters (rawzµa), which cover the following subjects: (1) the various types of soil; (2) astrological and metereological considerations associated with times of planting, beneficial prayers on planting, measures to protect plants against pests, and the storage of cereals; (3) the cultivation of cereals, legumes, and other field crops; (4) viticulture; (5) horticulture; (6) arboriculture, floriculture, and herbiculture; (7) the grafting of trees and vines, estimating the produce of various market garden crops, the conservation of various types of produce, the preparation of such items as rosewater and confections, and apiculture; (8) the laying out and planting of a ±aha@r ba@g@ (q. ... See INHERITANCE. ROBERT H. HEWSEN (Eruand-a-æat, "Joy of Ervand"), a city in Armenia located on a rocky hill at the juncture of the Akhurean and Araxes (q.v.; Aras) rivers. Founded by King Eruand (Orontes) of the Eruanduni (Orontid) Dynasty ca. 200 B.C.E. (Moses of Khorene, 2.39; tr. Thomson, pp. 181-82), Eruandaæat remained the capital of Armenia until the royal residence was moved to the new center of Artaæat (Artaxata, q.v.) by its founder King Artaæe@s (Artaxias, ca. 189-61 B.C.E., q.v.) and Eruandaæat was briefly renamed Marme@t or Artamet (Moses of Khorene, 2. ... (Arzenja@n; Armenian Ere@z; modern Turkish Erzincan), a town in northeastern Anatolia (39° 45´ N, 39° 30´ E). See ARZENJAÚN. (known in ancient times as Karen and Karnoy K'a¬ak'; the Byzantine Theodosiopolis; Ar. Qa@l^qala@ and Arzan al-Ru@m; Pers. Arz-e Ru@m), a town in eastern Anatolia (39° 50´ N, 41° 20´ E); see SUPPLEMENT. TAHSËN YAZICI (Moháammad As¿ad Dada), Turkish author and Sufi poet of the Mawlaw^ order (b. in Salonika, 1257/1841; d. in Istanbul, 13 ˆa¿ba@n 1329/9 August 1911). He received his primary education in Salonika. In 1280/1863 he went to Istanbul, where he received a good traditional education and attached himself to ¿Ot¯ma@n S®ala@há-al-D^n Dede, the shaikh of the Mawlaw^ lodge at Yenikapi. He studied Ru@m^'s Matònaw^ and Ebn al-¿Arab^'s Fosáu@sá al-háekam under him and obtained the license (eja@za, q. ... TAHSËN YAZICI (Moháammad As¿ad Efendi; b. Istanbul, 10 MohÂarram 978/14 June 1570, d. Istanbul, 14 ˆa¿ba@n 1034/21 June 1625), Ottoman religious figure and author of both Persian and Turkish poetry. He was the second son of the famous historian Sa¿d-al-D^n Efendi (d. 1008/1599), who came from a Persian family. After completing his elementary education with his father, Es¿ad Efendi studied with the well-known scholar Molla@ Tawf^q G^la@n^ and then taught in various madrasas in Istanbul before embarking on a judicial career. ... PETER JACKSON (fl. 751/1350), Indo-Muslim poet writing in Persian. Since he gives his age as forty when he composed his Fotu@há al-sala@tÂ^n (p. 616), he must have been born around 711/1311-12. He tells us nothing about his father. No other source corroborates his claim that an ancestor, Fakòr-al-Molk ¿Esáa@m^, had been vizier at Baghdad and had arrived at Delhi during the reign of ˆams-al-D^n Eltotmeæ (607-33/1211-36; q.v.), who had entrusted him with the vizierate (Fotu@há, pp. ... M. E. MARMURA , a late work of Avicenna (q.v.; Ebn S^na@, d. 428/1037), written sometime between 421/1030 and 425/1034, which sums up his thought in a language that is often deeply personal and expressive. A relatively short book, it is a philosophical and literary classic that exerted immense influence on subsequent Islamic thought. STEPHEN LAMBDEN ,the branch of theology concerned with final things, i.e., the advent of the savior to defeat evil and the end of the world. Shaul Shaked , a short book of the Old Testament, written in Hebrew. It recounts events supposed to have taken place in the court of an Achaemenian king, called in the Hebrew text Aháaæweroæ (the usual English form is Ahasuerus, q.v.), a name which has been plausibly interpreted as a transcription of the name Xæaya@ræa (=Xerxes). The date of composition of the book is unknown, but most scholars tend towards a date not much after the fall of the Achaemenid kingdom, during the Parthian era, perhaps in the third or second century B. ... Amnon Netzer , a Jewish shrine in the city of Hamada@n, where, according to Judeo-Persian tradition, Esther and Mordechai are buried. This tradition is not supported by the Jews outside of Persia and does not appear in either Babylonian or Jerusalemite Talmuds. The earliest Jewish source on the tombs is Benjamin of Tudela, who visited Hamada@n in the year 1067. According to him, there were 50,000 Jews living in Hamada@n, where Esther and Mordechai were buried in front of a synagogue. ˆa@h^n, the earliest Judeo-Persian source on this tradition, describes the dreams of Esther and Mordechai and their departure to Hamada@n, where they died inside the synagogue, first Mordechai, and then Esther, an hour later (Bacher, 1908b, pp. ... .See ASTARAÚBAÚD . See EJTEMAÚ¿ÈYUÚN. (lit. "Confidant of the State"), an important title given to people in the administration favored by the court. Under the Safavids it was a title of the prime minister, and under the Qajars it was the highest administrative (d^va@n^) title. See below and ALQAÚB VA ¿ANAÚWÈN; see also SAFAVIDS. . See EBRAÚHÈM KALAÚNTAR. . See GÚÈAÚT¨-AL-DÈN MOH®AMMAD BEG TEHRAÚNÈ. Abbas Amanat (originally Nasár-Alla@h) NÚUÚRÈ, MÈRZAÚ (1222-81/1807-65), prime minister (sáadr-e a¿záam) of Persia under Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah Qajar (1268-75/1851-58). Abbas Amanat , also known by his earlier title, S®ANÈ¿-AL-DAWLA, Qajar statesman, scholar, and author (1259-1313/1843-96). Heshmat Moayyad (b. Tabr^z, 1291/1874; d. Tehran, 12 Dey 1316 ˆ./2 January 1938), Persian writer and journalist. His father, M^rza@ Ebra@h^m Khan Mostawf^ E¿tesáa@m-al-Molk, like many secretaries and accountants in the Qajar administration, came from AÚæt^a@n; he was appointed financial controller (mostawf^) of Azerbaijan and remained in Tabr^z until his death. See ISFAHAN. Heshmat Moayyad , 20th century female poet (b. 25 Esfand 1285 ˆ./16 March 1907 in Tabr^z, d. 16 Farvard^n 1320 ˆ./5 April 1941 in Tehran), daughter of the journalist and man of letters Yu@sof E¿tesáa@m^ (q.v.). According to Dehkòoda@ (Log@at-na@ma, s.v. "Parv^n"), her given name was Rakòæanda. Early in her life the family moved to Tehran, where, in addition to formal schooling, she received solid training in Arabic and classical Persian literature from her father. .See SOLAYMAÚN KHAN QAÚJAÚR QOVAÚÚNLUÚ. Abbas Amanat , first minister of sciences (¿olu@m, meaning education) of the Qajar period and a scholar (b. 23 Rab^¿ I 1238/7 December 1822; d. 10 Moharram 1298/14 December 1880). He was the forty-seventh son of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah by Gol-p^rahan K¨a@nom, an Armenian kan^z from Tbilisi (E¿tezµa@d-al-Saltá@ana, Eks^r, p. 228). After receiving the customary princely education (and possibly some rudiments of modern sciences) while serving as an attendant in his father's court, he was appointed in the early 1840s by his nephew, Moháammad Shah (r. ... See BAYAÚT-E ES®FAHAÚN. DAVID PINGREE (?) b. Ahámad b. ¿Al^ b. H®asan, author of the Keta@b al-bolha@n on astrology, magic, divination, and demonology, which he composed around 1400 for H®osayn b. Ahámad b. Moháammad Erbel^. His autograph copy containing numerous fascinating illustrations is preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. MARTIN MCDERMOTT (274-369/887-979), traditionist and Koran commentator, important principally for his Táabaqa@t al-moháaddet¯^n. Probably he received the laqab Abu'l-ˆaykò because of the great age (95 or 96) to which he lived. See SEPAHSAÚLAÚR. MAHMOUD OMIDSALAR (sepand, sepanj, espanj < Proto-Ir. *svanta; Ar. háarmal, Lat. Peganum harmala; wild rue), a common weed found in Persia, Central Asia, and the adjacent areas (for the the plant's name in other Iranian languages see Flattery and Schwartz, p. 40). EHSAN YARSHATER , son of Goæta@sp (Av. V^æta@spa-, Mid. Pers. Wiæta@sp; see GOˆTAÚSP), Kayanian prince of Iranian legendary history and hero of Zoroastrian holy wars, best known for his tragic combat with Rostam, the mightiest warrior of Iranian national epic. Esfand^a@r's name in Avestan is Sp™nto@’a@ta- (Yt. 13.103, Viæta@sp yaæt 25; cf. Av. adj. sp™nto@-da@ta- "created/given by the holy," AirWb, cols. 1619-22; on sp™nta- see also Gnoli). ... EHSAN YARSHATER ,one of the seven great clans of Parthian and Sasanian times. T®abar^ attributed the establishment of these clans to the Kayanian king Goæta@sp (q.v.) and applied the epithet al-fahlav^ (Parthian) to three of them: Ka@ren with its seat in Ma@h Neha@vand, Su@re@n in Seistan, and Esfand^a@r in Ray. The last traced its lineage to Esfand^a@r (q.v.) son of Goæta@sp. Nöldeke suggested that, as T®abar^ did not name Mehra@n, one of the seven, with its seat in Ray, it could be identical with Esfand^a@r (pp. ... G. R. GARTHWAITE AS¿AD (b. mid-19th century, possibly in 1260/1844; d. 1320/1902), important leader of the Bakòt^a@r^ tribe (q.v.) in southwestern Persia and grandfather of Queen T¨orayya@. BAÚQER ¿AÚQELÈ (b. 18 D¨u'l-háejja 1283/23 April 1867; d. 5 Esfand 1323 ˆ./24 February 1945), politician, governor, and speaker of the Majles. His grandfather, M^rza@ ¿Abd-Alla@h Nu@r^, was the private secretary of ¿Abba@s M^rza@ and his father, M^rza@ Moháammad S®ad^q-al-Molk, was a ranking officer at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs under Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah. After receiving traditional education, Esfand^a@r^ attended the Da@r-al-fonu@n (q.v. ... HABIB BORJIAN ,a district in the Fergana (Farg@a@na, q.v.) valley south of the Jaxartes which extends to the foothills of the Turkestan (Bottama@n) range. The city of the same name in Tajikistan (40° 1 ´ N 70° 4 ´ E) stands 107 km east of K¨ojand on the Esfara river, which is used extensively for irrigation. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (H®odu@d al-¿a@lam, tr. Minorsky, pp. 64, 102, has "*Sipara@yin" [Sabara@yen], possibly influenced by a popular etymology given, e.g. by Ya@qu@t, Bolda@n (Beirut), I, p. 177 "shield bearers"), a district, and in pre-modern Islamic times, a town, of northwestern Khorasan. It lay on the northern edge of the long plain stretching from Gorga@n and modern ˆa@hru@d in the west almost to N^æa@pu@r in the east, through which runs the river now known as the Ru@d-e Esfara@yen; the whole valley was an important corridor for communications between the Caspian lands and northern Persia and Khorasan. ... See ASFEZAÚRÈ, ABUÚ HáAÚTEM MOZ®AFFAR b. Esma@¿^l. MARIA E. SUBTELNY (or Zama±^) Herav^ (ca. 850-915/1446-1510; for his nesba see Storey-Bregel, p. 1045), calligrapher specializing in the ta¿l^q script (see CALLIGRAPHY), minor poet (pen name Na@m^), and master of the epistolary art (see CORRESPONDENCE), who flourished in Herat during the reign of the Timurid SoltÂa@n-Háosayn Ba@yqara@. He originated from a family settled in Esfeza@r (i.e., Sabzava@r), but unlike most of its residents, was not a Shi¿ite (Rawzµa@t al-janna@t I, pp. ... See ASFÈJAÚB. EVERETT K. ROWSON , prominent musician at the ¿Abbasid court in Baghdad (b. 150/767-68; d. 235/850) and the successor of his equally famous father Ebra@h^m Mawsáel^ (d. 188/803-4, q.v.) as leader of the conservative school of musicians of the time. He was born in 150/767-68 in Ray, where his father, who was pursuing his musical training, had met and married his mother ˆa@hak (Ag@a@n^ V, pp. 3, 50). Soon thereafter Ebra@h^m was summoned to the caliphal court, and Esháa@q grew up among the cultured elite of Baghdad, acquiring a superb education from such leading literary figures as Abu@ ¿Obayda Ma¿mar b. ... KAMBIZ ESLAMI (ca. 1156-1231/1743-1816), one of the wealthiest and most powerful chieftains in Khorasan during the reigns of AÚg@a@ Moháammad Khan and Fathá-¿Al^ Shah Qa@ja@r. The son of a shepherd, he initially served under Najafqol^ Khan Ta@ta@r, the chief of the Qara@ Ta@ta@r tribe. He eventually succeeded the chief when his efforts to incite rebellion in the tribe bore fruit and the chief was killed by his own men. Soon afterwards, Esháa@q Khan managed to transform Torbat-e H®aydar^ya into a prosperous and safe district, while also making a fortune through farming, leasing camels to merchants, and developing an export/import trade (Malcolm, II, pp. ... MOHSEN ZAKERI (or T®al^q), the secretary responsible for translating the financial d^va@ns of Khorasan into Arabic in 124/741-42. Next to nothing is known about him. He was a man (mawla@?) of the Banu@ Nahæal, a sub-tribe of the Banu@ Tam^m in Khorasan. Although the change of the land records from Pahlavi into Arabic had started in Iraq in about 78/697, they had remained in Pahlavi in eastern provinces, where most of the scribes were Zoroastrians (maju@s; Jahæ^a@r^, p. 67). Nasár b. ... ¿ABD-AL-H®OSAYN ZARRÈNKUÚB , propagandist sent by Abu@ Moslem K¨ora@sa@n^ (q.v.), governor of Khorasan and leading figure in the ¿Abbasid revolution, to the Turkish people of Transoxania. He had Zoroastrian or K¨orramd^n^ inclinations (see BAÚBAK K¨ORRAMÈ) and, after the caliph al-Mansáu@r had Abu@ Moslem murdered in 137/755, preached that Abu@ Moslem had been an apostle of Zoroaster and remained alive in the mountains of Ray, whence he would return (Ebn al-Nad^m, ed. Tajaddod, p. ... See GÚOLAÚT. DANIEL BALLAND (sometimes shortened as Sa@qz^, Sa@kz^, or even Sa@gz^; sg. Esháa@qzay), an important Pashtun tribe of Afghanistan, member of the Panjpa@y section of the Dorra@n^ confederation. It was the Afghan tribe with the largest pastoralist nomadic component in 1357 ˆ./1978: 10,600 families, i.e., nearly 60,000 persons or 7.5 percent of the total estimated nomadic population of Afghanistan, out of which only 1,941 (18%) were semi–nomadic. It is, however, difficult to estimate the total strength of the tribe since it also includes an unknown number of sedentary peasants and town dwellers (see DORRAÚNÈ for old estimates). ... ROGER M. SAVORY (or Èæ^k-a@qa@s^-ba@æ^), the title of two officials in the Safavid central administration, namely eæ^k-a@qa@s^-ba@æ^-e d^va@n, and eæ^k-a@qa@s^-ba@æ^-e háaram. The jurisdiction of the latter, as his title implies, lay only within the harem, and he was of less importance than the former and subordinate to him. Their respective annual salaries indicate their relative importance; the eæ^k-a@qa@s^-ba@æ^-e d^va@n received 2,675 tomans and 1,503 dinars, plus a regular subvention (moqarrar^) of 975 tomans and 1,503 dinars, in addition to a sum of 1,700 tomans for the expense of the 150 retainers who accompanied him on journeys; by contrast, the salary of the eæ^k-a@qa@s^-ba@æ^-e háaram was 300 tomans. ... J. T. P. DE BRUIJN , Persian poet, mentioned among the court poets of GÚazna (Ùaha@r maqa@la, ed. Qazv^n^, text, p. 44). Contemporary information about his life is provided by Bayhaq^ (q.v.), who met him for the first time in 451/1059 when the latter was still a young man. Abu@ Háan^fa, to whom Bayhaq^ gives the titles osta@d and faq^h, had already achieved a reputation as a religious scholar and a man of letters. Impressed by his talent as a panegyrist, the historian asked him to write qasá^das for his Ta@r^kò-e mas¿u@d^, four of which are contained in the extant parts of the chronicle. ... JOSEF VAN ESS , Mu¿tazilite theologian of the 9th century (d. 240/854). His family originated from Samarkand, but had moved to Eska@f Ban^ Jonayd in Iraq (between Baghdad and Wa@setÂ), hence his nesba. He was born into a milieu of poor craftsmen, and it was apparently only thanks to the Mu¿tazilite Ja¿far b. H®arb (died 236/850) that he could study theology in Baghdad. But he managed to win the attention of the caliph al-Mo¿tasáem (218-27/833-42), who seems to have thought of using his talents as a preacher and missionary against the so-called Na@beta, i. ... See ALEXANDER THE GREAT. See ¿ABD-ALLAÚH KHAN b. ESKANDAR. ROGER M. SAVORY . author of Ta@r^kò-e ¿a@lama@ra@-ye ¿abba@s^ (q.v.), a history of the reign of Shah ¿Abba@s I. Internal evidence indicates that Eskandar Beg was born in 968/1560 or 969/1561: He was twenty-six years old when he fought on the side of H®amza M^rza@ at the battle of S®a@÷en Qal¿a (spring of 994/1586) and seventy years old in 1038/1628-29 when he completed his history (I, pp. 336, 1095, tr. Savory, pp. 472-73, 1325). The statement in the Mer÷a@t al-¿a@lam (apud Storey, I/1, p. ... . See ALEXANDER, PRINCE. PRISCILLA SOUCEK (786-818/1384-1415), Timurid prince who ruled a succession of cities in western Persia between 805/1403 and 817/1415 but is remembered mostly for his cultural patronage. Born at UÚzgand in Farg@a@na on 3 Rab^¿ I 786/25 April 1384, he was the second of four sons of ¿Omar ˆaykò b. T^mu@r (754-96/1354-94), and Malekat AÚg@a@ (767-844/1365-1440), daughter of the Chaghatay Khan, K¨ezµr K¨úa@ja Og@la@n (Woods, pp. 20, 23; Keshavarz, pp. ... COSROE CHAQUERI (b. Tehran, 1907, d. Leipzig, 10 Ord^beheæt 1372 ˆ./30 April 1985), prominent leader of the Tudeh Party (q.v.; see also COMMUNISM ii-iii). Raised in a family that was active in politics and strongly supported constitutional government, he was politicized from an early age. His father, M^rza@ Yah®ya@, a leading progressive deputy in the first Majles, died while Èraj was still a child, and his uncle, the social democrat Solayma@n M^rza@ Eskandar^ (q.v.), and grandfather, Mohásen M^rza@, took charge of his education (Eskandar^, 1987-89, IV, pp. ... MEHRANG^Z DAWLATˆAÚHÈ , a pioneer advocate of women's rights in Persia (1274-1303 ˆ./1895-1925) and the founder and leader of the first women's association in Persia, namely Jam¿^yat-e taraqq^-e neswa@n, later Jam¿^yat-e neswa@n-e watÂankòúa@h (Society of Patriotic Women). She was born into a liberal family, whose members were actively involved in politics. Her father, Moháammad-¿Al^ M^rza@ Khan Qajar, known as ˆa@zda ¿Al^ Khan, who taught at Da@r al-fonu@n (q. ... COSROE CHAQUERI , constitutionalist, civil servant, statesman, and socialist leader (b. ca. 1254 ˆ./1875, d. 1322 ˆ./1944). Born to a Qajar family Solayma@n M^rza@ came into prominence after his brother Yaháya@ M^rza@ died of wounds suffered during the bombardment of the Majles by Moháammad- ¿Al^ Shah in June 1908 (Hoare, p. 141; see CONSTITUTION ii). Up until then he had worked as a civil servant in the Police Department and Customs Office and as a journalist editing H®oqu@q. ... See ALEXANDRIA. WILLIAM L. HANAWAY , Alexander the Great and the adventure tale about him known generically as the Alexander romance. Eskandar FRANÇOIS DE BLOIS , the poetical version of the life of Alexander by the great 12th century narrative poet Nezáa@m^ Ganjav^ (535-605/1141-1209). It consists of two formally independent works, both in rhymed couplets and in the motaqa@reb meter (see ¿ARUÚZ˜) of the ˆa@h-na@ma. The first part is generally known as ˆaraf-na@ma, the second as Eqba@l-na@ma or K¨erad-na@ma, but there is no strong evidence that the author used these names to distinguish the two parts, and in quite a few manuscripts the name ˆaraf-na@ma is in fact applied to the second of the two poems. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (called Seka@æem, Sek^meæt, and Esk^meæt by early geographers), a settlement in medieval Badakòæa@n in northeastern Afghanistan (q.v.), now in the modern Afghan province of Eæka@æem (lat. 36° 43 ´ N., long. 71° 34 ´ E.; not to be confused with Eækameæ, further to the west in the Qondoz or QatÂag@an district of Badakòæa@n). It is situated on the left bank of the upper Oxus and is connected to the provincial capital Fayzµa@ba@d by a road across the Sarda@b Pass; when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, the Russians built a bridge there over the Oxus in the early 1980s in order to transport troops and mate‚riel. ... I. M. STEBLIN-KAMENSKY (Ishkashmi), one of the so-called "Pamir group" of the Eastern Iranian languages (q.v.). It is spoken in a few villages of the region of Eæka@æem straddling the upper reaches of the Panj, where the river makes a ninety-degree turn from west to north (the "Oxus bend"). On the right bank Eæka@æm^ is spoken by about one thousand people, mainly in the village Ryn (Ran in Wa@kò^) in the former Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast of Tajikistan. There are also some Eæka@sm^-speaking families in the neighboring villages of Nu@d (Nad), Sumèin, Mulvoè, and Namatgut. ... ALI SHARGI (bank note, paper currency). The word eskena@s (bank note) has most probably entered Persian in the early 19th century during the reign of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah Qajar (Mosáa@hab, I, p. 141) and is derived from the Russian word assigunos, which itself comes from the French paper money "assignat," issued during the French Revolution, which value was "assigned" to national assets. In the Persian translation of Reuter's Concession (see below) bank note was translated "bel^tá" (< Fr. billet "ticket, bank note") meaning ticket in Persian. ... NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,title of six Persian-language newspapers, three of which deserve notice. See LAND REFORM. See ISLAM. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,title of two Persian newspapers first appearing in Tabr^z in 1324/1906. .See NAMES; ALQAÚB WA ¿ANAÚWÈN. . See CENTRAL ASIA. .See EBRA@ÚHÈM. . See S®AÚH®EB b. ¿ABBAÚD. FARHAD DAFTARY , the sixth Imam and the eponym of the Isma¿ilis. He also carried the epithet of Moba@rak, "the blessed" (Sejesta@n^, p. 190; Edr^s, Zahr, p. 199; Ivanow, 1946, pp. 108-12), on the basis of which one of the earliest Isma¿ili groups became designated as the Moba@rak^ya. Esma@¿^l was the eldest son of Imam Ja¿far al-S®a@deq by his first wife Fa@tÂema, a granddaughter of Imam H®asan b. ¿Al^ b. Ab^ T®a@leb (Feraq al-æ^¿a, p. 58; Qom^, p. ... . See MAJD-AL-DÈN ESMAÚ¿ÈL. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , Ghaznavid prince and briefly amir in GÚazna in 387-88/997-98. Esma@¿^l was one of Sebokteg^n's younger sons by a daughter of his old master Alpteg^n. Sebokteg^n had appointed him as his successor in GÚazna and Balkò, so that on his death in ˆa¿ba@n 387/August 997, Esma@¿^l was able immediately to assume power there as the vassal of the Samanid amir, Mansáu@r b. Nu@há, and of the then deposed ¿Abbasid caliph, al-T®@a@÷e¿. ... TAHSIN YAZéCé (or Oskoda@r^) b. MOS®T®AFAÚ, Shaikh Abu'l-Feda@÷; Turkish scholar, theologian, and mystic (b. Aydos near Edirne, 1063/1652; d. Bursa, 11137/1725). His two nesbas refer to his long stays in Bursa and Uskoda@r. At the age of eleven he was sent to Edirne, where he received traditional education under the guidance of the scholar ¿Abd-al-Ba@q^. In 1084/1673 he went to Istanbul to continue his studies with Shaikh ¿Ot¯ma@n Fazµl^, the head of the Jelwat^ya Sufi order, which he eventually joined. ... . See ALTUNTAÚˆ, K¨úAÚRAZMˆAÚH. (d. 395/1004), last Samanid amir. After the Qarakhanids occupied Bokhara in 389/999, he led several attempts to expel them from Transoxania. See SAMANIDS. KEVIN LACEY , a poet of Persian origin from Medina (d. before 132/750). He was the decendant of a Persian prisoner of war from Azerbaijan and lived in Medina, where he had been born, as a client (mawla@) of Taym b. Morra. The nesba Nesa@÷^ is said to derive from Arabic nesa@÷ (woman) and refer to his father's occupation, which is said to have been preparing meals or selling carpets for weddings; but this is questionable (Pellat, p. 189; Sezgin, GAS II, pp. 429-30). He supported the Zubayrid's cause; but after the defeat and death of ¿Abd-Alla@h b. ... . See S®AWLAT-AL-DAWLA. AHMET T. KARAMUSTAFA , founder of the Safavid dynasty, born on 25 Rajab 892/17 July 1487 in Ardab^l died on 19 Rajab 930/23 May 1524 near Tabr^z (H®ab^b al-s^ar, Tehran, IV, p. 428; MS London, British Library, Or. 3248, fol. 304a; Qa@zµ^ Ahámad, fol. 211b; MozµtÂar, ed., p. 608). The dates of his birth and death are recorded in the chronograms "tÂolu@¿-e nayyer-e ˆa@h Esma@¿^l" and "kòosrow-e d^n," rspectively (H®osayn^ Estra@ba@d^, pp. 32, 52). . See SUPPLEMENT. JOHN R. PERRY , Safavid shadow-king, (1163-87/1750-73), the third Safavid dynast of that name, even though the chroniclers generally refer to him as Esma@¿^l the second (t¯a@n^). His father was M^rza@ Mortazµa@, a former court official, and his mother was a daughter of Shah SoltÂa@n-H®osayn. When ¿Al^-Marda@n Khan Bak¨t^a@r^ and Kar^m Khan Zand occupied Isfahan in the summer of 1163/1750, they raised Abu@ Tora@b to the throne as a sop to pro-Safavid sentiment and as a front to legitimize their rule. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (b. 234/849, d. S®afar 295/November 907), the first member of the Samanid dynasty to rule over all Transoxania and Farg@a@na. He served almost two decades (260-79/874-92) as governor of Bukhara (q.v. ii) on behalf of his brother Nasár, ¿Abbasid governor of Transoxania, who resided at Samarqand. In Khorasan and Transoxania this period was one of strife among various adventurers seeking power following the fall of the Taherid governors of N^æa@pu@r. The disturbances did not end until the Saffarid ¿Amr b. ... . See S®ÈMQO MOHáAMMAD-TAQÈ MAS¿UÚDÈYA , teacher and master player of the kama@n±a (d. 1320 ˆ./1941). H®osayn Khan was the son of Esma@¿^l Khan, also a master of the kama@n±a; he learned the instrument from his uncle, Qol^ Khan. Esma@¿^lza@da began as a member of a group of entertainers in Tehran but later abandoned the profession to participate in the concerts of the Anjoman-e Ok¨owwat (q.v.), a mystical society founded during the Constitutional era by S®afa@-Al^ Z®ah^r-al-Dawla, that included prominent reformist officials, instrumentalists, singers, and mystics. ... .See ÙAHAÚRDAH MA¿SáUÚM. D¨ABÈHá-ALLAÚH SáAFAÚ (d. 840/1436), poet and scholar of the early Timurid period, known also for his expertise in mathematics, history, prosody, riddles, and mastery of enæa@÷. His lineage is traced back to Ôa¿far b. Ab^ Táa@leb. In his poetry he occasionally refers to his Shi¿ite affiliation. He was born into a family of notables of Bukhara, where he was raised and received the customary education of his time. Toward the end of his life his house in Bukhara was frequented by poets and savants, including Basa@tÂ^ Samarqand^ (d. ... . See BAÚT®ENÈYA, GÚOLAÚT, ISMA¿ILIS. .See TSITSIANOV. .See LOVE. MUNIBUR RAHMAN , 18th-19th century author writing in Persian and Urdu. He was born in Meerut, in present day Uttar Pradesh, and later moved to Delhi where he was employed by Nawwa@b Najaf Khan (d. 1169/1782; Rieu, Pers. Man. II, p. 723), Am^r-al-Omara@÷ to Shah ¿AÚlam II (d. 1221/1806). His father, Ne¿mat-Alla@h, whose pen name was Ne¿am^, is said to have composed a d^va@n of poetry in Persian. ¿Eæq pursued his education under the direction of his father, who also helped him develop his poetical talent. ... . See H®OSN O RUÚH®. .See ASHKABAD AHMAD KARIMI-HAKKAK (b. 12 Joma@da@ II 1312/11 December 1894; killed 12 T^r 1303 ˆ./3 July 1923), poet and journalist of post-constitution era and an important contributor to the modernization of poetry in Persia. ¿Eæq^ was born in Hamada@n, where he attended two European-style schools, Olfat and AÚl^a@ns (Alliance), learning French as a part of the curriculum. He did not finish his education, probably due to family tensions. At about age fifteen he left Hamada@n, ostensibly to continue his education in Tehran. ... Jirí Be±ka , Central Asian poet writing in Persian. Born into a farmer's family in 1792 in Va@ru@-ye Panjakent, he attended maktab in his native village and later studied in Bukhara and Samarkand. Returning to his village, he made his living as a farmer. He sometimes supplied wood to craftsmen manufacturing spindles and rolling-pins in Samarkand and Urgut. He died in his native village in 1863. Frequent themes of his poetry are spring, nature, flowers, and love as well as complaints about fate and the difficulties of life in the mountains. ... Munibur Rahman , 18th-19th century poet and writer in Persian and Urdu (d. after 1223/1808). He was a native of ¿Azá^ma@ba@d (Patna) in Beha@r, and lived for some time in D˜ha@ka. He came from a learned family; his father, Shaikh GÚola@m-H®osayn, was a poet of Persian writing under the pen name Mojrem. ¿Eæq^ studied until his youth with his father. He learned the art of poetry from Shah Moháammad Wafa@, a pupil of the celebrated Indo-Persian poet ¿Abd-al-Qa@der B^del (1054-1133/1644-1721, q. ... Asifa Zamani , Indo-Persian poet and author (b. 1070/1659-60; d. 10 Moháarram 1142/5 August 1729). ¿Eæq^'s lineage is traced to Imam ¿Al^ and Fa@tÂema, the daughter of the Prophet, by thirteen generations. His father was M^r Sayyed Oways (d. 1097/1686) and his grandfather was M^r Sayyed Shah ¿Abd-al-Jal^l (972-1057/1564-1647), a noted Sufi of his time, whose tomb is located at Marhara. ¿Eæq^'s d^va@n includes 96 g@azals, 7 tarj^¿-bands, 16 roba@¿^s, one qet¿a, and a mat¯naw^ entitled "R^a@zµ-e ¿eæq. ... Vahid Rafati (b. Maæhad 1320/1902, d. Tehran 15 Morda@d 1351 ˆ./6 August 1972) Bahai scholar, teacher, and author. He received a traditional Islamic clerical education and studied literature, the religious sciences, and philosophy under Ad^b N^æa@pu@r^ (q.v.), a well-known poet and man of letters. He studied in Qom and Isfahan before settling in Mala@yer, where he became a preacher and school teacher. His conversion to the Bahai faith in 1345/1927 cost him his teaching job and forced him to leave Mala@yer. ... . See ILLUMINATIONISM. .See BÈSTGAÚNÈ. M^nu@ Yu@sof-ne‘a@d (also Esátáahba@na@t, or EsátÂahba@na@n; colloquial Sa@bu@na@t), town and district in Fa@rs, bordered in the north by the Bakòtaga@n lake, in the northeast and the east by Neyr^z/N^r^z, in the south by Da@ra@b, in the southwest by Fasa@, and in the west by Shiraz (qq.v.) The name was officially changed from Esátáahba@na@t to Estahba@n on 1 AÚba@n 1351 ˆ./22 October 1972). In 1991 the district had a population of 62,541, of which 49. ... Nassereddin Parvin ,a newspaper published in Shiraz once a week from Asad 1297 ˆ./August 1918 until 1311 ˆ. /1932 (not 1306 ˆ. as mentioned in some sources) and again twice a week from 1321 ˆ./1942 until Esfand 1341 ˆ/1962. Its content dealt with the news of current events, particularly those of Fa@rs, and social and cultural issues. Its publisher and manager director was Moháammad-H®osayn Bava@na@t^ "Estakòr" (b. Bava@na@t 1306/1888-89, d. Shiraz 1348 ˆ./1969), an educator who for some time also served as a judge in the Ministry of justice. ... Mary Boyce (ESTAK¨R, STAK¨R), city and district in ancient Persia (Fa@rs). O. G. Bolshakov , 10th century Muslim traveler and geographer and founder of the genre of masa@lek (lit. "itineraries") literature. Biographical data are very meager. From his nesbas (attributive names) he appears to have been a native of EsátÂakòr in Fa@rs, but it is not known whether he was Persian; he must also have lived for some time in the Karkò quarter of western Baghdad. His description of the impressive troops led by Ba@res, a former retainer of the Samanid Esma@¿^l b. Ahámad (q. ... Jeanette Wakin , Shafi¿ite jurisconsult and author (b. 244/858, d. in Baghdad, 328/939). He is usually described as the judge of Qom, but he also became the judge of Sejesta@n (some of his judicial decisions made there are known) at the invitation of the caliph al-Moqtader (295-320 /908-932). In addition, EsátÂakòr^ held the important post of mohátaseb, or supervisor of the market, in Baghdad, and although the chronology of his life is not reported in the sources, it would appear from the accounts of his exchanges of views with contemporaries in Baghdad that he spent much of his professional life in the capital. ... ,a large Persian-speaking village of the Ko@hda@man, 55 km north of Kabul, built on a foothill of the Pag@ma@n range of the Hindu Kush between 1,875 and 1,950 m above sea-level. It has been suggested that the name of the village derives (with metathesis) from Greek staphileà (bunch of grapes) and would therefore testify to local Hellenistic influences (Morgenstierne). Although vine-growing is old and widespread in this area, an alternative and possibly better etymology could be Para@±^ estuf (cow-parsnip, Heracleum spondylum), a spontaneous forage-plant very common at lower elevations in the Hindu Kush (cf. ... Julie S. Meisami (< Ar. esta¿a@ra, to borrow), the general term for metaphor. Rhetorical manuals customarily define este¿a@ra as "borrowing" a word, expression or concept to apply it in other than its literal (háaq^q^) sense. . See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION; MOH®AMMAD-¿ALÈ SHAH. .See T®UÚSÈ, ABUÚ JA¿FAR. M^nu@ Yu@sof-ne‘a@d ,a town and district (bakòæ) in the province of Tehran. The town is 63 km to the southwest of Karaj. The district, crossed by the Tehran-Hamada@n and Tehran-Zanja@n highways, borders in the north on the central district of Sa@vojbola@g@, in the east on the rural district (dehesta@n) of Moháammada@ba@d, in the south on the central district of ˆahr^a@r, and in the west on the Bu@÷^n Zahra@ district of Qazv^n. Geological features include the Ja@ru@ (highest peak 2,050 m. ... ,the easternmost of the nine Southern Tati (Ta@t^) dialects, described by Ehsan Yarshater (1962, 1963, 1969a, 1969b, 1970; cf. also Zhukovski¥, some 158 glosses, passim; Sotu@da; LeCoq, passim), with which it shares most phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical features. As a group the Southern Tati dialects are part of a band of dialects extending from the Aras River to central Persia (see CENTRAL DIALECTS) and farther east, where much has disappeared in the sprawl of Tehran (see AFTARÈ). ... .See DIVINATION. Nassereddin Parvin ,newspaper published by the constitutionalists who had taken refuge in the Ottoman consulate in Tabr^z during the Russian occupation of the city in 1327/1909. Fifty-four issues were published from 23 Joma@da@ I 1327 to 16 Joma@da@ I 1328/12 June 1909-26 May 1910. It was originally a weekly, but after the seventh issue it appeared three times a week. It was produced at first by a committee chosen from among the refugees: Moháammad-Rezµa@ ˆ^ra@z^, the publisher of Mosa@wa@t; M^r@za Ahámad Qazv^n^; and M^rza@ AÚqa@ Bolu@r^, the publisher of Na@la-ye mellat. ... Nassereddin Parvin , an evening daily published in Tehran from 22 Joma@da@ I 1328 to 22 ˆa¿ba@n 1329 (31 May 1910-17 August 1911), the last issue being 2/59. It was the organ of the small Unity and Progress party (H®ezb-e ettefa@q o taraqq^) and was published by the party's leader, the well-known constitutionalist Zayn-al-¿AÚbed^n Mosta¿a@n-al-Molk (though in the newspaper itself the publisher is identified as "ˆerkat-e esteqla@l-e Èra@n"). Its successive editors were Dr. ... J. T. P. de Bruijn (b. Stralsund, Prussia, 13 February 1844, d. Bristol, England, 7 June 1917), German orientalist best known for his catalogues of Islamic manuscripts and his studies and German translations of Persian poetry. The son of a government surveyor, he went to the nearby University of Greifswald in 1862 to study classics and oriental philology. The next year he continued his oriental studies in Leipzig with Heinrich Fleischer, who edited several important Arabic texts in addition to writing works dealing with Persian, Hebrew, and Aramaic. ... C.-H. de Fouche‚cour (ak¨la@q, q.v.). For ten centuries authors writing in Persian have engaged their readers with moral and ethical questions. A body of practical moral doctrine was elaborated as part of the earliest development of Persian literature, at which time considerable reflection was devoted to topics ranging from morals to ethics, from the exhortation not to harm one's fellow creature to the search for the meaning of life. Some modern scholars (e.g., Ahámad Kar^m^ H®akka@k) have questioned whether or not there was a Persian ethics, in the sense that there was a Greek ethics. ... E. van Donzel ,RELATIONS WITH PERSIA. Brian Spooner ,the basic field research method in anthropology. This article, which treats the corpus of ethnographic data, complements the article on anthropology (q.v.) which treats the history of ideas underlying the research. It is divided into four sections: (1) Introduction, which discusses the objectives and limitations of the ethnographic enterprise; (2) Guide to available material, which surveys the types of data that ethnography has produced in Iran; (3) Index of localities, communities, and topics described, and (4) Bibliography, which gives full references to available sources. ... Nancy H. Dupree (Pers. naza@kat, a@da@b-e mo¿a@œarat), defined as the observance of conventional decorum particularly among the elite, is itself part of the wider topic of adab (q.v.). . SeeSHI¿ISM, IM AMI. See ¿AT®R. Nassereddin Parvin ,title of five Persian newspapers. Nassereddin Parvin , "Islamic Solidarity," a weekly government newspaper which began publication in Herat as of 1 Sonbola 1299 ˆ./24 August 1920; renamed Farya@d in ¿Aqrab 1301 ˆ./November 1922. After being suspended for a month and a half by the government of H®ab^b-Alla@h Khan (Ba±±a-ye Saqqa@), it resumed publication under original name on 15 Tòawr 1308 ˆ./5 May 1929, issue no. 7/20. It became a daily on 1 M^za@n 1322 ˆ./23 September 1943 and continues to be published. ... Nassereddin Parvin , a daily newspaper published by the striking print-workers union in Tehran in 1328/1910, one of the first labor or socialist newspaper published in Persia. The masthead bore the motto "supporter of the workers" (háa@m^-e ka@rgara@n). Since no other newspapers were being published in the capital, it carried domestic and international news. The first two issues, the only ones preserved, were published on 18-19 Joma@da@ II/26-27 June 1910. Since the strike lasted fourteen days, it seems likely that there were additional issues (cf. ... Nassereddin Parvin ,title of eleven Persian language newspapers. . See KUÙEK KHAN. Mansoureh Ettehadiyeh Nezam-Mafi , an exchange company (sáarra@f^) founded in Tabr^z in 1305/1887 (Jama@lza@da, p. 98) by the brothers Háa@j^ ¿Al^ and Háa@j^ Mahd^ Ku@zakana@n^ in partnership with two local money changers (sáarra@fs), Sayed Mortazµa@ and Háa@j^ Lotáf-¿Al^, and other Tabr^z^ merchants (Etteháa@d^ya, 1363 ˆ./1984, p. 315). A third brother, Ha@j^ Háasan, represented the company in Istanbul. H®a@j^ LotÂf-¿Ali was the company's representative in Tehran. ... Nassereddin Parvin ,title of a Persian newspaper and a magazine. Nasserddin Parvin (lit.information, knowledge), the oldest running Tehran afternoon daily newspaper and the oldest running Persian daily in the world. It was first published on 19 T^r 1305 ˆ./10 July 1926 as the organ of Markaz-e EtÂtÂela@¿a@t-e Èra@n, the first Persian news agency, founded in Asad 1302 ˆ./August 1923 by five young Persian journalists. The person chiefly responsible for the management of the small agency was ¿Abba@s Mas¿u@d^ (b. Tehran, 1280 ˆ. ... Priscilla P. Soucek , RICHARD (1906-79), a German-born and educated scholar specializing in the study of Islamic art. His career was largely in the United States, where he held both curatorial and professorial appointments. Although his interests and publications ranged from Spain to India, he made especially important contributions to the study of Iran's artistic heritage, with a strong emphasis on the portable arts and on artistic and cultural links between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. Paul Bernard ,name of two Greco-Bactrian kings. Nicholas Sims-Williams , legendary Christian saint traditionally credited with the introduction of Egyptian monasticism into Mesopotamia and Persia. Part of a Sogdian version of his legend, translated from the Syriac, has been identified by Sundermann (pp. 263-64) in a group of unpublished fragments preserved in the Turfan collection of the Berlin-Brandenburgische Academie der Wissenschaften, the largest of which (bearing the signatures C6 and T ii B 6c) was previously inaccurately characterized by Hansen (p. 96) as belonging to the martyrdom of Bishop Miles. ... . See KARK¨A. Anna Vanzan ,castrated males who were in charge of the concubines of royal harems, served in the daily life of the court, and sometimes carried out administrative functions. Samuel N. C. Lieu ,together with the Tigris, (2,700 km in total length), historically and geographically constituting one of the most important river-systems in the Near East. Its significance to the history of Persia lies in it being one of the main trade and invasion routes between Persia and the Graeco-Roman world. Along its bank marched the Greek mercenaries who fought unsuccessfully for Cyrus (see CYRUS vi) in 401 B.C.E. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4-5). The Parthians created the province of Parapotamia with Dura Europos (q.v. ... Rudi Matthee . To Persians, as to other Muslim peoples, Europe was long synonymous with Christendom and was thus closely associated with Ru@m, the realm of Byzantium or eastern Christianity. Prior to the Mongol era, information available to Persians about Europe beyond the Byzantine frontier was scanty and consisted largely of fixed and formulaic wisdom. Persian geographers, like their Arab colleagues, subscribed to a Ptolemaic world view, which divided the world into seven latitudinal zones (eql^ms "climes") and three regions, Asia, Libya (Africa), and Europe. ... Philip Huyse (b. around 260 or shortly thereafter; d. 30 May 339 [or, less probably, 340]), Greek ecclesiastical historian and theologian. His parentage and exact place of birth are unknown; since no contemporary biography is extant, we are largely dependent on the evidence of his own writings for information on his life. Eusebius was imprisoned in 309 during the Diocletian persecution of Christians (303-313), after the end of which he became bishop of Caesarea in Palestine. At the Council of Nicaea (325) he played a prominent role at the right hand of the Emperor Constantine the Great, whose chief theological adviser he appears to have been; at the Council of Antioch (331) he deposed Eusthatius as one of the leaders of the Anti-Arian party. ... Nicholas Sims-Williams , Christian martyrological text, of which versions survive in many languages, including Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Armenian. Several fragments of the manuscript C2 (preserved in Berlin, in the Turfan collection of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Orientabteilung, and in the Museum für Indische Kunst) have been identified by Schwartz and Sims-Williams as belonging to a Sogdian version of the legend, translated from the Syriac. The story is set in the Roman empire during the reigns of Trajan (98-117 C. ... A. D. H. Bivar ,name of two Greek kings of Bactria. Samuel N. C. Lieu ,Roman administrator and historian, probably from Bordeaux, who accompanied the emperor Julian the Apostate on his ill-fated Persian expedition in 363. He later rose to the rank of praefectus praetorio (Illyrici) under Gratian and Theodosius (380-81) and was consul (posterior) with Valentinian II in 387 despite the fact that he was almost certainly a pagan and remained so under the successors of Julian. Sidney H. Griffith and EIr. of Alexandria (Sa¿^d b. BetÂr^q), Christian physician and historian whose Annales (written in Arabic and called Keta@b al-ta@r^kò al-majmu@¿ ¿ala@'l-taháq^q wa'l-tasád^q or Nazám al-jawhar) is a rich repository of much otherwise unobtainable information about the history of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, especially in the periods of Persian occupation in the seventh century and in Islamic times up to the early tenth century. Nicholas Sims-Williams (346-399 C.E.), prolific author of Christian literature in Greek. After passing the first part of his career as a preacher in Constantinople, Evagrius took up abode in the Egyptian desert and became one of the most renowned of its many ascetics. Evagrius' theoretical mysticism had a strong influence on Syrian as well as on Byzantine spirituality and most of his writings were translated into Syriac (see Frankenberg and Muyldermans). His Antirrheticus, a collection of scriptural quotations arranged in eight books corresponding to the "eight evil thoughts" which they are intended to counter, is one of several of his works of which the original text is lost. ... . See PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. . SeeANGALYUÚN, MAÚNÈ, MANICHEANISM. Etan Kohlberg ,wickedness, harm, ill fortune. . See ÙAˆM-ZAK¨M. . See AKOÚMAN. . See SUPPLEMENT. Kathryn Babayan (or Èv-o@g@l^), name of a family that served three Safavid kings (¿Abba@s I, Sáaf^, and ¿Abba@s II) as eœ^k-a@qa@s^-ba@œ^ (q.v.) of the harem, for a period of twenty-seven years (1026-53/1617-43). They first appear at the court of ¿Abba@s I in 1006/1598, shortly after the transfer of the capital from Qazv^n to Isfahan that allowed Shah ¿Abba@s I to break the power of the qezelba@œ. The g@ola@ms were a key element introduced by ¿Abba@s I to abate the qezelba@œ. ... K. Allin Luther , a court official of the later Safavid period. His father had done secretarial work in government service (Nava@÷^, p. 24). H®aydar Beg was an eœ^k-a@qa@s^ (q.v.) under ¿Abba@s I (996-1038/1588-1629), then doorkeeper (darba@n ) of the royal harem under Sáaf^ I (1038-52/1629-42), then was appointed eœ^k-a@qa@s^-ba@œ^ of the harem by the same ruler in 1046/1636-37 (Storey, I, p. 317). According to Wahá^d Qazv^n^ (pp. 55-56) he lost his post in the reign of ¿Abba@s II (1052-77/1642-66) as a result of a long-simmering dispute with M^rza@ Taq^ E¿tema@d-al-Dawla and was put to death by ¿Abba@s II in 1075/1664-65 (Storey, p. ... based on a longer article by ¿Abd-al-H®osayn ZarrÈnku@@@Úb (taka@mol, taháawwol), a family of ideas embodying the belief that the physical universe and living organisms have developed in a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler to a higher, more complex state. A variety of mythological and speculative ideas of evolution appear in ancient Chinese, Indian, and Iranian cultures, in Greek philosophy, and in Islamic and Persian philosophy and mysticism. However, a scientifically credible theory of evolution of living organisms based on natural selection, the survival and reproduction of those species best adapted to the environment, was first set forth in 1859 by Charles Darwin in his On the Origin of Species. ... . See AÚ÷ÈN-NAÚMA. Philippe Gignoux (master of manners; ÷dwynpty: KKZ 8, KNRm 25; cf. Gignoux, 1972, p. 15; also read a@ye@nbed), Pahlavi title attested from the 3rd century C.E. It was conferred by Bahra@m II (274-93, q.v.) upon the magus Kirde@r (Gignoux, 1991, pp. 49, 69 n. 132) in connection with the charge of the fire temple of Ana@h^d-Ardaœ^r and the lady Ana@h^d at EsátÂakòr. As the title is rarely mentioned, the function it represented is difficult to define. It occurs on two bullae in the collection of the Bibliotheàque Nationale, Paris (Gignoux, 1978, pp. ... David Stronach i. IN PERSIA ,see JALLAÚD. Philip G. Kreyenbroek, Todd Lawson (Ar. tafs^r), commentary on or interpretation of sacred texts. ISAIAH M. GAFNI (Hebrew resh galuta), the leading authority in the Jewish community in Babylonia. The Babylonian Talmud is the major source of information on the office up to the 6th century, supplemented by contemporary Palestinian sources, later medieval chronicles, and 9th-century Pahlavi texts (see, e.g., Markwart, Provincial Capitals, p. 19). .See DEPORTATIONS, DIASPORA. .See JUDICIAL SYSTEM. . See GÚOLAÚT. . See COURTS AND COURTIERS. .See AYVAÚN. John R. Perry and Ali Ashraf Sadeghi (annexation, suppletion), a grammatical term embracing several types of Persian noun phrase in which the constituents are connected by the enclitic -e/-ye (kasra-ye ezµa@fa "the ezµa@fa particle"). The enclitic, pronounced /e/ in standard Persian, /i/ in earlier New Persian (see below) and in eastern dialects such as Kabol^ and Tajik, is written optionally with the subscript vowel diacritic kasra; the variant /ye/, /yi/ following a vowel is generally written with final ya@ (after vocalic h, it has also been represented by a superposed miniature ya@ or, in printing, a hamza). ... . See MEDLAR. SHEILA S. BLAIR ,a village 32 km. southeast of Isfahan on the south bank of the river Za@yandaru@d. The major surviving monument is a single-domed mosque with a well-preserved dome and two lateral corridors. The interior has a traditional tripartite elevation of square chamber (interior diameter 8 meters), octagonal zone of transition (with stalactite-filled squinches), and dome supported on a sixteen-sided zone. The mehára@b recess—from which the original mehára@b, perhaps of lustre tiles, has been removed—is surrounded on three sides by a plaster inscription containing a Koranic text. ... JAMES R. RUSSELL , Armenian Christian theologian and cleric. He was born ca. 374-80 in the province of Tayk¿. His work contains a refutation of the Zoroastrian religion. One of the students of the inventor of the Armenian alphabet, Maœtoc¿, he was sent to Edessa (according to Koriwn, with Yovse@p¿) and then Byzantium, where he became proficient in Syriac and Greek. He wrote a letter to Maœtoc¿ on the Council of Ephesus (431; preserved in the Knik¿ hawatoy, "Seal of Faith" of Catholicos Komitas, 7th cent. ... .See BIBLE. J.C. Reeves , canonical biblical book emanating from the early portion of the Second Temple period (515 B.C.E.-70 C.E.) of Jewish history. Despite bearing the name of "¿Ezra@," the title character only figures in the final chapters (7-10) of the book. Therein ¿Ezra@ is portrayed as an emissary of the Achaemenian monarch Artaxerxes I charged with restoring the Temple cultus at Jerusalem for the benefit of both the citizenry of the province of Yehud and the royal family. The preceding six chapters of the book introduce the mission of ¿Ezra@ by describing previous failed attempts to reconstitute the Temple service during the reigns of Cyrus, Darius I, and Xerxes. ... ,the Angel of Death. See SUPPL EMENT (ANGELS). Amnon Netzer ,paraphrased versification of the Book of ¿Ezra@ (q.v.) containing midrashic and Iranian legends. It was composed by ˆa@h^n (q.v.), the leading Judeo-Persian poet of the 14th century. ¿Ezra@-na@ma, which includes about 500 distichs, is generally found at the end of ˆa@h^n's Ardaœ^r-na@ma (q.v.) and is composed in the same meter; the date of its composition was thus probably the same as that of the latter work, ˆawwa@l 773/April-May 1372. . See ¿ABD-al-RAˆÈD, ABUÚ MANS®U& Uacute;R. Kambiz Eslami (b. Rab^¿ I 1260/March-April 1844, d. 30 Mehr 1308 ˆ./21 October 1929), half-brother of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah and governor of Qazv^n; Boru@jerd and Bakòt^a@r^; Hamada@n; Zanja@n; and Mala@yer, Tu@yserka@n and Neha@vand. His mother, Og@ol Beyga K¨a@nom, was a Sa@lu@r Turkman taken prisoner by ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.) after he captured Sarakòs in 1248/ 1832. He was named ¿Abd-al-S®amad by Moháammad Shah's grand vizier, H®a@jj M^rza@ AÚqa@s^ (q. ... MAÚˆAÚ-ALLAÚH AJUÚDAÚNÈ , an author and Sufi of the early 8th century (d. 735/1334-35). All that is known about ¿Ezz-al-D^n's life is that he was a Shafi¿ite of Ash¿arite persuasion, studied under Z®ah^r-al-D^n ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n b. Shaikh Naj^b-al-D^n ¿Al^ Bozg@oœ ˆ^ra@z^, and received his mystic training from Nu@r-al-D^n ¿Abd-al-S®amad Esáfaha@n^ in NatÂanz (hence his nesba NatÂanz^ in some sources). ¿Ezz-al-D^n is known for his Mesába@há al-heda@ya, a valuable Persian manual of mystic ideas, mainly based on ˆeha@b-al-D^n Sohravard^'s ¿Awa@ref al-ma¿a@ref (q. ... Kambiz Eslami (b. 1250/1834-35, d. 23 Rab^¿ II 1323/27 June 1905), the only full sister of Na@sáer-al-D@^n Shah (1264-313/1848-96), second wife of M^rza@ Taq^ Khan Am^r[–e] Kab^r (q.v.), and grandmother of Moháammad-¿Al^ Shah (r. 1324-27/1907-09). In 1265/January-February 1849, Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah decided to marry her off to his grand vizier, M^rza@ Taq^ Khan. Despite the efforts of the king's mother, Mahd-e ¿Olya@, who feared that the union would increase M^rza@ Taq^ Khan's power and diminish hers in the royal court as well as that of her close ally, M^rza@ AÚqa@ Khan E¿tema@d-al-Dawla Nu@r^ (q. ... TAHSËN YAZICI (Mehmet Ëzzet Pa¶a; b. Kayseri, 1 D¨u'l-h®ejja 1258/5 January, 1843, d. Istanbul 1332/1914), author of a Persian-Turkish dictionary and translator of Persian literary works. He received his earliest education from his grandfather, AÚteœza@da Moháammad Efend^ (Ate¶zade Mehmet Efendi). He accompanied his father to Istanbul, where he completed his prepatory education and entered the military secondary school H®arb^ya. In 1284/1867 he was assigned as staff officer to the commission on fortifications in Erzurum, where for seven years he mapped out road systems. ... |