STEVEN C. ANDERSON, WILLIAM L. HANAWAY, JR. (Ar. and Pers. ¿oqa@b; also obsolete Pers. da@l< Mid. Pers. da@lman; also obsolete Pers. and Mid. Pers. a@loh), large, diurnal, raptorial birds of the family Accipitridae in several genera (45-90 cm long, wingspan 110-250 cm). . See ELEMENTS IN ZOROASTRIANISM. HABIB BORJIAN, XAVIER DE PLANHOL, MANUEL BERBERIAN .Persia and Afghanistan lie on the great alpine belt that extends from the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean through the Indonesian archipelago and forms the world's longest collision boundary, between the Eurasian plate in the north and several former Gondwanan blocks in the south, including the so-called "Iranian plates" and "Afghan plates" (Schöler, pp. 29f.). Hence, it is not surprising that they are regions of high seismic activity. MARK HORTON, DEREK NURSE, FAROUK TOPAN, WILL. C. VAN DEN HOONAARD , Persian relations with the lands of the East African coast, particularly Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. R. W. FERRIER, JOHN R. PERRY (THE BRITISH), a trading company incorporated on 31 December 1600 for fifteen years with the primary purpose of exporting the staple production of English woolen cloths and importing the products of the East Indies. (THE DUTCH). See DUTCH-PERSIAN RELATIONS. ANNE KROELL (THE FRENCH), a company established in 1664 to conduct all French commercial operations with the Orient. Colbert, minister of Louis XIV, had been aware of the great profits earned by the Dutch and English merchants in importing and selling Asian goods to the French (Kaepplin, p. 3). He wanted to deprive foreigners of such a profitable market and, therefore, founded a chartered company modeled on the Dutch company, which could, with the support of a reviving merchant marine and the protection of the king's vessels, carry on trade with countries east of the Cape of Good Hope. ... Nicholas SIMS-WILLIAMS , term used to refer to a group of Iranian languages most of which are or were spoken in lands to the east of the present state of Persia. In terms of both historical and typological linguistics, the distinction between Western and Eastern Iranian is generally regarded as the most fundamental division in Iranian dialectology. Each of these two major groups is sometimes subdivided along the opposite axis, giving a potential four-way distinction between South-Western, North-Western, South-Eastern, and North-Eastern Iranian. ... JEAN DURING HAMID ALGAR (or EBAÚH®ATÈYA),a polemical term denoting either antinomianism or groups and individuals accused thereof. It occurs generally in the context of condemning pseudo-Sufis, although it is sometimes used in connection with a variety of other religious deviants. The word is derived from eba@háat, which in the terminology of Islamic jurisprudence means the permissibility which is inherent in all things unless canceled or modified by specific provisions of the law; the error of the antinomians lies in their rejection of all such provisions. ... MUHAMMAD A. DANDAMAYEV (Aram. Abar Nahara@, "Beyond/Across the river"), the Akkadian name used in Assyrian and Babylonian records of the 8th-5th centuries B.C.E. for the lands to the west of the Euphrates—i.e., Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine (Parpola, p. 116; Zadok, p. 129; see ASSYRIA ii). These regions apparently passed from Neo-Babylonian to Persian control in 539 B.C.E. when Cyrus the Great conquered Mesopotamia. A. B. KHALEDOV (b. St. Petersburg, 1899, d. Orel, 1937), scholar of early Persian poets writing in Arabic. Born in the family of a surgeon of German origin, Eberman studied Arabic and Persian in 1917-21 at the Department of Oriental Languages at the University of Petrograd. As a researcher he was active only from 1919 to 1930, working at the Asiatic Museum of the Academy of Sciences (researcher, first rank, 1919-20) and the State Academy of the History of Material Culture (researcher, second rank, 1920-30). In 1924-29 he taught Arabic at Leningrad University (docent, 1925-29). ... . See EBER-NAÚRI. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN (lit., "communication"), title of five Persian language newspapers. HAMID ALGAR in Persian Sufi Tradition. The word Ebl^s, a Koranic designation for the devil, appears to derive ultimately from the Greek diabolos. Some authorities have nonetheless imaginatively connected it with Arabic ublisa ("he was rendered hopeless"), with reference to the accursedness that befell Ebl^s as a result of his rebellion (Maybod^, I, p. 145). Of the eleven Koranic verses in which the name Ebl^s occurs (2:34, 7:11, 15:31-32, 17:61, 18:50, 20:116, 26:95, 34:20, 38:74-75), ten refer to this rebellion and the events immediately preceding and following it; the exception, 26:95, speaks of "the hosts of Ebl^s" (jonu@d Ebl^s) being cast into Hellfire on the Day of Judgement. ... . See SáAÚHáEB B. ¿ABBAÚD. STEPHEN LAMBDEN (1270-1337/1854-1919), Bahai teacher and one of the "hands of the cause" (see AYAÚDÈ-E AMR-ALLAÚH). He was one of two Bahai sons of Mirza ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m Esáfaha@n^ (d. 1290/1872), the Shi¿ite mojtahed, a crypto-Babi and Bahai, and Belq^s Kòa@nom. His zealous Bahai teaching in Zanja@n, Qazv^n, Tehran, Yazd, Kerma@n, and elsewhere led to his frequent imprisonment, for the first time in 1295/1878. At various times resident or imprisoned in Abhar, between Qazv^n and Zanja@n, he was entitled Ebn(-e) Abhar ("son of Abhar") by Baha@÷-Alla@h (q. ... See ¿ABD-AL-HáAMÈD B. ABU'L HáADÈD. TODD LAWSON , Moháammad b. Zayn-al-D^n Abi'l-H®asan ¿Al^ b. H®osa@m-al-D^n Ebra@h^m (b. ca. 837/1433-34; d. after 25 D¨u ÷l-Qa¿da 904/4 July 1499). Shi¿ite thinker. He lived and taught in his home town of Ahása@ in Bahárayn, Najaf, and Maæhad during the last half of the 15th century. His best known work, the al-Mojl^, which is actually his commentary and super-commentary on a kala@m treatise by himself, is important as an example of the immediate scholastic precursor to the kind of Shi¿ite intellectual synthesis which would flower during the Safavid period and come to be called háekmat-e ela@h^ and whose most famous exponent was Molla@ Sáadra@ (d. ... LUTZ RICHTER-BERNBURG ABU'L-QAÚSEM ¿ABD-al-RAH®MAÚN b. ¿Al^ b. Ah®mad NAYˆAÚBUÚRÈ (N^æa@pu@r, 5th/11th century), medical author known in the century after his death, at least in Khorasan, as "the second Hippocrates" (Bayhaq^, p. 107), and reportedly a student of Avicenna (q.v.; Ebn Ab^ Osáaybe¿a, II, p. 22). His commentaries on Hippocrates' Aphorisms (Fosáu@l) and Prognostics (Taqdemat al-ma¿refa) Galen's De usu partium (Mana@fe¿ al a¿zµa@÷) Masa@÷el fi'l-táebb of Háonayn b. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (204-80/819-93), litte‚rateur (ad^b) and historian of Baghdad, of a Khorasani family. His extensive adab (q.v.) works include treatises on poets and singing, praised by Abu'l-Faraj Esáfaha@n^ in his Keta@b al-ag@a@n^, and the partially extant literary anthology Keta@b al-mant¯u@r wa'l-manzáu@m (Cairo, 1326/1908), used by, among others, Abu@ H®ayya@n Tawhá^d^ (q.v.) in his al-Basáa@÷er wa'l-dòakòa@÷er (see the list of Ebn Ab^ T®a@her's works in Ebn al-Nad^m, ed. ... . See BANUÚ AMAÚJUÚR. . See ¿ABD-ALLAÚH B. ¿AÚMER. IHSAN ABBAS , cognomen of two famous viziers of the 4th/10th century: Abu'l-Fazµl and his son Abu'l-Fathá. The father of the first was called H®oseyn. Tawhá^d^ claims that this H®oseyn was of humble origin, a nakòkòa@l (wheat-sifter) in the grain market of Qom (Akòla@q al-waz^rayn, p. 82). This, however, is probably not true. After occupying major administrative posts, Háosayn was appointed chief of the chancery (d^wa@n al-rasa@÷el) at the court of the Sa@ma@nid amir Nu@há b. ... WILLIAM C. CHITTICK (b. 17 Ramazµa@n 560/28 July 1165; d. 22 Rab^¿ II 638/10 November 1240), the most influential Sufi author of later Islamic history, known to his supporters as al-ˆaykò al-akbar, "the Greatest Master." Although the form "Ebn al-¿Arab^," with the definite article, is found in his autographs and in the writings of his immediate followers, many later authors referred to him as 'Ebn ¿Arab^', without the article, to differentiate him from Qa@zµ^ Abu@ Bakr Ebn al-¿Arab^ (d. ... JOHN E. WOODS (b. Damascus, 791/1389, d. Cairo, 854/1450), literary scholar and biographer of Tamerlane (T^mu@r). According to the autobiography quoted by Ebn Tag@r^berd^, when T^mu@r conquered Damascus in 803/1401, Ebn ¿Arabæa@h and his family were transported to T^mu@r's capital, Samarkand. He spent the next eight years in Transoxiana and Chinese Turkestan, where he learned Persian and Mongolian and studied with Sayyed ˆar^f Moháammad Jorja@n^, Sa¿d-al-D^n Mas¿u@d Tafta@za@n^, and ˆams-al-D^n Moháammad Jazar^. ... STEPHEN LAMBDEN MÈRZAÚ ¿ALÈ-MOHáAMMAD (b. Maæhad 1267/1850; d. Tehran, 1347/1928), prominent Bahai missionary. He was given the honorific designation Ebn(-e) Asádaq in certain Bahai scriptural writings. Toward the end of his life Baha@÷-Alla@h counted him a living martyr and referred to him as ˆah^d ebn-e ˆah^d ("martyr, son of a martyr"). He was a son of the ˆaykò^, Ba@b^ and Baha'i Molla@ S®a@deq Moqaddas-e Kòora@sa@n^ (d.1306/1889), who was entitled Esm-Alla@h al-Asádaq by the Ba@b. ... D. S. RICHARDS (b. Jaz^rat Ebn ¿Omar [modern Cizre, in eastern Turkey] 4 Joma@da@ I 555/13 May 1160; d. Mosul, ˆa¿ba@n 630/June 1233), major Islamic historian and important source for the history of Persia and adjacent areas from the Samanids to the first Mongol invasion. . See ¿AT®T®AÚˆ. DANIEL GIMARET tazilite theologian (d. late 10th century), member of the so-called "school of Basára" and a partisan of the ideas of Abu@ Ha@æem Jobba@÷^. Although it has been said that in his youth he had met Abu@ Ha@æem, his main teachers were two eminent disciples of the latter, Abu@ ¿Al^ b. K¨alla@d and later Abu@ ¿Abd-Alla@h Basár^. He was himself the first teacher of the Qa@zµ^ ¿Abd-al-Jabba@r. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (d. Marv, 510/1116-17), Persian writer and boon-companion (nad^m), whose manual for courtiers preserves otherwise lost information on the later Ghaznavids. Presumably a native of Ka@æa@n, Ebn Ba@ba@ worked in western Persia, Baghdad, and finally Khorasan, probably at the court of the Saljuqid Sultan Sanjar. His main fame is as author of the Keta@b ra÷s ma@l al-nad^m, written for one Amir Ra÷^s Sa¿d-al-Molk Abu'l-Fathá Moháammad (ed. M. S®. Badaw^, 2 vols. ... SHEILA S. BLAIR (Ba@bu@ya), family of Persian builders, luster potters, and tile makers, descended from the Shi¿ite scholar Ebn Ba@bu@ya al-S®adu@q (d. 382/991; q.v.) and active in the 6th to 8th/12th to 14th centuries in central Persia. Several members are known. MARTIN MCDERMOTT (Ba@bu@ya), SHAIKH S®ADUÚQ ABUÚ JA¿FAR MOH®AMMAD b. Abu'l-H®asan ¿Al^... Mu@sa@ Qom^ (b. Qom after 305, probably about 311/923; d. Ray, 381/991), author of one of the authoritative four books of Imami Shi¿ite Hadith, Man la@ yaházµoroho'l-faq^h. . See BAÚBAÚ KUÚHÈ. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , conventional name for an other-wise unknown author of Fa@rs-na@ma, a local history and geography of the province of Fa@rs written in Persian during the Saljuq period, so-called because his ancestors came from Balkò in eastern Khorasan (Balkò^-ne‘a@d, p. 3; the form "Ebn al-Balkò^" is used in Kaæf al-záonu@n, ed. Flügel, IV, p. 344, no. 8681). His grandfather was mostawf^ (chief accountant) for the taxation of Fa@rs around 492/1099 under Ata@bak Rokn-al-Dawla or Najm-al-Dawla K¨oma@rteg^n, who had been appointed governor there by Sultan Bark^a@roq (q. ... CHARLES F. BECKINGHAM , ˆAMS-AL-DÈN ABUÚ ¿ABD-ALLAÚH MOHáAMMAD (b. Tangier, 17 Rajab 703 /25 February 1304; d. Morocco, 770/1368-9), the most famous Muslim traveler. A Berber from Tangier, he claims to have traveled extensively in Africa, the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, and China. His Toháfat al-nozázáa@r f^ g@ara@÷eb al-amsáa@r wa ¿aja@÷eb al-asfa@r, known as the Rehála (Journey), professes to be a chronological narrative of his journeys from his departure from Tangier as a pilgrim in Rajab 725/June 1324 to his arrival in Fez, Morocco, after a journey to Mali in D¨u'l-qa¿da 754/December 1353. ... HUÚˆANG A¿LAM (not Ahámad-al-D^n as in EI2 III, p. 737), Andalusian botanist and pharmacologist. He was born in Malaga (Ar. Ma@laqa; hence his nesba Ma@laq^) in the second half of the 6th/12th century, and died in Damascus in 646/1248 (for the scanty biographical data available about him, see Leclerc, Histoire II, pp. 225-29; idem, in Traite‚ I, pp. vi-ix; Brockelmann, GAL I, p. 492, S I, p. 896; Ben Mra@d, I, pp. 169-76). He is best known for his encyclopedic Ja@me¿ (so titled by himself [Bu@la@q ed. ... See ABUÚ ¿ABD-ALLAÚH B. AL-BAYYE¿. ROGER SAVORY , author of the Sáafwat al-sáafa@÷, a biography of Shaikh Sáaf^-al-D^n Esháa@q Ardab^l^ (d. 935/1334), founder of the Safavid order of Sufis and the eponym of the Safavid dynasty. Ebn Bazza@z was a desciple of Shaikh S®adr-al-D^n Ardab^l^ (d. 794/1391-92), the son and successor of Shaikh S®af^-al-D^n. The work, also entitled al-Mawa@heb al-san^ya f^ mana@qeb al-S®afaw^ya, deals mainly with Shaikh S®af^-al-D^n's miracles and sayings and contains little of a biographical nature (see Browne, Lit. ... TAHSIN YAZICI , Persian historian and man of letters. He was the son of the scribe (monæ^) Majd-al-D^n Moháammad, who had worked under ˆams-al-D^n Moháammad, grandfather of ¿Ala@÷-al-D^n Jovayn^. His mother B^b^ Monajjema was the daughter of Kama@l-al-D^n Semna@n^ and granddaughter of the faq^h Moháammad b. Yaháya@. Judging from an endowment record (waqf^ya; Turan, p. 87), the name of his grandfather was H®asan. His date of birth and school training are unknown. ... LUTZ RICHTER-BERNBURG , prominent family of physicians of Gonde@æa@pu@r at court during the early ¿Abbasid period. Notwithstanding their continued oral competence in Persian and the Persian aspects of their identity, the Bokòt^æu@¿ family used Syriac and Arabic in their medical writings. Eminent members of this family are the following: MARCO SALATI (or H®asan^), known as ¿Alam-al-Hoda@ (d. after 525/1132), Imami traditionist and author of a heresiography in Persian. He and his brother Mojtaba@ transmitted Hadith directly from Ja¿far b. Moháammad Du@ryast^ and, through ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n b. Ahámad N^æa@bu@r^, from Shaikh T®u@s^, Sayyed Razµ^, and Sayyed Mortazµa@. The famous traditionist and biographer Montajab-al-D^n Qom^ (504-85/1110-80) studied with and transmitted from him and from his brother. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (d. Ahva@z 467/1074), vizier to the ¿Abbasid caliph al-Qa@÷em from 15 Rab^¿ II 453/9 May 1061 to 4 D¨u'l-háejja 454/9 December 1062. He seems to have been a native of Fa@rs, where he had been a wealthy merchant connected with the Buyid Abu@ Ka@l^ja@r Marzba@n (q.v.). With the arrival of the Saljuqs in Iraq, the caliph was once more able to choose his own vizier, and Ebn Da@rost wrote to al-Qa@÷em from Shiraz asking for the vizierate, offering a large sum of money and stating that he required no eqtÂa@¿ (q. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (438-86/1046-93), last vizier of the Great Saljuq Sultan Malekæa@h (r. 465-85/1072-92). Born of a secretarial family in Fa@rs, he served the Saljuq slave amir QotÂb-al-D^n Sa@vteg^n in southern Persia and Iraq during the early part of Malekæa@h's reign. Sa@vteg^n commended him to the sultan, who first made him intendant of the harems and private property of various of his sons, then treasurer and overseer of the palace buildings, and finally, when his capabilities had been amply demonstrated, head of the chancery (D^va@n al-enæa@÷ wa'l-tÂog@ra@) in succession to Kama@l-al-Molk Abu'l-Mokòta@r Zawzan^. ... . See BARDESANES. SEEGER A. BONEBAKKER (b. Fasa@, 258/871; d. Baghdad, S®afar 347/May 958), grammarian and lexicographer of Persian origin. Though he shared his father's interest in Hadith (Ta÷r^kò Bag@da@d IX, p. 429), his main pursuits were philological. No books by him have survived except a Keta@b al-kotta@b (ed. L. Cheikho, Beirut, 1927); perhaps the Adab al-ka@teb listed by Ebn al-Nad^m (Fehrest, ed. Flügel, p. 63) and, possibly, a K¨abar Qoss b. Sa@¿eda (Sezgin, GAS II, p. 182) are also his. ... HERMAN G. B. TEULE (Syr. bar ¿Ebra@ya@, Lat. Bar Hebraeus), ABU'L-FARAJ (b. MalatÂ^a, 622/1225; d. Mara@g@a, 685/1286), Syriac historian and polymath. His laqab Ebn al-¿Ebr^ alludes to the place of origin of his family—¿Ebra on the Euphrates, near MalatÂ^a (Malitene)—not to a Jewish origin. Baptized as Yoháanno@n, he was ordained a bishop of the West Syrian or Jacobite Church at the age of twenty and took the name Gregory. In 663/1264 he was elected "Maphrian of the East," the highest dignitary of the West Syrian Church after the Patriarch of Antioch, in charge of the Jacobite Christians of the "Persian (i. ... DANIEL GIMARET (270-326/884-938), Mu¿tazilite theologian. According to K¨atÂ^b Bag@da@d^ (IV, p. 309), he was of Turkish descent, which appears to be confirmed by the "name" (in fact a title) of his grandfather, if read as such. His surname, Ebn al-Ekòæ^d (also read Ekòæ^d,ò Ekòæa@d, or Ekòæa@dò) probably indicates that he was descended from a princely family of Sogdia or Farg@a@na (q.v.; see also EK¨ˆÈD). According to Ebn H®azm (IV, p. ... GUL A. RUSSELL (fl. late 14th-early 15th cent.), a descendent of a Shirazi family of jurists and physicians, is the author of two extant Persian works: a medical compilation entitled the Kefa@ya-ye moja@hed^ya and an illustrated anatomy text known as the Taær^há-e mansáu@r^. CHARLES MELVILLE , historian, probably from AÚmol, who flourished around the turn of the 7th/13th century. He is the author of the earliest surviving history of T®abaresta@n, on which he was engaged around 603/1206 (400 years after the martyrdom of Imam ¿Al^ al-Rezµa@, q.v.; Ebn Esfand^a@r, I, p. 203) and which he was still writing ten years later (I, p. 82). According to his own account, Ebn Esfand^a@r was in the service of the Bavandid (see AÚL-E BAÚVAND) ruler H®osa@m-al-Dawla Ardaæ^r (d. ... MARCO SALATI (756 or 757-841/1355-1437), Imami scholar and jurist. A native of H®ella, he spent most of his life there, where he taught at the Zayn^ya school, and in Karbala@÷, where he died and was buried. His teachers included ¿Al^ b. K¨a@zen H®a@÷er^, Meqda@d Soyu@r^, Ebn al-Motawwaj Bahára@n^, all former students of Moháammad b. Makk^ ˆah^d-e Awwal, and Jama@l-al-D^n b. A¿raj ¿Am^d^, from whom he obtained the eja@za (q.v.). He also visited Jezz^n in Jabal ¿AÚmel, where in Moháarram 824/January 1421 he received an eja@za from Z˜^a@÷-al-D^n Abu'l-H®asan ¿Al^ ¿AÚmel^, son of ˆah^d-e Awwal. ... . See AÚL-E FARÈGÚUÚN. . See AH®MAD B. FAZ˜LAÚN . See BAYHAQÈ, Z®AHÈR-AL-DÈN. CHARLES MELVILLE , librarian and historian (b. 642/1244; d. Baghdad, 723/1323). His family originated in Marv-al-Ru@d in Khorasan; the name FowatÂ^ derives from the occupation either of his or his father's mother as a seller of waist wraps (Ar. fu@tÂa, pl. fowatÂ). He was enslaved by the Mongols at the siege of Baghdad (656/1258) and taken to Azerbaijan. Two years later Nasá^r-al-D^n T®u@s^ appointed him librarian of the Mara@g@a observatory. There he wrote the now lost Tadòkerat man qasáada'l-rasáad (a biographical dictionary of astronomers; the notices it contained were probably incorporated into the Talkò^sá; see Modaress Razµaw^, esp. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (or Ebn Pu@la@d), military adventurer, probably of Daylam^ origin, active in northern Persia during the Buyid period (early 5th/11th century) and typical of the soldiers of fortune characterizing the "Daylam^ intermezzo" of medieval Persian history. In 407/1016, he revolted against the Buyids (Ebn al-At¯^r, IX, pp. 268-69). He is described as base-born; but he collected a following of soldiers and demanded the governorship of Qazv^n from Majd-al-Dawla Rostam, the feeble Buyid ruler of Ray and Jeba@l, and his mother Sayyeda. ... . See Supplement. ANAS B. KHALIDOV , traveler and geographer of the 4th/10th century. Biographical data on him are exclusively derived from his single extant work on geography, which bears the title S®u@rat al-arzµ (Configurations of the earth) in the oldest manuscript, dated 479/1086, of its last version. Years of his birth and death are not known. His nesba points to a descent from Nasá^b^n in Upper Mesopotamia. The earliest dates given by him about himself indicate he stayed also in Lower Mesopotamia: soon after 320/932 at Tekr^t and in 325/936 at Baghdad (pp. ... HEINZ HALM (or Farahá) b. H®awæab b. Za@dòa@n Najja@r Ku@f^, known also as Mansáu@r al-Yaman (d. 302/914), Isma¿ili da@¿^ (q.v.) and founder of the Isma¿ili community in northern Yemen. He came from the neighborhood of the Narses canal (Nahr Nars) in the countryside (sawa@d) of Ku@fa south of present-day H®ella in Iraq, where he was occupied as a linen weaver and manufacturer of nars^ cloth. According to other sources, he was a carpenter or a joiner. ... LUTZ RICHTER-BERNBURG , also known as Osta@dò (b. in T®abaresta@n, no later than the early 350s/960s; d. in or after 422/1031), author of, inter alia, propaedeutic epistles on philosophy and medicine and of a gnomology of Greek wisdom, and generally renowned as a litterateur. Of Qom^ origin (Ebn Esfand^a@r, p. 125, tr. Browne, pp. 54, 77f., n. 5) or of "ancient" Ra@z^ stock (Ya@qu@t, Odaba@÷ V, pp. 168 f.), Ebn Hendu@ came from a family in the secretarial profession; he can be said to be a representative of the well-educated scribal class so prominent during the ¿Abbasid period. ... D¨ABÈHá-ALLAÚH S®AFAÚ (or K¨u@sf^), MOH®AMMAD, a poet of the 9th/15th century. Living in the village of K¨u@sf, near B^rjand, Ebn H®osa@m was a farmer by trade and remained unattached to any of the rulers and powerful men of his time. It appears from his works that he was a learned Shi¿ite, well versed in literature, jurisprudence, and the biographies and traditions relating to major figures in Islam—an expertise that he put to good use in his qasá^das dedicated to them. He also knew Arabic language and literature and included a few Arabic bayts in his qasá^das. ... WILFERD MADELUNG , traditionist with Shi¿ite leanings (b. Baghdad 23 or 24 S®afar 284/1 or 2 April 897, d. Baghdad 15 Rajab 355/7 July 966). A student of Ebn ¿Oqda (d. 332/943; q.v.), the foremost Kufan traditionist of his time, he transmitted from a large number of other traditionists and traveled to Egypt, Syria, and Persia to study and teach. For some time he was associated with the Buyid vizier Ebn al-¿Am^d. Ebn al-Je¿a@b^ had a prodigious memory, even by the standards of traditionists (Tanu@kò^, IV, p. ... WILFERD MADELUNG (or al-Jonayd^), ABUÚ ¿ALÈ MOHáAMMAD b. Ahámad Ka@teb Eska@f^, Imami jurist. His nesba indicates that he came from Eska@f, or Eska@f Bani'l-Jonayd, a district of Nahrawa@n between Baghdad and Wa@set east of the Tigris (Ya@qu@t, Bolda@n I, p. 252). He could not have been born much later than 290/903, since he transmitted from the Wa@qef^ scholar H®omayd b. Z^a@d, who died in 310/922. It is not known how closely Ebn al-Jonayd associated with the excommunicated Imami scholar Moháammad b. ... . See Supplement. MICHAEL G. CARTER , philologist and Koran scholar. He was born in Hamada@n and traveled in 314/926 to Baghdad while still a young man, where he studied the linguistic sciences under both Basran and Kufan masters, principally the Basrans Ebn Dorayd and Abu@ Sa¿^d S^ra@f^, the Kufans Abu@ Bakr Anba@r^ and Abu@ ¿Omar Za@hed GÚola@m T¨a¿lab, and NeftÂawayh of the mixed school. He also received instruction in qera@¿a@t from Ebn Moja@hed and in Hadith from Moháammad b. ... FRANZ ROSENTHAL (b. 1 Ramazµa@n 732/27 May 1332; d. 26 Ramazµa@n 808/17 March 1406), the historian famous for the general theory of history and civilization brilliantly expounded in his Moqaddema . DANIEL GIMARET tazilite theologian (d. 2nd half of 3rd/10th century) of the so-called "school of Basára," partisan of the ideas of Abu@ Ha@æem Jobba@÷^. He had been Abu@ Ha@æem's first disciple at ¿Askar Mokram, then at Baghdad. His own followers included the two future teachers of Qa@zµ^ ¿Abd-al-Jabba@r, Abu@ ¿Abd-Allah Basár^ and Abu@ Esháa@q b. ¿Ayya@æ (q.v.; Ebn al-Nad^m, ed. Tajaddod, p. 222; ¿Abd-al-Jabba@r, Fazµl, pp. ... W. MONTGOMERY WATT , philosopher. He was born in 331/942, presumably in Baghdad; his father, a Nestorian Christian, was apparently a wineseller (kòamma@r). He studied logic and other philosophical subjects under the noted philosopher Yah®ya@ b. ¿Ad^, and medicine under Jebra@÷^l b. ¿Obayd-Alla@h b. Bok¨t^æu@¿ (q.v.). The names of his books have long been known from the Fehrest of Ebn al-Nad^m and other bio-bibliographical works, but it is only in recent decades that mss. ... See Supplement. See FATH® B. K¨AÚQAÚN. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , military commander of the Ghurids, and connected, according to Ju@zja@n^, with the district of Gorzeva@n on the headwaters of the Morg@a@b in the province of Gu@zga@n in northern Afghanistan. . See ¿ABDALLAÚH B. K¨AÚZEM. . See Supplement. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (or K¨orrada@dòbeh), ABU'L-QAÚSEM ¿OBAYD-ALLAÚH b. ¿Abd-Alla@h (fl. 3rd/9th century), author of the earliest surviving Arabic book of administrative geography. He was not, apparently, the first geographer to write in Arabic, but he is the first whose book has survived in anything like its original form. His grandfather K¨orrada@dòbeh was a Zoroastrian who converted to Islam at the urging of the Barmakids (q.v.). His father ¿Abd-Alla@h was by 201/816-17 al-Ma÷mu@n's governor in T®abaresta@n, where he campaigned in the mountains and dislodged the local ruler ˆahr^a@r b. ... . See ¿ALÈ B. ¿ÈSAÚ B. MAÚHAÚN. . See BANUÚ MAÚJUÚR. See AÚL-E MAÚKUÚLAÚ. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (Mardu@ya), AHMAD b. Mu@sa@ b. Mardawayh b. Fu@rak Es®faha@n^, scholar of Isfahan in the Buyid period (323-410/935-1019), who wrote in the fields of tradition, tafs^r (Koranic exegsis), history, and geography. He studied Hadith in Iraq and in his native town and was the pupil of such leading traditionists as Ebn Manda and Ab@u@ Sahl Qatátáa@n. His Koran commentary is lost but is quoted in Ebn H®ajar's Esáa@ba; his selections from the S®ah®^h® of Bokòa@r^ appear likewise to be lost. ... D. M. DUNLOP (Marzba@n), ABUÚ AH®MAD ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN. b. ¿Al@^ b. Marzba@n T®ab^b Marzba@n^ (d. Tostar, Joma@da@ I 396/February-March 1006), administrative official under the Buyids. MARTIN MCDERMOTT (Mattu@ya), ABUÚ MOHáAMMAD HáASAN b. Ahámad b. Mattawayh, Mu¿tazilite theologian of the Basran school, a student of Qa@zµ^ ¿Abd-al-Jabba@r (d. 415/1025). Where Ebn Mattawayh lived and the date of his death are not known. Wilferd Madelung has established that his Majmu@¿ was written rather soon after ¿Abd-al-Jabba@r's death and that the late date sometimes given for Ebn Mattawayh's death as 468/1075 or 469/1076 has no foundation. . See MESKAWAYH. . See ¿ABDALLAHÚ B. MO¿AÚWÈA. . See ¿ABDALLAH B. MOBAÚRAK. . See ABUÚ DOLAF YANBUÚ¿È. . See Supplement. J. DEREK LATHAM (b. Go@r, the present F^ru@za@ba@d, Fa@rs, ca. 103/721, d. Basára ca. 139/757), chancery secretary (ka@teb) and major Arabic prose writer. Ebn al-Moqaffa¿ was of noble Persian stock and bore the name Ro@zbeh/Ru@zbeh before his comparatively late conversion to Islam from Mani-chaeism. He was the son of an Omayyad tax-collector named Da@du@ya, named Moba@rak on conversion and nicknamed "the cripple-handed" (al-moqaffa¿), whose disability was said to have resulted from torture for embezzlement (Sourdel, p. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , LAYT¨ b. Fazµl, a client (mawla@) and governor of S^sta@n 199-204/815-19. Previously governor of Egypt in 182-87/798-803 (Kend^, pp. 139-41), he was appointed governor of S^sta@n by the caliph Ma÷mu@n in place of the discredited Moháammad b. Aæ¿at¯. Facing stiff opposition from the outgoing governor and a local ¿ayya@r (q.v.) leader, he took up his post by making an alliance with the Kharijite leader H®amza b. AÚdòarak. Once in contol in Zarang, the provincial capital, he kept himself in power by conciliating both Kharijites and ¿ayya@rs, giving Sistan four years of prosperity until the new governor of Khorasan, GÚassa@n b. ... IHSAN ABBAS (564-637/1168-1239), historian of Erbel. Both his father and his uncle, S®af^-al-D^n ¿Al^, who translated GÚaza@l^'s Nasá^háat al-molu@k from Persian into Arabic, were also financial administrator (mostawf^). Abu'l-Baraka@t did not limit himself to arithmetical knowledge, which was essential for such an office, but was also well versed in rhetoric, prosody, grammar, and Hadith. Erbel in his days was an independent and prosperous city-state under the rule of Mozáaffar-al-D^n Kögobor^ (r. ... . See H®ELLÈ, ¿ALLAÚMA. . See ABU'L-WAZÈR MARVAZÈ. . See AL-FEHREST. See NAWBAK¨TÈ FAMILY. See ABUÚ SAHL NAWBAKòTÈ. See NAWBAK¨TÈ, H®ASAN B. MUÚSAÚ. D¨ABÈH®-ALLAÚH S®AFAÚ , Timurid poet (b. 757/1356; d. ca. 837/1433). Son of Amir Nosáratæa@h, governor of K¨ojand under T^mu@r, he pursued a career as a poet, despite retaining the title amir. After a period of travel in Persia and India, he settled in Samarkand. He wrote panegyrics for a number of rulers and high officials including the Delhi Sultan GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n Tog@loqæa@h II (r. 790-91/1388), Sultan K¨al^l b. M^ra@næa@h b. T^mu@r, who was in Samarkand in 807-12/1404-09, and Sultan Ba@yqara@, governor of Era@q and Fa@rs in 817-20/1414-17. ... RICHARD W. BULLIET , Shi¿ite vizier of the caliph al-Na@s®er from 590/1194 to 592/1195 (b. ca 522/1128). A Persian born in Shiraz, Ebn al-Qas®s®a@b went at a young age to Baghdad where his father was a butcher (whence his name) in Darb al-Bas®r^ya. Entering government service, he became an expert on finance and taxation and in 578/1182-83 a protege of the powerful Shi¿ite super-intendant of palace affairs (osta@dò al-da@r) Ebn al-S®a@háeb. After his patron fell from favor in 583/1188, Ebn al-Qasásáa@b found a post in the chancellery (d^va@n al-enæa@÷). ... MARTIN MCDERMOTT (d. Ray, before 319/931), one of the most prominent and active Imami theologians. He had a major role in the development of Shi¿ite Islam in its formative period during the first century of the occultation of the Twelfth Imam. Little biographical information is available about Ebn Qeba. Starting out as a Mu¿tazilite master of theology (kala@m), he converted to Shi¿ism and contributed to an early stage of Mu¿tazilite influence in Imami theology. Ebn Qeba was actively engaged in continuous oral and written debates with scholars belonging to other schools of Shi¿ism, particularly Zaydis. ... FRANZ ROSENTHAL , (213-276/828-889), important early philologist in the widest sense of the term and author of numerous works on what is known as the "Arab sciences," including the religious sciences dealing with the Koran and Hadith. MARTIN MCDERMOTT (d. Baghdad, 368/978 or 369/979), Imami traditionist and jurist, a disciple of Abu@ Ja¿far Kolayn^ and teacher of Shaikh Mof^d. He apparently first studied in Qom and later traveled as far as Egypt in search of traditions. He also recounted traditions from his father, who was a companion of Sa¿d b. ¿Abd-Alla@h Aæ¿ar^ Qom^, from his brother ¿Al^, Abu@ ¿Amr Kaææ^, ¿Al^ b. H®osayn b. Mu@sa@ b. Ba@bawayh, and from many others. His pupils included H®osayn b. ... . See Supplement. See ¿ABDAÚN B. RABÈT®. JOSEF VAN ESS (or Re@vand^), . See EBN RAÚVANDÈ. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (d. after 290/903), Persian author of a geographical compendium. He was from Isfahan, where the name Rosta is attested in this period (Ebn Rosta, I, p. 151; Abu@ No¿aym Esáfaha@n^, pp. 162, 316), and it was probably there that the book was written. He himself mentions in his book that he had been in Medina—apparently his only significant journey outside his native Persia—in 290/903 (pp. 73, 75; tr. Wiet, pp. 79, 81). His book is extant in two manuscripts (British Library, Add. 23,378; Cambridge suppl. ... See H®OSAYN B. RUÚH®.® JEAN CALMARD (k. Ku@fa 66/686), commander of the Omayyad troops at Karbala@÷. Son of the famous Arab general Sa¿d b. Ab^ Waqqa@sá, he had just been made deputy-governor (na@÷eb) of Ray by ¿Obayd-Alla@h b. Z^a@d (see EBN ZÈAÚD) and was to go to Dastaba@ to quell a Daylamite rising when he was called back to check H®osayn b. ¿Al^'s insurrection. It was only under the threat of losing his post that he finally obeyed and marched at the head of 4,000 men, reaching Karbala@÷ on 3 Moháarram 61/3 October 680. ... WILFERD MADELUNG family name of two Imami traditionists. See ABUÚ ¿ALÈ AH®MAD. WILFERD MADELUNG , a leader and envoy of the Carmatians (q.v.). In ˆawwa@l 366/May-June 977 he occupied Ku@fa at the head of 1,000 Carmatians supporting the claim of the Buyid Azµod-al-Dawla to the rule of Iraq against that of his cousin ¿Ezz-al-Dawla. Later he became the permanent representative of the Bahrain QarmatÂ^s to the court of Azµod-al-Dawla (q.v.). In 369/979-80 he was sent by ¿Azµod-al-Dawla from Hamada@n on a mission to Basára but soon returned to his court. No doubt for political reasons, Azµod-al-Dawla maintained close relations with him. ... HOSSEIN ZIAI (b. Sa@va, fl. early 12th century), Persian philosopher and logician. After serving as a judge in his native city, he became disillusioned with public life and moved to N^æa@pu@r, where he had more contact with other scholars. He earned his living by copying philosophical texts. He was often cited in the later Persian philosophical tradition, though he has remained almost unknown to Western historians of philosophy and logic. His works on logic, in which he made innovative proposals for the use of Persian in place of Arabic terms, were especially influential. ... MOHAMMAD ALI AMIR-MOEZZI (or Abu@ ¿Abd-Alla@h) ZAYN-AL-DÈN (or ¿Ezz-al-D^n, Raæ^d-al-D^n) MOH®AMMAD b. ¿AL^ b. ˆahra@æu@b b. Ab^ Nasár b. Abi'l-Jayæ (b. Sa@r^, Ma@zandara@n; d. Aleppo, 22 ˆa¿ba@n 588/2 September 1192), the most illustrious Imami scholar of the 12th century. He was also called, though rarely, Ebn K^a@-Kay from the Persian name of his ancestor Abu@ Nasár, (not his grandfather ˆahra@æu@b, pace Scarcia Amoretti) meaning "great sovereign" (AÚqa@ Bozorg, n. ... See AVICENNA. . See AHáMAD B. ¿OMAR B. SORAYJ. IHSAN ABBAS (d. 322/933), poet and critic. An ¿Alawid from the Hasanid line, he was born, brought up, and educated in Isfahan, which, in his days, was a great center of learning. Very little is known about him. It seems that he did not travel abroad to meet learned shaikhs but was content with the local masters he met. The remaining fragments of his poetry contain some information about his activities in his native town. His d^va@n was known to Ebn K¨alleka@n (d. 681/282), who quotes it, acknowledging that he knows nothing about the poet himself. ... WILFERD MADELUNG , Imami scholar. The Banu@ T®a@wu@s, named after their ancestor Moháammad T®a@wu@s, were a family of Hasanid æar^fs well established in H®ella in the 6th/12th century. Ahámad's mother was a daughter of the Imami scholar Warra@m b. Abu'l-Fera@s (d. 605/1208-09); through his father, he was descended from a daughter of the Shaikh Abu@ Ja¿far Moháammad b. Háasan T®u@s^. His more prominent brother Razµ^-al-D^n ¿Al^ (q. ... ETAN KOHLBERG (b. H®ella, 15 Moháarram 589/21 January 1193; d. Baghdad, 5 D¨u'l-qa¿da 664/8 August 1266), Imami author, scholar, and bibliophile, called Dòu'l-háasabayn "possessing two distinctions" because he was descended from both H®asan and H®osayn b. ¿Al^ b. Ab^ Táa@leb. CHARLES MELVILLE , historian and naq^b of the ¿Alids in H®ella (b. 660/1262 ?; d. after 709/1309 ?); his dates of birth and death remain speculative (Ebn al-T®eqtÂaqa@, 1860, pp. xvi-xviii; 1895, introd., p. 14). . See ¿ABD-AL-HáAMÈD B. WAÚSE¿. . See S®AÚ÷N-AL-DÈN ¿ALÈ ES®FAHAÚNÈ. AHMAD KARIMI-HAKKAK , a poet of the 8th/14th century. He was born in 685/1286-87 (Rypka, p. 261; Ba@sta@n^ Ra@d, p. yd) in Faryu@mad, a center of culture in western Khorasan, into a family of landed gentry; he died on 8 Joma@da@ II 769/30 January 1368 (¿Abd-al-Razza@q Kòúa@f^, II, p. 101). JEAN CALMARD (b. ca. 28/648), Omayyad governor responsible for the death of the Imam H®osayn b. ¿Al^. He was the son of Z^a@d b. Ab^h, a favorite of Mo¿a@w^a, and a Persian slave called Marja@na. He was given the governorship of Khorasan in 54/673 at the age of twenty-five, and soon afterward, he was appointed governor of Basára, where he subdued Kharijite unrest (T®abar^, II, pp. 168, 172, 185-87). At the accession of Yaz^d I (r. 60-64/680-83), he forestalled the planned Shi¿ite rebellion in Ku@fa by intimidating the chiefs of the main tribes and publicly executing known agents of Imam H®osayn. ... AMNON NETZER , the name of the first patriarch of the Hebrew people. See ABUÚ ESH®AÚQ EBRAÚHÈM. EIr. (d. 166/777-78), prominent Sufi and ascetic of 2nd/8th century. Ebra@h^m was born to a notable Kufan family in Balkò, migrated with his tribe from Khorasan to Syria before 137/754, and was killed in a military expedition against Byzantium in about 160-66/777-83. In Sufi legends various glamorous tales are attributed to Ebra@h^m's repentance and abdication from the governorship of Balkò and his conversion to asceticism (e.g., Abu@ No¿aym, VII. pp. 367-95; VIII, pp. 3-58; Ebn Asa@ker, II, pp. ... SHEILA S. BLAIR , Safavid architect mentioned on two tiles: one in the dome of the tomb of Shaikh ¿Abd-al-S®amad at NatÂanz and another, dated 1072/1661-62, in the south wall of the south ayva@n of the congregational mosque at Isfahan (Godard, p. 261). The latter inscription does not specify what work was involved, but the only restoration known to have been carried out in the mosque during the reign of Shah ¿Abba@s II (1052-77/1642-67) was the addition to the horizontal part of the facade's rectangular inscription of the south ayva@n (Godard, pp. ... See TAHERIDS. MUNIBUR RAHMAN (or H®ar^r?), author of a general history called Ta@r^kò-e ebra@h^m^ or Ta@r^kò-e homa@yu@n^. Nothing is known about his life. According to Sa¿^d Naf^s^ (Nazám o natòr I, p. 355), he lived at the court of the Mughal emperor Homa@yu@n (r. 937-64/1530-56), where he compiled his history around 957/1550. The book begins with the story of Adam and comes down to the events of Homa@yu@n's reign until 956/1549 (or 957/1550; for a list of its contents see Ethe‚, Catalogue, no. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , etc., Ghaznavid sultan (r. 451-92/1059-99). Ebra@h^m succeeded his brother Farrokòza@d in GÚazna on 19 S®afar 451/April 6, 1059 (Bayhaq^, ed. Fayya@zµ, p. 483) at the age of twenty-seven; he and Farrokòza@d were virtually the only survivors from the general massacre of Ghaznavid princes perpetrated by the usurping Turkish @gola@m commander T®og@rïl in 443/1051-52. All subsequent Ghaznavid sultans were from the progeny of Ebra@h^m alone. His reign marks a rallying of Ghaznavid fortunes during the middle period of the empire's existence, after the disasters of Mas¿u@d I's and Mawdu@d's sultanates, when Jeba@l, Khorasan, and Choresmia had been irrevocably lost to the Saljuqs. ... See BÖRÈ. . See ¿AKKAÚS-BAÚˆÈ. . See AMÈN-AL-SOLT®AÚN. See ZAYN-AL-¿AÚBEDÈN MARAÚGÚA÷È. TAHSIN YAZICI , Turkish poet and lexicographer. His father Hoda@y^ S®a@lehá, who had been educated in Persia, was appointed by the Ottoman Sultan Moháammad II as shaikh of a za@w^a in Mog@la in southwestern Turkey. ˆa@hed^ was born there; since he was seventy-six years old when in 951/1544 he composed his Golæan-e asra@r, the year of his birth must have been 875/1470. His father died when he was only ten years old and he had to work as an apprentice to a silk merchant (kòazza@z). ... . See FAÚRUÚQÈ. SHEILA S. BLAIR , Persian metalworker named in the inscription in Kufic script on the copper door knockers removed from a city gate in medieval Ganja (Soviet Kirovabad, Republic of Azerbaijan) and taken to the convent of Gelat¿i in Imeretiya, just east of Kutaisi in Georgia. According to the inscription, the gate was erected in 455/1063 during the reign of the Shaddadid ˆa@vu@r b. Fazµl under the supervision of a local judge named Abu'l-Faraj Moháammad b. ¿Abd-Alla@h. The position of ironsmith (háadda@d) was apparently so important in early Islamic times that Ebra@h^m b. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (or Yena@l; d. 451/1059), early Saljuq leader. The name Èna@l/Yena@l comes originally from an old Turkish title already attested in the early 4th/10th century by the traveler Ahámad b. Fazµla@n (q.v.), confirmed by Moháammad K¨úa@razm^'s mention (p. 120) of yena@l-tigin as a title of the Og@uz (Bosworth and Clauson, pp. 6, 10-11; Doerfer, Elemente IV, pp. 196-99). Ebra@h^m Èna@l is described as a uterine half-brother of T®og@rel and Ùag@r^ Beg (q. ... ABBAS AMANAT (b. 1158/1745, d. 1215/1800 or 1216/1801), lord mayor (kala@ntar) of Shiraz during the late Zand era, the first grand vizier (sáadr-e a¿záam), and a major political figure of the Qajar period. GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN , Khan of Qara@ba@g@ in late 18th century. Born in 1730, he was the son of Pana@h Khan of the Java@næ^r tribe, which lived in the plains of Qara@ba@g@ (Ba@mda@d, I, p. 10). Na@der Shah Afæa@r (q.v.) had forced the tribe and its khans to submit to him and to accompany him to Khorasan. After Na@der's death, Pana@h Khan returned to Qara@ba@g@ and managed to penetrate the eastern sector of the Armenian enclave of mountainous Qara@ba@g@ (Qara@ba@g@^, pp. ... . See AFSHARIDS. . See GÚAFFAÚRÈ. . See Z®AHÈR-AL-DAWLA. . See LODÈ DYNASTY. EVERETT ROWSON , the most celebrated musician at the court of Ha@ru@n al-Raæ^d and a central figure in the development of the Iraqi school of music under the early ¿Abbasids. He was born in Ku@fa in 125/742-43 to Persian parents who had recently moved there from Arraja@n in Fa@rs, reportedly to escape the exactions of a tyrannical Omayyad governor (A@g@a@n^ V, p. 2). His full name was Abu@ Esháa@q Ebra@h^m b. Ma@ha@n b. Bahman b. Nosk, but he later referred to himself as Ebra@h^m b. ... MARIANNA S. SIMPSON , Safavid prince, patron, artist, and poet generally referred to as Soltá@a@n Ebra@h^m M^rza@ (b. D¨u'l-qa¿da 946/April 1540; d. 5 D¨u'l-háejja 984/23 February 1577). . See ABUÚ ESH®AÚQ NAZ®Z®AÚM. . See S®AH®H®AÚF-BAÚˆÈ. . See ˆARQÈ. JOHN R. PERRY , nephew of Na@der Shah, claiming the Afsharid throne briefly (1161-62/1748-49). Ebra@h^m was born the second of four sons of Moháammad-Ebra@h^m Beg, Na@der's younger brother, and was first named Moháammad-¿Al^. After his father's death on a campaign in 1152/1739, he took the name Ebra@h^m Beg. During the 1740s he was military commander (sarda@r) of Azerbaijan and campaigned successfully against the Safavid pretender Sa@m M^rza@ at Ardab^l. On Na@der Shah's assassination in 1160/1747 Ebra@h^m's elder brother ¿Al^qol^ Khan was raised to the throne as ¿AÚdel Shah by his S^sta@n^ supporters and, electing to stay in Maæhad, sent Ebra@h^m (then aged about twenty-two) to govern Isfahan and adjacent regions. ... CARL W. ERNST (b. about 947/1540-41), historian of the ¿AÚdelæa@h^ dynasty (q.v.) of B^ja@pu@r. He traveled from Persia to India as a merchant, and from the age of twenty served Sultan ¿Al^ ¿AÚdelæa@h as a steward (kòúa@nsa@la@r) and scribe. In 1005/1596-97, he received from Sultan Ebra@h^m ¿AÚdelæa@h an appointment as ambassador to Ahámadnagar; he also held posts as governor of the B^ja@pu@r (qq.v.) fort and treasurer. ... PRISCILLA P. SOUCEK , Timurid prince, ruler of Shiraz, military commander, and renowned calligrapher (796-838/1394-35). At his instigation and with his assistance ˆaraf-al-D^n ¿Al^ Yazd^ wrote his biography of T^mu@r (Tamerlane), the Záafar-na@ma. Ebra@h^m himself achieved renown as calligrapher, particularly in the tòoltò script, which he employed in both Koranic manuscripts and architectural inscriptions. See ABU'LQAÚSEM EBRAÚHÈM SOLT®AÚN. PRISCILLA P. SOUCHEK , also known as M^rza@ ¿Amu@, a calligrapher specializing in the nasta¿l^q script. One of the principal students of M^rza@ GÚola@m-Rezµa@ Esáfaha@n^ (d. 1307/1889-90), he was active during the reign of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah Qa@ja@r (r. 1264-1313/1848-96). Although some albums of his calligraphy are also known, Ebra@h^m is chiefly remembered as the designer of architectural inscriptions for religious structures in Tehran, Ray, and Qom. Dated examples of his work range from 1291/1874 to 1308/1890-91. ... See RAÚMANDÈ. See ¿ABD-AL-REZ˜AÚ EBRAÚHÈMÈ See ABU' l-QAÚSEM KHAN KHAN EBRAÚHÈMÈ. EIr. , a monthly magazine first published on 15 Bahman 1334 ˆ./4 February 1956 as the organ of Tu@da party prisoners under the auspices and with the facilities of the Office of Tehran's Military Governor, General Teymu@r Bakòt^a@r. Its format was thirty-eight, and later sixty-six, 16.5 x 23 cm pages, priced at 10 rials. MUNIBUR RAHMAN , pen name of Sayyed MOH®AMMAD-QAÚSEM, author of ¿Ebrat-na@ma, a history of the reigns of Awrangze@b's successors, namely Baha@doræa@h (d. 1124/1712), Jaha@nda@ræa@h (d. 1124/1713), and Farrokò-s^ar (d. 1131/1719), till the fall of the Sayyed Brothers (1135/1723). Very little is known about him. His father's name was Sayyed Borha@n-Alla@h, who spent much of his life traveling in Deccan, Lucknow, and Multan. In 1130/1717-18 ¿Ebrat left his native town Lahore for Delhi and entered the service of Am^r-al-Omara@÷ H®osayn-¿Al^ Khan as administrator of revenues and finance. ... . See HEBREW AND JUDEO-PERSIAN. STUART C. BROWN (Ekba@ta@n, present-day Hamada@n), capital of the Median empire, summer capital of the Achaemenids, and satrapal seat of the province of Media from Achaemenid to Sasanian times. ECKART EHLERS ,the study of organisms, both flora and fauna, in relation to their environments. The biosphere generally encompasses the thin outer shell of the earth, which includes soil and surface rocks, bodies of water, the lower atmosphere, and the life forms that inhabit these zones. The biosphere of Persia is divided into several ecosystems, determined mainly by geographical (climatic differentiation, topography, soil type, etc.) and biological (vegetation, wild life, etc.) factors (see BAÚRAÚN; CLIMATE; DESERT). ... XAVIER DE PLANHOL i.ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY The high plateau and its external relations. The heartland of the Iranian world, encompassing both Persia and Afghanistan, is an arid high plateau, from which communication with the outside world is extraordinarily difficult. In the north there is an almost continuous barrier running from the Caucasus to the Alborz (qq.v.) and thence to the mountains of Khorasan and the Hindu Kush; it can be crossed only through narrow gorges (like the Darband pass, the Saf^dru@d valley, and the passes of the Kopet Dag and the Hindu Kush), and the difficulties are compounded by such obstacles as the Caspian Sea (q. ... ROBERT C. HENRICKSON ii.IN THE PRE-ACHAEMENID PERIOD Pre-Median Persia was a crucial economic component of ancient southwest Asia from the earliest times (Voigt and Dyson; Dyson, 1987; Voigt, 1987; E. Henrickson, 1989). Throughout its prehistory and early history, interregional diversity of economic scale and complexity characterized Persia. Gross topography, climate (q.v.), ecology (q.v.), and natural resources formed a regionally diverse mosaic of subsistence and economic potentials, ultimately reflected in cultural regions. ... MUHAMMAD A. DANDAMAYEV iii.IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD. The Achaemenid empire, extending from the Indus river to the Aegean sea, comprised such economically developed countries as Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, Babylonia, Elam, and Asia Minor, lands which had their long traditions of social institutions, as well as Sakai, Massagetai, Lycians, Libyans, Nubians and other tribes undergoing the disintegration of the primitive-communal phase. Therefore, the socioeconomic structure of the empire was characterized by extreme diversity (Dandamaev and Lukonin, pp. ... RIKA GYSELEN iv.IN THE SASANIAN PERIOD. The Sasanians, who inherited the economic conditions left by the Parthians, were quick to forge an economic state so powerful and distinctive that its fame spread well beyond their political frontiers and their period. Although it is impossible in this brief article to take note of all the factors that shaped Sasanian economic power, whether successively or in conjunction, it is possible to highlight several elements that contributed to its particular character, which became a model for the economic evolution of the Near East. ... M. HASHEM PESARAN ix.IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD From Rezµa@ Shah's rise to power to his abdication (1299-1340 ˆ./1921-41). Upon seizing power, Rezµa@ Shah's priority was to establish the authority of the state over the whole country and to build a strong central bureaucracy. He formed a national army, introduced conscription, and set about the establishment of social and economic infrastructures and the reform of the country's financial, administrative, legal, and educational systems (for details of these reforms, see Banani and Savory; for an economic assessment of the economy under Rezµa@ Shah, see Yaganegi, Baldwin, Bharier, Issawi, 1971, Lenczowski, 1978, Katouzian, Wilber, and Karshenas; see also EDUCATION; FINANCE). ... ANN K. S. LAMBTON MARIA E. SUBTELNY vi.IN THE TIMURID PERIOD The Timurid invasions against the Kartid rulers of Khorasan, which began in 783/1381, caused socioeconomic dislocation and unprecedented wholesale destruction and pillaging of towns, as well as brutal massacres of their populations (or, in more fortunate cases, the extraction of ransom money, large-scale confiscations, and the deportation of classes of people possessing specialized skills). Once he was established, T^mu@r's (d. 807/1405) main concern, in the tradition of the Chingizid (see ÙENGÈZ) models he sought to emulate, was to secure trade routes and to reestablish the exchange economy, with a view to enriching the Transoxanian base of his empire. ... BERT FRAGNER vii.FROM THE SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS The first Safavid king, Esma@¿^l I (907-30/1501-24), initiated a process of political and religious change in Persia that profoundly affected the economic structure. During the three centuries 1500-1800 the technology, organization, and ethnography of Persian agriculture, animal husbandry, manufacturing, and accounting underwent partial change. HASSAN HAKIMIAN viii.IN THE QAJAR PERIOD At the outset of the Qajar dynasty, the Persian economy displayed the characteristics of a traditional economy disintegrating under the stress of political anarchy. Several decades of external invasions, internal strife, and endemic lawlessness, exacerbated by the decline of transcontinental trade routes, had brought widespread decay and decline, if not near complete exhaustion, to the economy. VAHID F. NOWSHIRVANI x.UNDER THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC Introduction. The 1979 revolution and the establishment of the Islamic Republic in Persia has had a profound impact on the economy of the country. Since 1979 there have been marked changes in the economic policies, institutions, and structure of the country, in addition to major economic dislocation and disruption of production. Not all the changes have resulted directly from the revolution; many other factors, such as the protracted and costly war with Iraq, trade and financial sanctions, as well as wide fluctuations in the world oil market have also shaped the developments after the revolution. ... M. SIDDIEQ NOORZOY xi.IN MODERN AFGHANISTAN HABIB BORJIAN xii.IN TAJIKISTAN $1,000,000 percentage at constant 1974 prices 1,000 tons billion rials, percentage of shares in parentheses in billion rials in billion rials in billions of rials at constant 1371 ˆ./1992 prices, factor cost in billions of rials (in millions of U.S. dollars) in 1,000s of ha, Irrigated land ANN K. S. LAMBTON, MARIA E. SUBTELNY, BERT FRAGNER, HASSAN HAKIMIAN, M. HASHEM PESARAN, VAHID F. NOWSHIRVANI, M. SIDDIEQ NOORZOY, HABIB BORJIAN $1,000,000 percentage at constant 1974 prices 1,000 tons billion rials, percentage of shares in parentheses in billion rials in billion rials in billions of rials at constant 1371 ˆ./1992 prices, factor cost in billions of rials (in millions of U.S. dollars) in 1,000s of ha, Irrigated land FAKHREDDIN AZIMI (Ar. ¿Ada@lat "justice"), H®EZB-E, Persian political party founded by ¿Al^ Daæt^ (q.v.) in December 1941. After the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Persia in August 1941 Daæt^, until then an ardent supporter of Rezµa@ Shah (1924-41), was one of the first Majles deputies to defy him publicly and to advocate investigating the conduct and record of his regime (Modòa@kara@t-e Majles, 1 Mehr 1320 ˆ./23 September 1941). He subsequently assumed a more prominent role, including formalizing his network of friends as the ¿Eda@lat Party. ... .See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION. AMIR HASSANPOUR (Pers. and Ar. Adab), pen name of the Kurdish poet ¿Abd-Alla@h Beg b. Ahámad Beg Ba@ba@m^r^ Misába@há-al-D^wa@n (b. Arman^ Bola@g@^, a village northeast of Bu@ka@n in western Azerbaijan, 1277/1860, d. ca. 1297 ˆ./1918). He was born into a family of landed nobility that traced its descent from the local Mukr^ rulers and educated first at the local mosque and then in Tehran, though he returned home after only a year. Edeb led a life of leisure, traveling and engaging in music, painting, and poetry. ... SAMUEL LIEU (Aram. and Syr. Urhai/Orha@i; Ar. Roha@÷), now Urfa in southeastern Turkey, former capital of ancient Osrhoene. It is situated on a limestone ridge, an extension of the ancient Mount Masius in the Taurus mountains of southern Anatolia, where the east-west highway from Zeugma (in the vicinity of modern Birecik) on the Euphrates to the Tigris met the north-south route from Samosata (Somaysa@tá) to the Euphrates via Carrhae (H®arra@n). Edessa was held successively by the Seleucids, Parthians, and Romans. ... KARIM EMAMI (Pers. v^ra@yeæ, a neologism; Ar.-Pers. tahdò^b, tanq^há, now obsolete; rarely p^ra@yeæ, parda@kòt), the techniques of preparing a text for publication, now widely practiced at the major publishing houses in Persia. (Pers. a@mu@zeæ o parvareæ; earlier Ar. Per. ta¿l^m o tarb^at) in Iranian-speaking areas. MUHAMMAD A. DANDAMAYEV i.IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIODLittle is known of the training of children during the Achaemenid period. In two Elamite documents from Persepolis drafted in the 23rd regnal year of Darius I (499 B.C.E.) "Persian boys (who) are copying texts" are mentioned (Hallock, nos. 871, 1137); the texts in question are records of the issue of grain to twenty-nine individuals and wine to sixteen. It is possible that the boys were learning Persian cuneiform script, which was probably known only to a few scribes, as it was used mainly for royal triumphal inscriptions. ... AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ ii.IN THE PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODSNo concrete evidence on education in Parthian times has survived. It may be postulated, however, that it was similar to education in the Sasanian period. Information about the latter period is confined mainly to education of princes, the nobility, the clergy, and administrative secretaries (dab^rs, q.v.). Most peasants were illiterate, but most urban merchants were probably acquainted at least with writing and calculation (Christensen, Iran Sass., p. 416). JALÈL DUÚSTKòúAÚH AND EQBAÚL YAGÚMAÚ÷È iii.THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (MAKTAB)Before the establishment of a modern educational system in Persia in the early 20th century children received their early and intermediate education in the maktab (or maktab-kòa@na, lit., "place of writing") under the tutelage of an a@kòu@nd (q.v.), mulla (clerical teacher), or mo¿allem (teacher), who worked alone or occasionally with one or two assistants. Women often served as instructors (zan a@kòu@nd, zan a@qa@, or molla@ ba@j^) in maktabs. ... CHRISTOPHER MELCHERT iv.THE MEDIEVAL MADRASAIn the Middle Ages the madrasa (lit., "place to study" Ar. darasa "to study"; for discussion of darasa as a technical term meaning "to study jurisprudence" and darrasa meaning "to teach jurisprudence," see Makdisi, 1961, pp. 10-11) was a college for the professional study of the Islamic sciences, particularly jurisprudence (feqh) but also the Koran, Hadith, and such ancillary fields as Arabic grammar and philology, knowledge of which helped in understanding sacred and legal texts. The so-called "foreign sciences," like philosophy and medicine, which also formed part of a learned education, were most often studied in the teachers' homes, as was literature when conceived as a field apart from the Islamic sciences. ... SAYYED ¿ALÈ AÚÚL-E DAÚWUÚD ix.PRIMARY SCHOOLS A movement to introduce modern primary education into Persia began in 1315/1897, when the newly appointed grand vizier, M^rza@ ¿Al^ Khan Am^n-al-Dawla (q.v.), initiated his modernizing reforms. In that year, under his patronage, H®a@j^ M^rza@ H®asan Roæd^ya founded the first modern primary school in Tehran. Roæd^ya had already established the first Persian school in Erevan in 1300/1883 and the first modern primary school in Tabr^z in 1305/1888, though in the latter city he had met with continued resistance from conservative religious authorities (¿olama@÷; Roæd^ya, pp. ... ¿ABBAÚS ZARYAÚB v.THE MADRASA SHI¿ITEPERSIAFoundation and expansion. After the introduction of the institutionalized madrasa by Nezáa@m-al-Molk in the late 11th century (see iv, above) Shi¿ite madrasas were also founded in Persia and Iraq. For example, by the mid-13th century madrasas had been established in such Persian cities as Qom (eight; Calmard; Mottahedeh, pp. 179-80; Madelung, pp. 77-84; Qazv^n^, pp. 194-95; Modarres^ T®aba@tÂaba@÷^), Ray (seven), Ka@æa@n (four), AÚba (two), Sa@va (two), and Vara@m^n (two). ... ¿ABD-ALLAÚH MARDUÚKò¨ vi.THE MADRASA IN SUNNI KURDISTAN Preparation for the madrasa. Until the mid-20th century the pursuit of education in Kurdistan was possible only through mosques, as only mullas were literate. Concomitant with their function as places of worship, mosques served as social centers and as rest houses for travelers and itinerant mendicants. Every mosque also contained a chamber called a háojra, where the mulla offered lessons in religion and theology free of charge to Muslim boys. Boys, though very seldom girls, began their studies at the age of seven years. ... AHMAD ASHRAF vii.GENERAL SURVEY OF MODERN EDUCATION A modern system of national education emerged in Persia in the 1920s and 1930s, after the Pahlavi state had been founded; during this period the influence of the religious establishment was minimized, and the government gained control over schools, expanding enrollment at all levels. TUÚRAÚN MÈRHAÚDÈ viii.NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS The beginnings of formalized preschool education in Persia can be traced back to about 1270/1891, when Armenians in Jolfa@, near Isfahan, founded a kindergarten, which continues to function today. By 1298/1919 there were a few kindergartens in Tehran and other cities, primarily founded by missionaries and minority groups. They included Margaret Soru@‘^a@n's (or Soru@r^a@n's) establishment in Tehran (founded in 1328/1910) and that of ˆu@æan^k K¨a@nza@d^a@n, in Tabr^z, which were open only to Armenians. ... AH®MAD BÈRAˆK x.MIDDLE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLSModern secondary education in Persia was originally based on the 19th-century European humanistic system, which was focused on general knowledge and building character, rather than on professional or vocational training. This basic European philosophy dominated the Persian secondary-school system until the 1960s, when reforms were introduced by American advisers. AH®MAD BÈRAˆK XI.PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUPS Despite government intervention in educational matters since the foundation of Da@r al-fonu@n (q.v.) in the mid-19th century, the initial expansion of modern education in Persia was promoted by foreign missionaries and private individuals, usually philanthropists, who considered that national progress lay in expansion and development of the educational system. In 1315/1898 a group of citizens formed Anjoman-e ta÷s^s-e maka@teb-e mell^ya (Council for the Foundation of Private Schools), later renamed Anjoman-e ma¿a@ref (q. ... ˆAHLAÚ KAÚZ®EMÈPUÚR xii.VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS MOH®AMMAD BAHMANBEYGÈ, NAÚS®ER MÈR, MOH®AMMAD PUÚRSARTÈP, AND EIr. xiii.RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1329/1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources necessary to implement these laws, and, in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts, fearing that "dangerous ideas" might disrupt traditional agrarian relations (S^a@s^, pp. 126-31). As a result, rural education underwent a sluggish growth in this period. ... SAMINEH BAGHCHEHBAN-PIRNAZAR xiv.SPECIAL SCHOOLS Children with special educational needs include the gifted, slow learners, the physically handicapped, the emotionally disturbed (na@-sa@zega@r), and the blind and the deaf. In Persia education for such children basically consists of instruction in reading, writing, other elementary-school subjects, and some vocational training. Blind pupils and some deaf pupils can, however, with the help of interpreters, advance through secondary school and sometimes even university. MAJD-AL-DÈN KEYVAÚNÈ xix.TEACHERS'-TRAINING COLLEGES Da@neæga@h-e tarb^at-e mo¿allem, the oldest institution for educating teachers in Persia, was founded as Da@r al-mo¿allem^n-e markaz^ (see xviii, above) in Tehran in 1336/1918. It has gone through various phases and changes of name since. Its purpose was to train primary-school teachers, and the curriculum was equivalent to that of a secondary school. In addition, courses in philosophy, logic, and principles of education were offered (Ra@hnema@-ye Da@neæga@h, p. ... EIr. xv.FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA Modern education was introduced to Persia in the 19th century by European and American religious institutions and military advisers. From 1251/1836, when the first modern elementary school was founded by the American mission in Urmia, until the early 20th century scores of foreign schools were founded by Christian missionaries, the Alliance Universelle Israe‚lite (q.v.), and secular educators in Tehran and provincial towns. In addition, religious minorities in Persia founded modern schools. ... AH®MAD BÈRAˆK AND EIr. xvi.SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS No standardized schoolbooks existed in Persia before the advent of the modern educational system. The first were written by European teachers at the Da@r al-fonu@n (q.v.) in the mid-19th century. They were translated by Persian assistants and printed at the school's own press for distribution only among the students. A collection of fifteen textbooks from the Da@r al-fonu@n held in the library of the Ministry of Education (Weza@rat-e a@mu@zeæ o parvareæ) shows that the emphasis was on mathematics and the exact sciences: Jabr o moqa@bela by Alexandre Buhler (tr. ... DAVID MENASHRI xvii.HIGHER EDUCATION Higher education in the modern sense was first introduced in Persia under the Pahlavis (1925-78) and through a continuing process of reform played a central role in social change in the country. EQBAÚL YAGÚMAÚ÷ È xviii.TEACHERS'-TRAINING SCHOOLS The first institution specializing in the training of elementary-school teachers in Persia, Da@r al-mo¿allem^n-e markaz^ (Central Teachers' College), was founded in a private house in Tehran in 1336/1918. The first director was Abu'l-H®asan Foru@@g@^ (q.v.; d. 1959), younger brother of the well-known statesman D¨aka@÷-al-Molk Foru@g@^ (q.v.; Mo¿^n, VI, p. 1351; Dehkòoda@, s.v.). A comparable institution for women (Da@r al-mo¿allema@t) opened in 1339/1921. ... ˆAHLAÚ KAÚZ®EMÈPUÚR xx.ADULT EDUCATION The first adult-literacy classes in Persia were organized by constitutionalists at primary schools in Tehran and provincial towns in 1327/1909, but those efforts did not outlast the chaos of the period following the Constitutional Revolution (q.v. v; H®ekmat, p. 376). The first national campaign for adult literacy was initiated in 1936 by ¿Al^-Akbar Da@var (q.v.), at that time minister of finance and one of the main architects of modernization under Rezµa@ Shah (1924-41). ... AFSHIN MATIN-ASGARI xxi.EDUCATION ABROAD The Qajar period. Persian awareness of a need to learn from Europeans arose in the wake of major military defeats and territorial losses in two wars with Russia in the early 19th century. In 1226/1811 Crown Prince ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.) and his vizier, M^rza@ Bozorg Qa@÷em-Maqa@m, sent two Persians to study in England, followed by five more in 1230/1815. They were to study engineering, medicine, and military technology. Among the second group were M^rza@ S®a@leh® ˆ^ra@z^, who wrote the first detailed account of a parliamentary system published in Persia and in 1252/1836 issued the first Persian printed book and newspaper, and M^rza@ Ja¿far Khan Tabr^z^, who as Moæ^r-al-Dawla became a close adviser to Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96; Mahábu@b^, Mo÷assasa@t I, pp. ... GOLNAR MEHRAN Once having received the secondary-school diploma, students who wish to enter a university take an additional one-year course geared to the highly competitive university entrance examination. Those with technical-vocational diplomas can also choose further technical and managerial training offered through two-year "associate programs," without taking the one-year university-preparation course. Although the Ministry of education (Weza@rat-e a@muzeæ o parvareæ) is ultimately responsible for administering the university-preparation program, the curriculum is based on the requirements of the universities. ... AFSANEH NAJMABADI EIR. M. MOBIN SHORISH HABIB BORJIAN ˆAHLAÚ KAÚZ®EMÈPUÚR, AFSHIN MATIN-ASGARI, GOLNAR MEHRAN, AFSANEH NAJMABADI, EIR., M. MOBIN SHORISH, HABIB BORJIAN clear and direct (Èzad^, p. 51). S. MOINUL HAQ (b. Ahmadnagar, date unknown, d. Dawlata@ba@d, 1190/1776; Malka@pu@r^, pp. 205-09), Deccani biographer and poet in Urdu and Persian. According to his own account (Tadòkera-ye b^nazá^r, pp. 33-34; cf. Belgra@m^, pp. 241-42), he was born and spent his early years in the Nezáa@mæa@h^ capital, Ahmadnagar (q.v.), but later moved to Dawlata@ba@d. After completing his studies in Persian and Arabic, theology, law, and medicine, he practiced as a physician. He also became interested in poetry and studied with AÚza@d Belgra@m^ (q. ... FRANçOIS DE BLOIS ,a family of officials and poets from Qazv^n, reputed descendants of the caliph Abu@ Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans (13th century). They came to prominence with five brothers, all of whom held high posts under the Mongols. . See BAÚDENJAÚN. .See SAYF-AL-DÈN ¿EMAÚD-AL-DÈN EGÚLAMEˆ .See NASTARAN. EDDA BRESCIANI, PHILIP HUYSE, HEINZ HEINEN, RUTH ALTHEIM-STIEHL, JONATHAN M. BLOOM, SHAHROUGH AKHAVI, E. YARSHATER, MOH®AMMAD EL SA¿ÈD ¿ABD AL-MO÷MEN, LUDWIG W. ADAMEC ,relations with Persia and Afghanistan. .See HERBEDESTAÚN. .See HERBED. COSROE CHAQUERI (¿Al^-a@ba@d^; b. Sa@r^, Ma@zandara@n, 1262/1883, d. Baku, ca. 1938), second most prominent figure in the the Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran (H®oku@mat-e jomhu@r^-e æu@raw^-e Èra@n), the radicalized second phase of the Jangal^ movement in the years 1920-21 (see COMMUNISM i). Ehása@n-Alla@h was born into a Bahai family and educated at Da@r-al-fonu@n (q.v.) in Tehran, where he learned French. Radical European political literature thus became accessible to him. ... See FARAÚBÈ KAMBIZ ESLAMI (d. Tehran, ˆawwa@l 1278/April 1862), seventeenth son of ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.) and governor of several regions in Persia during the reigns of Moháammad Shah (1250-64/1834-48) and Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96) Qajar. He was named governor of Yazd shortly after Moháammad Shah had appointed H®a@j^ M^rza@ AÚqa@s^ (q.v.) premier in 1251/1835 and most probably on the latter's recommendation. Within two years, however, Kòa@nlar Khan was transferred from Yazd to Kerma@n and S^sta@n, where he suppressed a Baluch revolt. ... ÈRAJ AFˆAÚR (1255-1310/1839-92), first son of Farha@d M^rza@ Mo¿tamed-al-Dawla Qa@ja@r (q.v.) and maternal grandson of Moháammad-¿Al^ M^rza@ Dawlatæa@h (q.v.). Initially, he served as personal attendant (a@ju@da@n-e háozµu@r; K¨ormu@j^, p. 258) to the shah with the title Eháteæa@m-al-Molk. In 1282/1865 he was governor of Kohg^lu@ya and Behbaha@n. There he had a 15 km water canal constructed, which connected the river Ta@b with Behbaha@n and improved the local economy. ... MEHRDAD AMANAT , also known as Mas¿u@d Davallu@ (b. 6 ˆa¿ba@n 1279/27 January 1863; d. 6 Bahman 1314 ˆ./26 January 1936), governor, diplomat, and speaker of the Persian Parliament (Majles; Plate I). He was the youngest son of Moháammad-Rahá^m Khan Qa@ja@r Davallu@, a highly influential chamberlain (háa@jeb-al-dawla) under Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah. At age nine, while continuing his traditional education in Arabic and Persian, he was sent to the Da@r-al-fonu@n (q. ... NASSEREDDIN PARVIN , weekly newspaper published in Tabr^z by ¿Al^qol^ Khan Tabr^z^, known as S®afarov, who had distributed political æab-na@mas (lit. night letters) in 1310/1892. Seven issues of Ehát^a@j appeared between 12 Moháarram and 1 Rab^¿ I 1316/3 June-20 July 1898. The meaning of its title (Need) alluded to Persia's dependence on foreign manufactures. Its satirical articles on this subject led Moháammad-¿Al^ M^rza@, the crown prince, and his chief steward (p^æka@r) Am^r-Nezáa@m Garru@s^ (q. ... See GÚAZAÚLÈ. (b. 27 September 1906 in Leipzig; d. 3 July 1989 in Würzburg), German scholar of oriental studies, particularly of Iranian onomastics, lexicography, and dialects (Plate I). DEVIN J. STEWART (lit. permission, license, authorization), a term describing a variety of academic certificates ranging in length from a few lines to many fascicles. Giving, receiving, and collecting such certificates grew from the science of Prophetic tradition and became an essential part of Islamic education in nearly all academic fields. Three main types of certificate developed in the medieval period: 1. the certificate of transmission (eja@zat al-rewa@ya); 2. the certificate of memorization (¿arzµ, ¿era@zµa); and 3. ... DEVIN J. STEWART (consensus), a technical term in Islamic jurisprudence (osáu@l al-feqh). Opposed to kòela@f (dissent, disagreement), ejma@¿ is defined by most jurists of the four Sunni schools and by many later jurists of the Twelver and Zaydi Shi¿ite schools as the unanimous agreement of authoritative Muslim jurists on a given point of the law (e.g., Jowayn^ [Shafi¿ite, d. 478/1085] p. 11; Qa@zµ^ Abu@ Ya¿la@ [Hanbalite, d. 458/1066], I, p. 170; Ba@j^ [Malikite, d. ... S. PETER COWE (or Echmiadzin; Arm. Eèmiacin; Tk. UÚ± Kel^sa@), currently designation of three separate but interrelated entities: the cathedral and monastic complex which forms the residence of the supreme patriarch and catholicos of all the Armenians, the city in which this complex is located, and the district of which the latter is the administrative center. The name means "The Only-begotten descended" and is associated with a vision vouchsafed to the first primate of Armenia, St. Gregory the Illuminator, soon afer the Christianization of the court in 314 C. ... ARON ZYSOW Ejteha@d is an Arabic verbal noun having the literal sense of exerting effort. Both ejteha@d and its derivatives, including the active participle mojtahed, are used in Islamic literature in several distinct senses. Although as a technical legal term it has been variously defined, according to what is perhaps the most illuminating definition common to Sunni and Shi¿ite writers, ejteha@d is the "expending of one's utmost effort in the inquiry into legal questions admitting of only probable answers" (masa@÷el záann^ya; ¿Alla@ma H®ell^, p. ... JANET AFARY (FEAM; lit., Social-Democratic party), an organization founded in 1905 by Persian emigrants in Transcaucasia with the help of local revolutionaries. It played an important role during the Constitutional Revolution of 1324-29/1906-11 (q.v.) by introducing radical ideas and by taking part in the struggle for the restoration of the Constitution in 1908-09. Members of the organization maintained close links with the Hemmat party, a radical-democratic party organized by Transcaucasian revolutionaries of both Muslim and non-Muslim origins. ... .See ECBATANA. JAMES RUSSELL , Gk. Akilise@ne@, region along the Euphrates in northwest Armenia. Here stood the temple and estate of Anahit at Ere@z (see ARZENJAÚN). Strabo (11.12.3) describes the site, because of whose fame and prominence the region was known also as Lat. Anaetica, Gk. Anaitis kho@ra. After Chris-tianization, a necropolis of the patriarchs of the Armenian Church was located in the province, at T¿il (Semitic l-w, "Hill"), where there had been a shrine of Ana@h^d (q.v.). J. BEÙKA (Ekrom), MOH®AMMAD b. ¿Abd-al-Sala@m, known as Da@molla@ Ekra@m±e (contemporary Tajik: Domullo Ikrom±a), a Bukharan scholar and madrasa teacher (1847-1925). He was born in Bukhara, where he received a traditional madrasa ecducation. In 1896 he traveled to the Near East, where he acquainted himself with a more favorable intellectual milieu, which he compared to that in Bukhara. Upon returning to Bukhara, he used his new experience and the writings of Ahámad Da@neæ (q. ... J. BEÙKA (Jalol Ikrom^; 1909-93), considered to be Tajikistan's most important fiction writer and playwright of the Soviet period. He was born in Bukhara to the family of a judge. He attended Samarkand's teachers training college and moved to Dushanbe in 1930, where he spent a year in prison during the 1930 purges. F. GRENET AND N. SIMS-WILLIAMS , Arabo-Persian form of a Sogdian royal title attested in Sogdian script as (÷)xæy’ (more anciently and more commonly written by means of the ideogram MLK÷ ) and in Manichean script as (÷)xæy(y)’. The Old Turkish title æad may be a dialectal variant of the Sogdian word, which is almost certainly etymologically identical with OPers. xæa@yaƒiya-, Mid. Pers. and NPers. æa@h "king" (Bosworth and Clauson, pp. 6-7; Sims-Williams, 1985, p. 163, n. 61; and Yoshida, 1988, p. ... .See KÈMÈAÚ IQTIDAR HUSAIN SIDDIQI (700-52/1300-51), author in Persian and secretary (dab^r) at the courts of the Tughluqid sultans GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n To@g@loq (720-25/1320-25) and his son GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n Mo-háammad (725-52/1325-51). He joined the royal chancery at an early age and eventually became GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n Moháammad's private secretary (dab^r-e kòa@sásá), who sent him in 1328 to the court of the Il-khanid Abu@ Sa¿^d (q.v.) in Persia to negotiate military alliance against Tarmaæ^r^n, the Chaghatay prince of Transoxiana and GÚazna. ... MARIA EVA SUBTELNY , the citadel of Herat (referred to in the sources as qal¿a, háesáa@r), located on an elevation adjacent to the north wall of the old city (Esfeza@r^, I, p. 77), and actually consisting of two parts, the stronghold proper—a rectangle of fired brick measuring about 18 x 42 m, and a larger area to the west of unfired brick, roughly 60 x 25 m—that were originally buttressed by 25 towers (only 18 of which were recorded in the late 1970s), which reflect various periods of construction (Allen, pp. ... W. THACKSTON , a master calligrapher of the chancery ta¿l^q style from Herat (fl. mid 10th/16th cent.). Ekòt^a@r never left his native city and worked, according to Qa@zµ^ Ahámad, for thirty years on the chancery documents of the Safavid prince Sultan Moháammad K¨oda@-banda, who was appointed governor of Khorasan in 943/1536 and later ruled as shah from 985/1578 to 996/1588. Examples of his work are held by museums. One specimen of K¨úa@ja Ekòt^a@r's work, dated Ramazµa@n 959/August-September 1552, has been published by Shen Fu, Glen D. ... DAVID PINGREE (choices, elections), a term used in Islamic divination and astrology in at least four principle meanings: RUDI MATTHEE PAUL E. WALKER , a self-professed brotherhood of piously ascetic scholars. In order to advertise and propagate their special mix of philosophy and religion, the Ekòwa@n al-S®afa@÷ wrote a lengthy account of all the known sciences and how the study of each in turn contributes to help liberate the soul and set it on a course toward a future angelic existence once detached from its earthly prison upon the death of the body. HAMID ALGAR, J. W. MORRIS, JEAN DURING (or ¿Al^æa@h; 1895-1974), innovative and charismatic leader of one branch of the Ahl-e H®aqq (q.v.) and author of several texts on its teachings. M. asef Na¿im-SiddiquI , a poet of the 17th century from Asada@ba@d, a village near Hamada@n. He spent a few years in Shiraz studying and then moved to Isfahan, where he stayed for about two years, working at a coffeehouse and associating with poets like H®ak^m ˆefa@÷^ (Nasára@ba@d^, pp. 255-56; Awháad^, apud Gol±^n-e Ma¿a@n^, Ka@rva@n I, pp. 94-95; Belgra@m^, p. 85). In 1018/1609 he went to Khorasan and from there, via Kabul and Qandaha@r to Agra, India, where he arrived in 1021/1612. ... . See ¿AT®T®AÚR. S. MOH®AMMAD DABÈRSÈAÚQÈ , poet and professor of Islamic law and philosophy (b. in Qomæa, ca 1320/1902; d. in Tehran, 1354 ˆ./1975). His ancestors had emigrated from Bahrain to Qomæa (present-day ˆahrezµa@) near Isfahan during the reign of Na@der Shah (1148-60/1735-47). Mahd^ learned the basics of Islamic sciences under Shaikh Molla@ Ha@d^ Farza@na in his native town Qomæa before moving to Isfahan to study Islamic jurisprudence (feqh), osáu@l, and philosophy. Then he moved to Maæhad, where he continued his studies under Ad^b N^æa@bu@r^ (q. ... .See PHILOSOPHY. ELIZABETH CARTER, R. K. ENGLUND, MIRJO SALVINI, FRANÇOISE GRILLOT-SUSINI, FRANÇOIS VALLAT, SYLVIE LACKENBACHER ,ancient country encompassing a large part of the Persian plateau at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. but reduced to the territory of Susiana in the Achaemenid period. The name Elam is derived from Greek Aylam, itself borrowed from Hebrew ¿Ela@m; the Elamites called their country Ha(l)tamti/Hatamti "lord country," which the Akkadians rendered Elamtu and the Sumerians designated with the ideogram NIM "high, elevated." See ALBORZ. . See ALBORZ COLLEGE. David O. Morgan , envoy, messenger, or official traveling on government business during the Mongol period and thereafter. The Mongols were especially insistent on the sacrosanct status of ambassadors, especially their own; and the murder of an el±^, together with the ill-treatment of two others, helped precipitate Ùeng^z Khan's (q.v.) invasion of the Sultan Moháammad K¨úa@razmæa@h's empire in 616/1219. Fakhreddin Azimi, Shaul Bakhash J. T. P. De Bruijn (Ar. martò^a, Pers. mu@ya), poetry of mourning in Persian literature. The Western term elegy covers a wider range of themes, most of which are represented in the Persian tradition. The frequent complaints of the transience of life and the cruelty of fate, of disasters or of personal grievances (the so-called æakw^ya@t) are elegiacal in this broad sense, but they are not included in the present article, which is restricted to poems lamenting the deaths of individuals. Mansour Shaki, Mansour Shaki François De Blois (Pers. p^l, f^l). Although elephants are normally associated with the humid tropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, in antiquity their natural habitat extended more widely. According to Assyrian and Egyptian sources, elephants lived wild on the middle Euphrates and it was there that the ancient Babylonians encountered the animal that they called p^ru or pe@ru, from which name is derived the words for "elephant" in the Iranian languages: Old Persian p^ru- (attested only in the meaning "ivory"), Middle and New Persian p^l, Sogdian py’, K¨úa@rizmian pyz. ... Edda Bresciani (Greek version of ancient Egyptian Ibw "the country of the elephants," Aram. Yb), the largest island in the Nile, opposite Syene (ancient Egyptian Swn "market," modern Aswa@n). The island was always the administrative center of the southernmost province of Egypt, controlling the first cataract and the main frontier post en route to Nubia, but during the Achaemenid occupation (525-402, 342-332 B.C.E.) the military garrison (Aram. haila) increased in importance. The rab haila "commander of the army" had military jurisdiction over Upper Egypt as far as Memphis, though he lived in Syene. ... F. R. C. Bagley (1893-1970), British historian of medicine in Persia. After attending Oxford University, he volunteered for war service and was commissioned in the British army and posted to India in 1914; he transferred to the Indian army in 1918 but was invalided out in 1919. He became a medical student and qualified at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London. From 1925 to 1931 he was physician to the British legation at Tehran. He took part in negotiations on the transfer of quarantine stations in the southern ports, became an honorary physician to the shah, and acquired a lifelong interest in Persian medicine, together with a thorough knowledge of Persian and a fair knowledge of Arabic. ... See ELÈJAÚ BAR ˆÈNAÚJA.Ú Tahsën Yazici (b. in Sütlüce, Rajab 1266/May 1850; (Ar. El^ya b. ˆ^na@; Lat. Elias Nisibenus), prominent Nestorian polyhistor (Nisibis, 975-1049). His work is an important source for Sasanian history. In 1002 he was made bishop of Be@t¯ Nuha@dre@ in Adiabene, and in 1008 metropolitan of Nisibis (Nasá^b^n). He wrote in Syriac and Arabic on theological issues, i.e., apologetics against Muslims and other Christian churches and treatises on ethics, asceticism, and canon law. He also wrote scholarly works, e.g., a Syriac grammar and a Syriac-Arab lexicon. ... Aram Arkun , GRIGOR E. (1880-1951; pseud. V. Vasakuni, P. Andre@asean, V. Turean, G. Margarean, G. Ast¬uni, and Hn±¿akean), an active figure in Persian and Armenian politics, the press, and literature during the first half of the 20th century. E¬ikean fled oppression in his native Ottoman empire in December 1896. Radicalized, he was forced to leave the Caucasus for Persia in 1902. He joined the Armenian Social-Democratic Hn±¿akean party and formed its first group in Raæt in 1904 (Dehga@n, pp. ... Robert W. Thomson ,author of History of Vardan and the Armenian War, a detailed account of the Armenian rebellion against Yazdegerd II (439-57) in 450, which was prompted by his persecution of their Christian faith. The leader of the resistance was Vardan, prince of the Mamikonean family. According to E¬iæe@, the Byzantine emperor refused to intervene, and the Armenian army was defeated at Avarayr (q.v.), southeast of Mount Ararat, in June 451. Vardan was killed, surviving nobles were imprisoned in Persia, and the leading clergy was martyred. ... Peter Jackson , the name of two Mongol generals. See ASSYRIA. HUÚˆANG A¿LAM ,any of several species of hardy deciduous ornamental or forest trees of the genus Ulmus L. (fam. Ulmaceae), typically called na@rvan in Persian. See MÈR DARD. See REJAÚL, ¿ELM-E. Nassereddin Parvin , title of two Persian magazines. EQBAÚL YAGÚMAÚ÷È ,a high school in Tehran with 500 students studying experimental sciences, mathematics, and economy. It was the second school established in Tehran to offer modern education. It was founded in Du'l-háejja 1315/May 1898 by Anjoman-e ma¿a@ref (q.v. Council of Education) as a result of Anjoman's disagreement with the principal of Roæd^ya school over the disbursement of funds. The school included an elementary section (Ebteda@÷^ya) for boys between seven and twelve years of age and an advanced section (¿Elm^ya) for boys who could read and write Persian fluently. ... See RHETORICS. Malcolm E. Yapp (1779-1859), author of an important description |