Mahmoud and Teresa P. Omidsalar ,a kind of story often defined as "an animale tale with a moral" (Funk and Wagnalls, s.v. "Fable"; cf. Thompson, 1977, p. 10). There is no exact Persian equivalent of the term, but the words afsa@na, da@sta@n, heka@yat, qesásáa, and samar are used to refer to such stories. Rudi Matthee ,LUDVIG (LODEWYCK), Swedish envoy to the Safavid court (b. 1648 in Brazil, of Dutch parentage; d. 1729 in Stockholm). Fabritius headed three missions to Persia representing the Swedish crown in 1679-80, 1683-84, and 1697-1700. YUÚNOS KARAÚMATÈ and EIr . The University of Tehran was founded in 1313 ˆ./1934 from four pre-existing schools (madrasas) which were renamed as faculties (da@neœkada): the Faculty of Medicine (Da@neœkada-ye pezeœk^), the Faculty of Law and Political Science (Da@neœkada-ye há®oqu@q o ¿olu@m-e s^@a@s^), the Faculty of Letters (Da@neœkada-ye adab^ya@t), and the Faculty of Sciences (Da@neœkada-ye ¿olu@m). Two new faculties were also created, the Faculty of of Engineering (Da@neœkada-ye fann^) and the Faculty of Islamic Studies (Da@neœkada-ye ma¿qu@l o manqu@l, later Ela@h^ya@t). ... . See MADRASA-YE ¿OLUÚ M-E SÈAÚSÈ. .See BAÚDUÚSPAÚN. C. Edmund Bosworth (d. Khorasan 389/999), Turkish eunuch and slave commander of the Samanid army in Transoxania and Khorasan during the closing decades of that dynasty's power. . See BAÚBAÚ FAGÚAÚNÈ. Bo Utas (b. Stockholm, 7 August 1818, d. Shiraz, 10 October 1879), Swedish physician in Shiraz, 1266-96/1848-79. Fagergren was the son of a wood-carver and was first trained as a bath attendant and barber-surgeon. Later he studied medicine in Stockholm and traveled in Europe, eventually enrolling in Russian military service. While with an army corps in Circassia, he was captured but escaped to Istanbul and became captain surgeon in the Turkish army. He proceeded to Persia, arriving in Tehran in 1265/1847. There he attracted the favor of Moháammad Shah (1250-64/1834-48), but after the shah's death he fled to Shiraz, where he served as physician and medical officer to the governor. ... David Pingree (fl. 6th/12th cent.; he is sometimes called by his father's name ¿Abd-al-Kar^m), the most prolific producer of astronomical tables (z^j) in the Islamic world. He is credited with a total of six tables, all of which are lost. There are three lists of these tables, given by Moháammad b. Abu@ Bakr Fa@res^ in his al-Z^j al-momtaháan al-mozáaffar^ (Lee, p. 255), by ˆams Monajjem Wa@beknav^ in his al-Z^j al-moháaqqaq (Krause, 519), and by H®a@j^ K¨al^fa (Kaœf al-záonu@n, ed. ... .See BAÚRBAD. Ahámad Tafazµzµol^ (sing.: fahlav^ya, Arabicized form of Persian pahlav^, in its original sense of Parthian), an appellation given especially to the quatrains and by extension to the poetry in general composed in the old dialects of the Pahla/Fahla regions. According to Ebn al-Moqaffa¿ (in Fehrest, ed. Tajaddod, p. 15, tr. Dodge, I, p. 24), Fahla consisted of five regions, namely Isfahan, Ray, Hamada@n, Ma@h Neha@vand, and Azerbaijan, that is a region comprising Media (cf. K¨úa@razm^, p. 117, where the word is recorded as bahla). ... JAMˆÈD S®ADAÚQAT-K¨Èˆ ,a rural district (dehesta@n) situated 12 km northwest of Nu@ra@ba@d in the Mamassan^ œahresta@n. It consists of the plain of Fahl^a@n and foothills. The Fahl^a@n River irrigates the plain only, and the foothills, despite being fertile, remain uncultivated due to lack of water. Two tributaries, one of fresh water and the other brackish, merge at a place called Sar AÚs^a@b-e Ja@v^d to form the Fahl^a@n River, which ultimately joins the Zohra River to flow into the Persian Gulf. ... .See SUPPLEMENT. . See Bahmanid Dynasty. . See GORGAÚNÈ, FAKòR-AL-DÈN AS¿ADÈ. . See ¿ERAÚQÈ. . See ¿ABD-AL-S®AMAD HAMADAÚNÈ. . See RHAZES. . See EBN ZARKU&Uacut e;B ˆÈRAÚZÈ. , an 8th/14th century spiritual leader of the Ùeœt^ Sufi order in India. He hailed from Sa@ma@na (H®am^d, p. 64), but nothing else is known about his life prior to his involvement with the order. In Delhi he attended the assemblies of Mawla@na@ Fakòr-al-D^n Ha@nsaw^, where the renowned shaikh Nasá^r-al-D^n Mahámu@d Ùera@@g@-e Dehl^ (q.v.) and Mawla@na@ Kama@l-al-D^n Sa@ma@na also took instructions in mystic guidance or heda@ya (H®am^d, p. ... . See ˆAMS FAK¨R& Egrave;. EIr. , pen-name of Moháammad b. Mansáu@r b. Sa¿^d, entitled Moba@rakœa@h, author of two prose works in Persian written in India in the late 6th/12th and early 7th/13th century, a book on genealogy with no formal title and the famous AÚda@b al-háarb wa'l-œaja@¿a (q.v.). Most of the available information about Fakòr-e Modabber comes from remarks in his books where, unfortunately, he comments more often about his ancestors than about himself. He gives a detailed genealogy in both books (ˆajara-ye ansa@b, 1927, p. ... . See ABU'L-H®ASAN KHAN ARDALAÚN. C. Edmund Bosworth (b. 434/1043; d. 500/1106-7), eldest son of the great Saljuq vizier and himself vizier to the Saljuq sultans Bark^a@roq (q.v.; 485-98/1092-1105) and Moháammad b. Malekœa@h (498-511/1105-18). . See ¿ABD-AL-NABÈ QAZVÈN&E grave;. MOH®AMMAD-TAQÈ PUÚR AH®MAD JAKTAÚJÈ (b. 1278/1899 in Raœt, d. 16 Bahman 1366 ˆ./5 February 1988 in Tehran), educator, journalist, lawyer, and scholar. His father, H®a@j^ Rezµa@, was a merchant in Raœt and a member of the Provincial Council (Anjoman-e eya@lat^) of G^la@n during the Constitutional Revolution (q.v.). Ebra@h^m began his education in a local maktab (see education iii) at age five but later pursued modern education at Maj^d^ya and Ettefa@q primary schools and ˆams secondary school. ... . See BANAÚKAT È. Sharif Husain Qasemi (or SoltÂa@n) Am^r^ Herav^ (b. Herat, ca. 903/1497, d. probably in Agra, after 974/1566), poet, scholar, and Sufi who wrote on various aspects of the poetic art. His father was also a poet, who had adopted the pen name Am^r^ (Gol±^n-e Ma¿a@n^, Ka@rva@n-e Hend II, p. 996; idem, Tadòkeraha@ I, p. 430; Bakka@r^, p. 206; Tattav^, p. 487). Fakòr^ Herav^ himself was a panegyrist of the Safavid shahs Esma@¿^l I (907-30/1501-24) and T®ahma@sb (930-84/1524-76; Storey, I, p. ... HUÚˆANG A¿LAM ,an obsolete Persian name (older *fa@kòtak/g; cf. the pl. fa@kòtaga@n; arabicized as fa@kòeta, pl. fawa@kòet; see also Schapka, no. 577, p. 180) for a columbine bird, most probably the so-called "collared turtle dove," Streptopelia decaocto Frivaldszky (order Columbiformes), mentioned in classical Persian poetry mainly as a spring songbird. . See QAWAÚMÈ. .See DIVINATION. Nassereddin Parvin , the first monthly magazine in Persia dealing with agricultural issues. The magazine commenced publication four months after the establishment of the General Agricultural Office of Persia (Eda@ra-ye koll-e fela@h®at-e mama@lek-e mah®ru@sa). The official publication of that bureau, it ran from Joma@da@ I 1318/August 1900 to ˆawwa@l 1325/November 1907 (nineteen issues in all). .See ASTRONOMY; COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY. Mahmoud Omidsalar (also falak, ±u@b o falak), one of the most common instruments of corporal punishment in Persia. The victim would be made to lie down on his back, and his feet would be fastened to a pole of about 2-3 m long with a loop in the middle made of leather or rope. The loop was held in place by passing its two ends through two holes made in the pole about 20-25 cm apart, with knots at the end to prevent the cord from slipping through. The feet of the victim were put through the loop and the pole was twisted, tightening the loop around the feet so as to prevent release. ... Parviz Mohebbi (a sling), a term probably derived from the Avestan fradaxœana@- (Darmesteter, II, p. 215, n. 38; AirWb., col. 981). Asad^ T®u@s^ (Log@at-e fors, ed. Mojtaba@÷^ and Aœraf, pp. 197-98), quoting a verse by Ru@dak^, defined fala@kòan as kala@sang. Kala@sang/qalma@sang is described as a device "woven from wool or silk with which shepherds and footmen (œa@tÂera@n) throw stones" (Borha@n-e qa@tÂe¿, ed. Mo¿^n, III, pp. ... François de Blois ,a Persian poet of the first half of the 6th/12th century. The only ruler mentioned in his published poems is the ˆarva@nœa@h Manu@±ehr II, who ruled ca. 516-55/1122-61 (for these dates see Storey and de Blois, V/2, p. 248, n. 2). It is thus likely that Falak^ died during his reign. The date 577/1181-82, which Taq^ Ka@œ^ and others give for his death, is probably much too late since K¨a@qa@n^'s elegy on Falak^ indicates that he died at a young age. A statement in the same poem that Falak^ was "aware of the mysteries of the nine spheres" could be taken as evidence that he was a professional astronomer, which would explain his pen-name, Falak^, or it could be nothing more than wordplay on K¨a@qa@n^'s part. ... MANSáUÚR RASTGAÚR FASAÚ÷È , prominent mojtahed of Shiraz (1256-1319/1840-1901). Born in As^r, a village in the Galada@r district of Fa@rs, he studied religious sciences there under Shaikh Moháammad As^r^ before coming to Shiraz in the 1270s/1850s to study with H®a@jj Shaikh Mahd^ Koju@r^, from whom he eventually received a license as a mojtahed (Fasa@÷^, ed. Rastga@r, II, p. 912). He married the daughter of H®a@jj M^rza@ H®asan ˆ^ra@z^, the leading mojtahed of the time. ... Judith Pfeiffer (b. Isfahan, 29 Dey 1304 ˆ./19 January 1926 ; d. Berlin 10 Dey 1375 ˆ./30 December 1996), professor of Islamic studies at Cologne University (1974-96). Fala@tÂu@r^ studied Arabic literature and the Islamic sciences with private tutors in his hometown of Isfahan while attending a German-Persian high school. He continued his studies in Tehran and Maœhad with Moháammad-Taq^ AÚmol^, Ayatollah Sayyed Ahámad Kòúa@nsa@r^ and M^rza@ Mahd^ AÚœt^a@n^, specializing in the philosophies of Háa@j^ Molla@ Ha@d^ Sabzava@r^ and Molla@ S®adra@ (qq. ... . See BAÚZ; BAÚZDAÚR&Eg rave;. BAÚQER ¿AÚQELÈ and EIr. (b. 1328/1910, Ka@œa@n; d. 1360 ˆ./1981, London), deputy manager of the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC; ˆerkat-e mell^-e naft-e Èra@n), in charge of international relations and marketing, "a shrewd man of affairs, the Shah used him as a behind-the-scenes negotiator with the oil companies" (Alam, p. 37n.). Son of Sayyed Ebra@h^m Falla@há, a cleric and small landowner, Rezµa@ went to primary school in Ka@œ@a@n; later he enrolled at Da@r al-fonu@n (q. ... ÈRAJ AFˆAÚR ,a book of presages and omens (see DIVINATION). Mansour Shaki ,philosophy. For philosophy in the Islamic period, see also articles under individual authors and schools, e.g., AVICENNA, FAÚRAÚBÈ, MOLLAÚ S®ADRAÚ, SABZAÚVARÈ. Manouchehr Parsadoust (b. Tehran, 9 AÚdòar 1280 ˆ./30 November 1901; d. 2 K¨orda@d 1360 ˆ./22 May 1981), Persian historian, educator, journalist, translator, and poet. .See ABUÚ NAS®R FAÚM&Egrav e;. Ziba Mir-Hosseini , legal prescriptions dealing with marriage, divorce, the status of children, inheritance, and related matters. Nancy Hatch Dupree , a term for programs to regulate family size that came into use in the West in the 1930s. Although it originally encompassed efforts both to promote and to curtail fertility, explosive population growth in the developing countries since mid-century has narrowed its meaning to control of fertility, including programs for prevention of conception, abortion, and sterilization. Xavier de Planhol .Famines have been reported throughout Persian history by numerous authors and observers. According to a compilation made by Charles Melville, they occurred in Khorasan in 115/733 (Melville, p. 130), in S@^sta@n in 220/835 (Melville, p. 130), in Khorasan and S@^sta@n in 400/1009-10 (Melville, p. 136), in Khorasan in 1099 (Melville, p. 136), in Kerma@n in 576/1180 and 662/1264 (Melville, p. 130), in Fa@rs in 683-85/1284-66 and 698/1299 (Melville, p. 130), in Yazd in 858/1454 (Melville, p. 130), and throughout Persia in 1870-72 (Melville p. ... . See ¿AZ˜OD-AL-DAWLA. Vahid Rafati , poet, born in the village of Sangsar, near Semna@n in 1290/1873. A shoemaker by profession, his formal education was minimal, but four years of travel (1304-8/1887-91) with his mentor, the Bahai scholar and poet AÚqa@ Moháammad Fa@zµel Qa@÷en^ (Nab^l-e Akbar), provided him with an opportunity to acquaint himself with Persian literature. Returning to Sangsar, Jonu@n remained there until his death (21 Moháarram 1364/6 January 1944). Jonu@n left behind more than 70,000 verses of poetry and a few essays. ... . See SENDBAÚD-NAÚMA. Sharif Husain Qasemi ,pen name of Shaikh MOH®AMMAD-MOH®SEN b. H®asan KAˆMÈRÈ(d. 1081/1670-71), Indo-Persian scholar and poet, to whom the Dabesta@n-e-madòa@heb (q.v.) has wrongly been attributed (¿Askar^, p. 85). He studied under Mulla Ya¿qu@b S®arf^ (d. 1013/1605) and Mulla Wa@sáeb, a Persian poet from Kashmir (H®asan Khan, p. 308). The poets Mulla T®a@her GÚan^ (d. 1079/1688) and Moháammad Aslam Sa@lem (d. 1119/1707 or 1130/1717-18), both from Kashmir, studied with him at Madrasa-ye QotÂb^ya in Srinagar, Kashmir (K¨oœgu@, p. ... (lanterns). See ÙERAÚGÚ. . See AFGHANISTAN xii. LITERATURE. Munibur Rahman (also called Maftu@n), Persian poet from the Indian sub-continent (fl. 12th/18th century). He was born in 1115/1703 at Delhi and traced his origin, on the father's side, to an uncle of the Prophet Moháammad, ¿Abba@s b. ¿Abd-al-MotÂtÂaleb. On his mother's side he was a sayyed, which accounts for the designation "M^r." He obtained his education in Delhi and eventually became well-versed in Muslim jurisprudence, scholastic theology, tradition and, above all, in literature and poetics. ... C. Edmund Bosworth , ed. Sotu@da, p. 117, tr. Minorsky, p. 118; EsátÂakòr^, p. 346, tr. pp. 307, 360; Moqaddas^/Maqdes^, pp. 26, 48), a small district on the middle Syr Darya (Nahr al-ˆa@œ, Sayháu@n) in Transoxania, at the confluence of that river with its right-bank tributary, the Arys, which flows down from Esf^ja@b (q.v.), and also the name of a small town within it. The site of both of these now lies within the modern Republic of Kazakhstan. Muhsin Mahdi , Muslim philosopher of the 4th/10th century. Daniel Balland (Farah in early Islamic sources), a town and province in southwestern Afghanistan. Wolfram Kleiss ,common place name throughout Persia, without any cultural or historical significance. The three best-known Faraháa@ba@ds are the following. REZ˜AÚ REZ˜AÚZAÚDA LANGARUÚDÈ ,a district (bakòœ) in Tafreœ subprovince (œahresta@n) of the Central (Markaz^) province. The Farmah^n River traverses the district and drains into the M^qa@n salt lake. Due to an abundancy of subterranean water, many perennial qana@ts operate in the district which, together with its fertile soil, make possible both irrigated and dry farming. The main agricultural produce consists of cereals, cattle feed, sugar beets, fruits, and vegetables. Fara@ha@n is also celebrated for carpets with a "Sa@ru@q" design, named after one of its villages (Farhang-e jog@ra@f^a@÷^-e Qom-Ara@k, p. ... Hafez Farmayan ,MÈRZAÚ MOH®AMMAD-H®OSAYN, Persiandiplomat and author of a Safar-na@ma (born in Fara@ha@n in 1264/1847; died 1331/1913). Fara@ha@n^ began his education under the supervision of his father, Moháammad-Mahd^, who was chief secretary to the governor-general of Azerbaijan and a famous calligrapher (see calligraphy). At the age of twelve, Fara@ha@n^ moved to Tehran to continue his education. There he received a typical 19th century Persian schooling, which included study of Persian literature, Arabic, history, accounting, some French language and culture, and calligraphy. ... . See ADÈB-AL-MAMAÚLEK FARAÚHAÚNÈ. MOH®AMMAD DABÈRSÈAÚQÈ (or Moháammad/Mahámu@d) b. Ab^ Bakr b. H®osayn b. Ja¿far Fara@h^, poet and litterateur (fl. 7th/13th cent.). He hailed from the city of Fara@h (q.v.) in the province of S^sta@n in what is now Afghanistan. Daniel Balland (Nahr Farah, Ar. translation of Fara@hru@d, in EsátÂakòr^, pp. 244, 247; Ebn H®awqal, p. 420, tr. Kramers, p. 410; Moqaddas^, p. 329), river in southwestern Afghanistan, rising at about 3,300 meters above sea level in the Band-e Baya@n (G@Úo@r), and, after a course of 712 km in a south-western direction, ending in the Ha@mu@n-e S®a@ber^ (S^sta@n) at an altitude of 475 m. It is the ancient Fradaƒa@ (Yt. 19.66-67; AirWb., col. 982), or Ophradus (Pliny, Naturalis Historia 6. ... . See DEHESTAÚN&Egr ave;. François de Blois ,the conventional reading of the name of an early Persian poet. Our sole biographical source is Moháammad ¿Awf^'s Loba@b al-alba@b (II, p. 5), which includes him in the chapter on the poets of the Samanids and quotes two verses by him. According to ¿Awf^, his full name was Abu@ ¿Abd-Alla@h Moháammad b. Mu@sa@ Fara@la@v^, and he was a contemporary of ˆah^d Balkò^, which would mean that he lived at the end of the 3rd/9th century or at the beginning of the 4th/10th century. ... Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh ,son of Iran's national hero Rostam (q.v.), and himself a renowned hero of the Iranian national epic. His adventures were very popular, especially during the 4th/10th and 5th/11th centuries (Bal¿am^, ed. Baha@r, I, p. 133; II, p. 687; Farrokò^, vv. 1027, 7654). According to the Ta@r^kò-e S^sta@n (p. 7), the exploits of Fara@marz comprised a twelve-volume account. What is known of his story today is derived from Ferdows^÷s ˆa@h-na@ma (q.v.), from the Fara@marz-na@ma (q. ... . See ABUÚ MANS®UÚR FARAÚMARZ. Mohammad Zarnegar ,¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN(b.12 Rab^÷ I 1315/11 August 1897 in Ga±u@ya, Fara@marza@n, Fa@rs; d. 20 T^r 1351 ˆ./11 July 1972, Tehran), an outspoken journalist, writer, educator, Majles deputy, and poet. Fara@marz^ was the youngest son of Shaikh ¿Abd-al-Wa@h®ed, scholar, teacher, and chief of the Fara@marz^ clan, who migrated to Bu@œehr after local feuds and disturbances led to the slaying of his cousins in 1317/1899. In 1328/1910 the family moved to Bahrain, where Fara@marz^ attended Arabic and Persian schools. ... Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh ,a Persian epic recounting the adventures of the hero Fara@marz. According to the Ta@r^kò-e S^sta@n (p. 7) there was an account of Fara@marz (akòba@r-e Fara@marz) in twelve volumes, but this work, presumably in prose, has been lost. Instead, two Fara@marz-na@mas, both poems composed in the motaqa@reb meter (¢--), are extant. One of them, which appears to be older, is by an anonymous poet who introduces himself as a villager from P^ru@za@ba@d (possibly an orthographical error in the text for Forsa@ba@d, a town near Marv) and an admirer of Ferdows^. ... .See FREEMASONRY. ,according to the ˆa@h-na@ma, the mother of Fere@du@n (q.v); also the name of a wife of Bahra@m V Go@r (q.v.). . See supplement. Muhammad Wali-ul-Haq Ansari (FERANGÈ MAH®AL) , family of Indian Muslim teachers, Hanafite scholars, and mystics active over the last 300 years. The family claims descent, through the well-known 11th-century Persian Hanbalite scholar and Sufi poet ¿Abd-Alla@h Ansáa@ri^(q.v.) Herav^, from Abu@ Ayyu@b K¨a@led Ansáa@r^ (d. ca. 52/672), host of the Prophet Moháammad at Medina (Ha@œem^, pp. 20, 124-30; Beaurecueil, tr., p. 38; Wal^-Alla@h, ¿Omda, fol. 1b; M.-H®. ... Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh ,eldest daughter of Afra@s^a@b and wife of S^a@vakòœ. In the Bundahiœn (TD2, 35.21) her name is V^spa@n-frya@. In Táabar^ (I, p. 604) it appears as Vasfa@far^d and Vasfafarah. In Tòa¿a@leb^'s GÚorar (p. 205), however, it is recorded as Kas^far^. On that basis, one might speculate that the no longer extant ˆa@h-na@ma-ye Abu@ Mansáu@r^ (See ABUÚ MANS®UÚR Moháammad b. ¿ABD-AL-RAZZAÚQ and ABUÚ MANS®UÚR MA¿MARÈ) also used this form or possibly G^sfar^. ... ,Persian term for a category of books and manuals dealing with horses and horsemanship. Topics treated in this literary genre include horse-breeding, grazing, dressage, veterinary advice, horse-racing and betting, and the art of divination based on the mien and movements of horses. C. Edmund Bosworth (Parau), a small medieval town in eastern Persia, lying east of the Caspian Sea and just beyond the northern edge of the Kopet-Dag range facing the Kara Kum desert. In the early Islamic period it was one of a string of strongly defended fortresses (reba@tás), also including Ab^vard, Nasa@, and Dehesta@n (qq.v.), along the northern frontiers of Khorasan, meant to hold back the Og@uz and other Turkic peoples of the Asian steppes. Administratively it seems to have lain on the frontier between Khorasan and Gorga@n, having been included by the geographers in either province. ... C. Edmund Bosworth (plurs. forsa@n, fawa@res), the Arabic term for "rider on a horse, cavalryman", connected with the verb farasa/farosa "to be knowledgeable about horses, be a skillful horseman" and the noun faras "horse". Since in ancient Arabian society the owner of a horse was a comparatively rich man, often a tribal chief, sayyed, and since in the early Islamic d^va@n (q.v.) system the cavalryman was entitled to a stipend double that of the infantryman, the forsa@n were a privileged class, and acquired some of the fighting qualities and chivalric attributes of the medieval European knight. ... . See ABUÚ ¿ALÈ FAÚRESÈ. Gül A. Russell (d. 721/1320), the most signifi;cant fi;gure in optics after Ebn al-Hayt¯am (Alhazen; 354-430/965-1040). The two names have been linked on account of Kama@l-al-D^n's critical revision of Ebn al-Hayt¯am's Keta@b al-mana@záer, which represents a watershed in the scientifi;c understanding of light and vision. Kama@l-al-D^n's work, entitled Tanq^há al-mana@záer le-dòaw^ al-absáa@r wa'l-basáa@÷^r, was for long assumed to be a commentary (æarhá) on the Keta@b al-mana@záer. ... AHáMAD MAHDAWÈ DAÚMGÚAÚNÈ ,a literary term used in Arabic literature to refer to poems in Arabic which contain some Persian words or even phrases in their original form, the most notable example being the Fa@res^ya@t of Abu@ Nowa@s (q.v.). The term has also been used in a wider sense to include all Persian words, phrases, and sentences which occur in classical Arabic poetry or prose, whether in their original state or in an Arabicized form. C. Edmund Bosworth ,valley of the Syr Darya (Jaxartes) river extending ca. 300 km between the Farg@a@na mountains in the east and the first sharp bend of the river's course to the north. It is approximately 70 km wide, flanked on the north by the Ùatkal range and on the south by the Alai mountains. David Pingree , Muslim astronomer. Farg@a@n^ flourished at Sa@marra@ during the period that it served as the capital of the ¿Abbasid caliphs (836-92 C.E.), though Sáa@¿ed Andalos^ (p. 141) states that he was one of al-Ma÷mu@n's astronomers. Nothing is known about his family nor much about his life beyond his authorship of a triad of influential works and his unsuccessful attempt to construct a canal, which was to run through the new city of al-Ja¿far^ya. This was entrusted by Motawakkel (847-61) to Moháammad and Ahámad, sons of Mu@sa@ b. ... William C. Chittick , Sufi author from the town of Ka@sa@n in Farg@a@na (d. D¨u'l-háejja 699/August 1300; see Scattolin, 1993, p. 334). According to Farg@a@n^'s own account (1988, p. 184), he entered the Sufi path under Naj^b-al-D^n ¿Al^ b. Bozg@oœ of Shiraz (d. 678/1279), a disciple of ˆeha@b-al-D^n ¿Omar Sohravard^. He subsequently studied with S®adr-al-D^n Qu@naw^ (d. 673/1274), the most influential disciple of Ebn al-¿Arab^' (q.v.), and then with one Moháammad b. ... SAYYAÚRA MAHÈNFAR , Persian poet and Sufi of Farg@a@na (q.v.). The exact dates of his birth and death are unknown. The very little information we have about him is gleaned from his poetry. SAYYAÚRA MAHÈNFAR or UÚs^, osáu@l^ jurist (faq^h), traditionist, and author. All that is known about him is that he was Hanafite by persuasion and followed the teachings of Ma@tor^d^. The date of his death is given as 569/1173 (Kaháháa@la, Mo÷allef^n, VII, p. 148; Kaœf al-záonu@n II, p. 1200; Brockelmann, GAL I, p. 429) and 575/1179 (Esma@¿^l Pasha, V, p. 700; Kaœf al-záonu@n II, p. 1350). Farg@a@n^'s major works are: 1. Bad÷ al-ama@l^, also known as al-Qasá^da al-la@m^ya fi'l-tawhá^d, a poem in sixty-six bayts about the Hanafite creed of Islam (printed many times), which has been the subject of numerous commentaries, including a versified commentary in Persian (Nazám al-la÷a@le÷, Lucknow, 1869) by Moháammad-Bakòœ Raf^q^. ... Heshmat Moayyad ,a romantic figure in Persian legend and literature, best known from the poetry of Nezáa@m^ Ganjav^ (q.v.) as a rival with the Sasanian king K¨osrow II Parve@z (r. 591-628) for the love of the beautiful Armenian princess ˆ^r^n. His story, following its masterly depiction by Nezáa@m^, provided the source for several narrative works in Persian, Turkish, Urdu, Pashto, and Kurdish. ,name of a number of Parthian kings. See PHRAATES. Rudi Matthee , military commander of Shah ¿Abba@s I (q.v.), executed at the Shah's orders in 1007/1598. He was a descendent of Bayram Beg Qarama@nlu@, one of the great amirs under Shah Esma@¿^l, and son of H®osa@m Beg b. Bahra@m Beg. Kambiz Eslami Nassereddin Parvin ,the title of five newspapers and magazines printed in Persia and Europe. Presented chronologically they are: MOH®AMMAD DABÈRSÈAÚQÈ (b. Shiraz, Ramazµa@n 1242/April 1827, d. Shiraz, 1309/1891), poet, scholar, and calligrapher. In his youth Farhang, the fourth son of the renowned poet M^rza@ Moháammad-ˆaf^¿ Wesáa@l ˆ^ra@z^ (d. 1262/1846), studied literature, mathematics, divination (jafr), and geomancy (raml). Inspired by the example of the poet H®ab^b-Alla@h Qa@÷a@n^ (d. 1270/1854), he also studied French. Solomon Baevskii¡ , a dictionary of the Persian language named in honor of the maharaja AÚnand Gajapat^ Ra@j, the ruler of Vijayanagar in South India. It was compiled in 1306/1888-89 by the maharaja's chief secretary (m^r monœ^), the poet and lexicographer Moháammad Pa@dœ@a@h b. GÚola@m Mohá^-al-D^n, known by the penname ˆa@d. He had previously composed another lexicographical work for AÚnand Ra@j entitled Farhang-e motara@defa@t wa esátÂela@háa@t (Benares, 1294/1877; ed. ... . See ASAÚDÈ TUÚSÈ; LOGÚAÚT-E FORS. Solomon Baevskii¡ , a Persian-language dictionary by the well-known poet Ebra@h^m Qewa@m-al-D^n Fa@ru@q^. The author lived in Bihar and compiled his dictionary in 878/1473-74 during the reign of the ruler of Bengal Abu'l Mozáaffar Ba@rbak Shah (r. 864-79/1460-74). Fa@ru@q^ dedicated the work to his spiritual guide (morœed), the famous Sufi shaikh ˆaraf-al-D^n Ahámad Monyar^ (d. 782/1380-81). It is also known by the titles ˆaraf-na@ma, ˆaraf-na@ma-ye Monyar^, ˆaraf-na@ma-ye ebra@h^m^, or Farhang-e Ebra@h^m-œa@h^. ... . See HAYÈM, SOLAYMA ÚN. . See FRAHANG È O&Egrav e;M. . See FRAHANG È PAHLAWÈG. Nasserddin Parvin , a research quarterly first published in Tehran in Farvard^n 1332 ˆ./March 1953. Beginning with the fifth year, 1336 ˆ./1957, it was published annually up to volume 24, after which it appeared at three-year intervals in as a book. Its founders were Moh®ammad-Taq^ Da@neœpa‘u@h, Manu@±ehr Sotu@da, MosátÂafa@ Moqarrab^, ¿Abba@s Zarya@b K¨o÷^, and Èraj Afœa@r. From the seventh volume, Afœa@r is mentioned as its editor and publisher. ... Solomon Baevskii¡ , one of the most complete and authoritative dictionaries of the Persian language, composed in India at the beginning of the 11th/17th century. Its author was M^r Jama@l-al-D^n H®osayn b. Fakr-al-D^n H®asan Enju@ ˆ^ra@z^, who held the title ¿Azµod-al-Dawla and was also known as H®osayn Enju@. Although born in Shiraz, he had lived in India since his early years and died in Agra in 1035/1626. He served at the Mughal court and rose to a high position under Akbar and Jaha@ng^r (Rieu, Persian Manuscripts II, pp. ... Kamran Talattof and EIr. , an important Persian encyclopaedic dictionary published in six volumes in Tehran between 1963 and 1973. Most of the work was compiled by the eminent Persian scholar and lexicographer Moháammad Mo¿^n (1918-71). His work on lexicography began in 1946 with his collaboration with ¿Al^-Akbar Dehkòoda@ (q.v.) on the monumental Persian encyclopedic dictionary Log@at-na@ma. Later, he prepared a critical edition of the 11th/17th century Persian dictionary Borha@n-e qa@táe¿ (q. ... . See NAÚZ®EM-AL-ATáEBBAÚ÷. . See DAÚ¿È-AL-ESLAÚM. Solomon Baevskii¡ , a Persian dictionary compiled probably no later than 716/1315 by the founder of Persian lexicography in India, the poet and writer Fakòr-al-D^n Moba@rakœa@h Qawwa@s GÚaznav^, or Fakòr-e Qawwa@s, known also as Kama@ngar. In his brief preface, Fakòr-e Qawwa@s writes that he compiled this dictionary to facilitate reading the ˆa@h-na@ma. However, the examples he cites from some sixty other poets (including Ad^b S®a@ber, ˆaraf ˆafarva, Nezáa@m^, K¨a@qa@n^, and the Indian poets Ta@j R^za, ˆeha@b Mahmara, and Na@sáer^) exceed his quotations from the ˆa@h-na@ma itself. ... Solomon Baevskii¡ , a Persian dictionary compiled in India in 1064/1654 by the poet and scholar ¿Abd-al- Raœ^d b. ¿Abd-al-GÚÚafu@r H®osayn^ Tattav^ (q.v.). ¿Abd-al-Raœ^d was also the author of the Arabic-Persian dictionary Montakòab al-log@a@t, compiled in 1046/1636-37, and of a short tract on Arabicized Persian vocabulary, Resa@la-ye mo¿arraba@t. The Farhang-e raœ^d^ includes an introduction (moqaddema), twenty-four chapters (ba@b), and a conclusion (kòa@tema). ... Solomon Baevskii¡ , a dictionary of the Persian language, also known as Majma¿ al-fors and Log@at-e Soru@r^, compiled by the Persian poet Moháammad-Qa@sem Soru@r^, who was born in Ka@œa@n and lived in Isfahan, was known to his contemporaries as a man of outstanding literary erudition who knew over thirty thousand verses (bayts) by heart (Rieu, Persian Manuscripts II, pp. 498-99, citing Ta@q^-al-D^n Ka@œ^). The famous Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle (q.v.) met the poet in Isfahan in November 1622 and wrote a description of the encounter in his Viaggi di Pietro Della Valle il Pellegrino (Rome, 1650-58). ... Ahámad Tafazµzµol^ a comprehensive historical dictionary of the Persian language, of which only one volume has been published so far (P. N. K¨a@nlar^, ed., Farhang-e ta@r^kò^-e zaba@n-e fa@rs^ I: AÚ-B, Tehran, 1357 ˆ./1978). The Department of Persian Lexicography of the Bonya@d-e farhang-e Èra@n (q.v.) began the project of compiling the dictionary under the supervision of the late Parv^z Na@tel K¨a@nlar^. The dictionary was intended to establish during which period in the thousand year history of Persian literature a word was in use, when it was abandoned, and which word replaced it. ... Habib Borjian (Farhangi zaboni tojik^, Tajik Language Dictionary), a descriptive dictionary of classical Persian in two volumes (1,900 pages). It was compiled at the Rudaki Institute of Language and Literature of the Tajik Academy of Sciences and published in 33,000 copies by the Sovetskaya Èntsiklopediya Press (Moscow, 1969). Its compilation started in 1953, and two sample fascicles came out in 1959-60 for public examination. A comprehensive introduction, in both Tajik-Cyrillic and Perso-Arabic scripts, explains the methodology used in the Farhang. ... . See BADR-AL-DÈN EBRAÚHÈMÈ. Nasserddin Parvin , a periodical published in 28 issues from winter 1348 ˆ./1969 to spring 1357 ˆ./1978 by the Secretariat of the High Council of Culture and Art (Dab^r-kòa@na-ye ˆu@ra@-ye ¿al^-e farhang o honar). Na@sáer Nayyer Moháammad^ served as the editor of the first nine issues; Mahámu@d K¨oœ-na@m of issues 11-14; and Mas¿u@d Faq^h of issues 23-28. Other issues were supervised by a board of editors. Publishing articles on both Persian culture and the cultural affairs of other articles, with excellent printing and fine illustrations in an attractive format, Farhang o zendag^ was well received by Persian intellectuals. ... M. A. Jazayeri ,a term for "academy" which gained currency in the 20th century to denote an association of scholars. It is used in particular as the abbreviated form of Farhangesta@n-e Zaba@n-e Èra@n, an organization which was established by the government as a body concerned with the promotion of Persian culture, especially the replacement of foreign loan words by words of Persian origin. . See FARHANG-E ZABAÚN-E TAÚJÈKÈ. Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh ,son of Key Ka@vu@s. Táabar^ (I, p. 605) and Bal¿am^ (ed. Baha@r, I, p. 603) have recorded his name as Borza@farah, whereas Ebn al-Balkò^ (pp. 44-45) has it as Zara@fah. The author of the Mojmal al-tawa@r^kò (ed. Baha@r, p. 29) refers to him as Borzfar^, which, according to him, Ferdows^ changed to Far^borz in order to fit the meter of the ˆa@h-na@ma. The name Borza@frah may be related to Barzapharnes, the name of a Parthian general under Pacorus (Debevoise, pp. ... . See ˆARVAÚNˆAÚH. EIr. , author of an important biographical dictionary in Persian of Mughal notables, the D¨akò^rat al-kòawan^n. Nothing is known of the life of Shaikh Far^d Bhakkar^ beyond the few autobiographical details mentioned in his book. From these, it appears that he was in the bureaucratic service of several Mughal dignitaries, including Abu'l-Fathá Dakkan^ (until his death in ca. 1023/1614); Nu@r Nesa@÷ Begam, wife of the Jaha@ng^r; Khan Jaha@n Lo@d^ during his governorship of Multan and subsequent revolt (1029-40/1631); Maha@bat Khan K¨a@n-e K¨a@na@n; and others (full details in Far^d Bhakkar@^, tr. ... . See FAHHAÚD. . See GANJ-E ˆAKAR. D¨ABÈH®-ALLAÚH S®AFAÚ (or Esáfaha@n^),Malek-al-ˆo¿ara@÷ K¨úa@ja FARÈD-AL-DÈN AH®WAL (the squint-eyed), 13th-century Persian poet, whose dates of birth and death are not known (d. after 663/1264). After receiving the traditional education of the time, he left his home town for Isfahan, where he entered the service of the AÚl-e S®a@¿ed (see S®AÚ¿EDÈAÚN), the leaders of the Hanafites of Isfahan, and composed panegyrics about them. He later went to Shiraz and joined the court of Salghurid Mozáaffar-al-D^n Abu@ Bakr Sa¿d b. ... Sheila S. Blair , scribe active in Shiraz in the 10th/16th century. He is known exclusively through signed works. The most famous is a fine manuscript of SoltÂa@n H®osayn M^rza@'s Maja@les al-¿oœœa@q in the Bodleian Library, Oxford (Ouseley Add. 24). The colophon is signed Far^d al-Ka@teb and dated D¨u'l-H®ejja 959 /October-November 1552, and the fine nasta¿l^q calligraphy is embellished with a richly illuminated frontspiece and 74 (originally 75) paintings in the typical Shiraz style that have been assigned to three different artists (see Guest, pls. ... MÈNUÚ YUÚSOFNEÛAÚD ,a county (œahresta@n) located at the foot of the Zagros mountains in the western part of Isfahan province, bordered on the north by K¨úa@nsa@r, on the northwest by Al^gu@darz (in Loresta@n province), on the west by the county of Far^du@n-œahr, on the east by Najafa@ba@d, and on the south by ˆahr-e Kord and Fa@rsa@n (in Ùaha@r Mah®a@l wa Bakòt^a@r^ province; Weza@rat-e keœvar, p. 7). It comprises twelve rural districts (dehesta@n) and the districts (bakòœ) of M^a@ndaœt, Ùa@daga@n, and Bu@÷^n. ... .See FEREÚDUÚN. .See AÚL-E FARÈGÚÚUÚÚN. .See CENTRAL DIALECTS; see also NAT®ANZÈ. Erwin F. Grötzbach ,river, valley, and administrative district (woloswa@l^), in Takòa@r province, northeastern Afghanistan. The river, which drains the central western slope of the K¨úa@ja Moháammad range of the Hindu Kush, has different names over its course of 261 km: AÚb-e Wa@r, Darya@-ye Qondoz, Ro@d-e Warsaj, Ro@d-e Orsaja@b, Darya@-ye Farkòa@r, Darya@-ye T®a@laqa@n, and Darya@-ye K¨a@na@ba@d. The district comprises the main valley from the Tang-e Warsaj gorge (elev. ... Bert G. Fragner (OPers. frama@na@, Mid. Pers. frama@n; Arabized pl. fara@m^n), decree, command, order, judgment. In historical as well as contemporary administrative and political usage the term often denotes a royal or governmental decree, that is a public and legislative document promulgated in the name of the ruler or another person (e.g., prince, princess, governor) holding partial elements of sovereignty. In the Persophone chanceries of Islamic times and also, following their example, many Turcophone (Ottoman, Chaghatay) chanceries, the word farma@n was invariably the standard nomenclature for such documents. ... Ahmad Ashraf (lit. "giver of an order," i.e., ruler, commander), an epithet with three usages in the Safavid and Qajar periods. Cyrus Mir and EIr. (b. Tehran, 1274/1858; d. Tehran, 1318 ˆ./1939), Qajar prince-governor, military commander, skillful politician, head of various ministries, and prime minister. He was the second son of the prince-governor F^ru@z M^rza@ Nosárat-al-Dawla Farma@nfarma@ (q.v.), himself the sixteenth son of the crown prince ¿Abba@s M^rza@ by a Qajar princess (Homa@ K¨a@nom, a granddaughter of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah). After receiving a traditional education at home, ¿Abd-al-H®osayn M^rza@ "was educated as an officer and received a fair military training in the Austrian Corps which he joined in 1880" (Churchill, p. ... ¿ABD-AL-H®OSAYN NAVAÚ÷È (d. Maœhad, 1272/1854; D^va@nbeyg^, p. 1314), fifth son of the Qajar prince ¿Abba@s M^rza@ (q.v.) and elder brother of SoltÂa@n Mora@d M^rza@ H®osa@m-al-SaltÂana. Having been his father's favorite since childhood, Fereydu@n M^rza@ was named vice-governor of Azerbaijan when ¿Abba@s M^rza@ went to quell a rebellion in Khorasan (1247/1831); after ¿Abba@s M^rza@'s death, during Crown Prince Moháammad M^rza@'s rule in Azerbaijan, Fereydu@n M^rza@ was governor of Tabr^z. ... SHIREEN MAHDAVI (1233-29 Jomada@ II 1303/1817-4 April 1886), the sixteenth son of ¿Abba@s M^rza@ and grandson of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah (qq.v.). His political and military career flourished in the reign of his brother Moháammad Shah (1250-64/1834-48) and continued under his nephew Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96), under whom he held numerous governorships and other prominent posts. Upon the accession of Moháammad Shah, H®osayn-¿Al^ M^rza@ Farma@nfarma@, the king's uncle and governor of F@ars, laid claim to the throne and was supported by his brother H®asan-¿Al^ M^rza@ ˆoja@¿-al-SaltÂana (qq. ... GAVIN R. G. HAMBLY (b. La@r^ja@n, 12 D¨u'l-háejja 1203/2 Sept. 1789; d. Tehran, 26 Rab^¿ I 1251/22 July 1835), the fifth son of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah (r. 1212-50/1797-1834), long-time governor of Fa@rs, and briefly the self-styled king of Persia. His mother, Badr-e Jaha@n K¨a@nom, was the daughter of Qa@der Khan, an amir of a prominent Arab tribe settled in BestÂa@m district (SoltÂa@n Ahámad M^rza@, pp. 27-28, 94). She was married to Ba@ba@ Khan, the later Fathá-¿Al^ Shah, in 1196/1781-82. ... ¿ABD-AL-H®OSAYN NAVAÚ¿È (b. ca. 1244-45/1828-29, d. Tehran, 8 Rab^¿ II 1305/12 December 1887; E¿tema@d-al-SaltÂana, Ru@zna@ma-ye kòa@tÂera@t, p. 530; Ba@mda@d, Reja@l IV, p. 54), high-ranking official in the reign of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah (1264-1313/1848-96). He was a member of the Qaragözlu tribe, which resided near Hamada@n and produced many statesmen, especially in the Qajar period. Mahámu@d Khan was already a high army commander when he was appointed first deputy ambassador to Russia in 1270/1854, at about the age of twenty-five; shortly after his arrival in St. ... MOHAMMAD-SAID NOURI NAINI in Persia. This article reviews major characteristics and trends of farming in Persia during the period from 1960-1995. .See FARR(AH). .See NAZ®EM-AL-AT®EBBAÚ÷. MARY BOYCE and FIROZE KOTWAL ,the name of a Zoroastrian ceremony for departed souls (Av. fravaœi-, q.v.), also called Faro@œ^n (Av. genitive plural fravaœ^na…m-), in Irani Zoroastrian dialect Paro@œ^n. The text of the ceremony consists of the recital of Farvard^n yaœt (q.v.), whereby the souls of the just are reverenced and offerings consecrated for their enjoyment. It is first mentioned, with other traditional ceremonies, in Saddar Bondaheœ (chaps. 49, 53). In chapter 53 (ed. Dhabhar, p. 126; Persian Rivayats, tr. ... GHERARDO GNOLI , literally, "glory," according to the most likely etymology and the semantic function reconstructed from its occurrence in various contexts and phases of the Iranian languages. In all Iranian dialects the form had initial f-, except Avestan and Pahlavi, in which we find initial xú- (h„-): xúar™nah- and xwarrah (cf. NPers. kòorra, below). Despite Philippe Gignoux's doubts (1986, pp. 9-10; cf. Gnoli 1989a, pp. 152-53), the latter was probably also the Middle Persian form in Sasanian inscriptions, where, as in Pahlavi, it was written with the Aramaic ideogram GDE (see below). ... DENIS WRIGHT ,Colonel FRANCIS (b. 1803 [?]; d. 1868), British soldier and diplomat. Farrant was gazetted a lieutenant in the Bombay Light Cavalry in 1823. He went to Persia with Colonel Passmore's military mission in 1833, remaining there until 1852. After the death of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah (q.v.) in 1834, Farrant, along with some other British officers, accompanied Moháammad M^rza@, the heir apparent, on his march to Tehran and was rewarded with the Order of the Lion and Sun. From 1834-37 Farrant was responsible for training the Persian cavalry at Zanja@n, before becoming private secretary to John McNeil, the British minister, whom he accompanied to the siege of Herat in 1838 (see ANGLO-AFGHAN WARS i. ... ,see CITIES iii. JALAL MATINI ,Sayyed MAH®MUÚD . See AMÈN-AL-DAWLA, ABUÚ T®AÚLEB FARROK¨ KHAN. . See DAÚBUÚYÈDS. . See DAÚBUÚYÈDS. J. T. P. DE BRUIJN , Persian court poet. According to the earliest notice on his life, contained in the second essay of Nezáa@m^ ¿Aru@zµ^'s Ùaha@r maqa@la (ed. Qazv^n^, pp. 58–65), his father Ju@lu@@g@ was a military slave (@g@ola@m) of Amir Ahámad K¨alaf-e Ba@nu@, the Saffarid ruler of S^sta@n (r. 352-93/ 963–1003). As a youth, Farrokò^ served a dehqa@n (q.v.), but—disappointed by the answer to his request for an increase in his salary—he left his homeland and found a new patron in Abu'l-Mozáaffar Fakòr-al-Dawla Ahámad b. ... AHMAD KARIMI-HAKKAK (1889-1939), journalist and poet and an early advocate of socialist revolution in Persia. ,son of K¨osrow II, ruled briefly in 630/631. See SASANIAN DYNASTY. C. EDUMND BOSWORTH , Ghaznavid sultan of Afghanistan and northern India 443-52/1052-59). He succeeded in GÚazna after the traumatic events of the reign of his uncle ¿Abd al-Raœ^d (q.v.; ca. 440-43/1049-52), whose power had been usurped by the slave commander T®og@rel; Ghaznavid authority was restored only after a countercoup. Farrokòza@d remains a somewhat shadowy figure in the sources, though praised by Abu'l-Fazµl Bayhaq^ (q.v.) for his just rule and charitable works (p. 114). It was during his reign that Bayhaq^ emerged from prison and started writing his memoirs (mojallada@t). ... FARZANEH MILANI FORUÚGÚ-ZAMAÚN, usually known as Foru@g@, Persian poet (b. Tehran, 1313 ˆ./1935; d. Tehran, 1345 ˆ./1967). .See MAÚDAYAÚN-È HAZAÚR DAÚDISTAÚN. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,name of two newspapers published in Shiraz. XAVIER DE PLANHOL, JOSEF WIESEHÖFER ,province in southern Persia. AHMAD ASHRAF Iran 10, 1972, pp. 101-25. H. Koch, Verwaltung und Wirtschaft im Persischen Kernland zur Zeit der Achämeniden, TAVO, Supplement B. 89, Wiesbaden, 1990. P. de Miroschedji, "La fin du royaume d'Anshan et de Suse et la naissance de l'Empire Perse," ZA 75, 1985, pp. 265-306. Idem, "La fin de l'Elam: Essai d'analyse et d'interpretation," Iranica Antiqua 25, 1990, pp. 47-95. M. C. Root, The King and Kingship in Achaemenid Art, Acta Iranica 19, Leiden, 1979. W. M. Sumner, "Achaemenid Settlement and Land Use in the Persepolis Plain," AJA 90, 1986b, pp. ... DIETRICH HUFF, H. ZANJANI, PIERRE OBERLING, GERNOT WINDFUHR v. MONUMENTS .See MEASURES. DJALAL KHALEGHI-MOTLAGH ,a Kayanian prince in the Iranian legendary history, son of Goæta@sp and brother of Esfand^a@r (qq.v.). He is mentioned in the ˆa@h-na@ma mainly in the context of the religious wars between Arja@sp (q.v.) and Goæta@sp. After Goæta@sp's first victory over Arja@sp, Faræe@dvard is made ruler of Khorasan. When Arja@sp attacks again, the Iranians have to defend themselves, this time without Esfand^a@r, and are thoroughly defeated. Faræe@dvard is mortally wounded in the battle and dies in the arms of Esfand^a@r, who joins the battle late in the day on hearing about his brother's downfall (ˆa@h-na@ma, ed. ... . See ABUÚ NASáR H®EBBAT-ALLAÚH FAÚ ;RSÈ. PIERRE OBERLING ,one of the most important tribes of the Qaæqa@÷^ tribal confederacy. The popular explanation of the name is that it is a mispronunciation of Fa@rs^nada@n (Those who do not know Persian) . See EBN AL-BALK¨È. AHMAD ASHRAF and ALI BANUAZIZI , a history and geography of the province of Fa@rs, with maps and illustrations, by M^rza@ H®asan Fasa@÷^ (b. Fasa@, 1237/1821; d. Shiraz, 12 Rajab 1316/26 November 1898). CARL W. ERNST (772-1009/1370-1601) "land of the khans" (< khan + Hindi de@æ "land"), a small kingdom centered on the Tapti River valley on the northern border of the Deccan (q.v.), bounded on the north by Malwa and the Narmada River, in present-day Madhya Pradesh. The dynasty was established around 772/1370 by Malek Raja Fa@ru@q^ . See FARHA NG-E EBRAÚHÈMÈ. . See Supplement. DANIEL BALLAND (also spelled Pa@rya@b, Ba@rya@b), a town in northern Afghanistan, now in the modern Afghan province of Farya@b. J.T.P. DE BRUIJN , Persian poet who used Záah^r as his pen name. He was born at Fa@rya@b, modern Dawlata@ba@d, in the province of Ju@zja@n near Balkò (qq.v.), probably about 550/1156, or in 1160 according to Kuliyev (Rypka, Hist. Iran. Lit., p. 209; Kuliyev, pp. 145-46); the occurrence of Turkish words in his poetry gave rise to the assumption that he was of Turkish origin (Rypka, Camb. Hist. Iran, p. 577). Z®ah^r-al-D^n died in Rab^¿ I 598/November-December 1201 at Tabr^z and was buried in the graveyard of poets at Sorkòa@b (Ta@r^kò-e goz^da, ed. ... NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,the title of seven publications in Persian: CHAHRYAR ADLE (modern FARUÚMAD), MONUMENTS of. No thorough archeological investigation has been conducted in the Faryu@mad area. Erich F. Schmidt's aerial survey, carried out on 12 May 1937, however, revealed a "town ruin near Farumad" (Schmidt, pls. 61 f.; Schneider, p. 47, microfiche card 12: view A11 and 12; Kleiss, fig. 29 [drawing without scale; perhaps based on Schmidt's pl. 62]). A preliminary survey by the present author undertaken in March 1998 in the eastern Qu@mes and Joveyn regions (unpublished) shows that the town in question forms in fact the southern edge of the present small town of Faru@mad. ... . See EBN YAMÈN. AHMAD KARIMI HAKKAK , Persian litterateur and poet (b. Sanandaj, 1285 ˆ./1906; d. London, 26 September 1981). He studied at the American College (see ALBORZ COLLEGE) in Tehran and was later employed as translator in the Ministry of Finance. In 1929, Farza@d was sent to London on a government scholarship to study economics but returned home two years later before completing the course. For the next nine years he had a variety of contractual jobs as translator at several ministries and governmental offices in Tehran. HUÚˆANG ETTEH®AÚD (b. 1894, d. 1349 ˆ./1970), erudite scholar in Islamic sciences specializing in Arabic and Persian Literature. Born in Sanda@da@n, a district of B^rjand, he moved to Maæhad to continue his education. In 1918 he began his carrier at the Department of Education in S^sta@n, where he founded several modern educational establishments and because of his outstanding managerial skills was referred to as "Mod^r." During 1930-52 he served as the head of the department of education in Bu@æehr, ˆa@hru@d, and B^rjand. ... JOHN F. HANSMAN ,a æahresta@n and a city in Fa@rs. . See FAÚRS-NAÚMA-YE NAÚS®ERÈ. .See BLOODLETTING. D¨ABÈHá-AÚLLAÚH S®AFAÚ , poet of the 11th/17th century (b. ca. 987/1579, d. 1049/1639). Fasá^há^ belonged to a noble family of Herat, which traced its lineage back to K¨úa@ja ¿Abd-Alla@h Ansáa@r^ (d. 481/1088, q.v.). During the invasion of Khorasan in 930/1523 by ¿Obayd-Alla@h Khan, the Uzbek ruler of Bukhara, Fasá^há^'s grandfather, Mawla@na@ M^rja@n, and a number of other nobles of Herat were forced to migrate to Transoxiana. M^rja@n stayed in Bukhara, where both Fasá^há^ and his father Abu'l-Maka@rem were born. ... ANATOL IVANOV (VASMER), RICHARD RICHARDOVICH (b. 9 October 1858, St. Petersburg; d. 22 February 1938), eminent Russian numismatist. DENISE SOUFI in Persia. See also FESTIVALS. Based on a longer article by ABD-AL-H®OSAYN ZARRÈNKUÚB in the Islamic Period. The concept of fatalism as commonly used in Islamic philosophy and Persian literature denotes the belief in the pre-ordained Decree of God (qazµa@ wa qadar), according to which whatever happens to human beings or in the whole universe has been pre-determined by the will and knowledge of the Almighty, and that no changes or transformations in it can be made through the agency of the human will. The advocates of these tenets claim support for their views in the Koranic references to "The Tablet" (lawhá) and "The Pen" (qalam; Koran 68:1, 85:22) and maintain that whatever happens in the world has been written down by God with the Pen of the Divine Will (qalam-e maæ^yat) on the Tablet of the Eternal Decree (lawhÂ-e qazµa@). ... S. H. QASEMI , abridged Persian translation by Qa@zµ^ Najm-al-D^n Khan Ka@kor^ (d. 1229/1814) of a six-volume Arabic work on Hanafite law (ed. Bu@la@q, 1276/1859) considered the authoritative compendium of religious law, policy, and practice in India. The original text, known also as Fata@w^-e hend^ya (Cat. Bankipore XIX/1, p. 63), was prepared by a group of scholars under the supervision of Shaikh Nezáa@m-al-D^n Borha@npu@r^ (d. 1092/1681; Moháammad-Ka@zem, p. 1087; Bakòta@var, p. ... .See BAK¨T; FATALISM; FREE WILL. BAÚQER ¿AÚQELÈ (b. Isfahan, 7 Ramazµa@n 1313/20 February 1896; d. London, 8 ˆahr^var 1357/30 August 1978), a deputy director-general of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (q.v.) and banker. He was born to Ha@jj Ahámad Khan Fa@tehá-al-Molk, a land-owner, army officer, and member of the Majles. He went to elementary school in Isfahan; then he went to Tehran to the American College for five years. In 1915 he continued his higher education in the United States where he first entered Johns Hopkins University to study medicine, but later he changed his mind, going to Columbia University to study economics. ... JEAN CALMARD ,daughter of the Prophet Moháammad. .See ANÈS-AL-DA WLA. FAKHREDDIN AZIMI (1296-1333 ˆ./1917-54), journalist, a leader of the National Front, and the minister of foreign affairs under Moháammad Mosáaddeq. H®osayn Fa@tÂem^ was born in Na@÷^n into a family with a tradition of religious learning. His father was Sayf-al-¿Olama@÷ Sayyed ¿Al^-Moháammad Na@÷^n^. Fa@tÂem^ received his elementary education in his home town and then moved to Isfahan for his secondary education. There he began to work for the newspaper Ba@kòtar, which was published by his elder brother NasÂr-Alla@h Sayfpu@r Fa@tÂem^ (Sayfpu@r Fa@tÂem^, pp. ... . See AK¨UÚNDZAÚDA. . See AFˆÚAÚR. ¿ABD-AL-H®OSAYN NAVAÚ÷È , chief of the Aæa@qa-ba@æ division of the Qajar tribes at Astara@ba@d at the time of the demise of the Safavid dynasty. He was the son of ˆa@hqol^ Khan and the grandfather of AÚg@a@ Moháammad Khan Qa@ja@r (q.v.) the founder of the Qajar dynasty. He was executed for treason on the orders of Shah Táahma@sb II on 14 Sáafar 1139/11 October 1726 (E¿tema@d-al-Saltáana, Montazáam-e na@sáer^, ed. Rezµva@n^, III, p. ... ABBAS AMANAT , the second ruler of the Qajar dynasty (b. Moháarram 1183/May 1769; d. 19 Joma@da@ II 1250/ 24 October 1834). SHARIF HUSAIN QASEMI , a famous Sufi, an official in Mughal India, and one of the most learned men of his time. Fathá-Alla@h was a disciple of the Sufi shaikh M^r ˆa@h M^r Tak^ya ˆ^ra@z^ and studied with such scholars as K¨úa@ja Jama@l-al-D^n Mahámu@d, Kama@l-al-D^n ˆerva@n^, and G¨^a@t¯-al-D^n Mansáu@r Daætak^ ˆ^ra@z^ (AÚ÷^n-e akbar^, tr. Blochmann, p. 34; Raháma@n ¿Al^, p. 160). He is said to have mastered philosophy, astronomy, astrology, geometry, geomancy, arithmetic, mechanics, Arabic, rhetorics, Koranic exegesis, Hadith, incantations, and the preparation of talismans (Bada@÷u@n^, Montakòab, tr. ... MEHRDAD SHOKOOHY (or M^rza@ Ebra@h^m), a Mughal official (d. 1033/1623-24). According to the Ma÷a@t¯er al-omara@ ([Calcutta] I, p. 135), he was the son of E¿tema@d-al-Dawla GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n Beg Tehra@n^ (q.v.) and brother of Nu@r(-e) Jaha@n, the influential wife of the Mughal emperor Jaha@ng^r (r. 1014-37/1605-27). Together with other members of E¿tema@d-al-Dawla's family, he entered Jahang^r's service and was first made a paymaster (bakòæ^) and inspector (wa@qe¿anev^s) of Gujarat, responsible for reporting on the events of the region to the emperor. ... EIr. , famous bibliophile, author, courtier, and official in ¿Abbasid times ( d. 4 ˆawwa@l 247/11 December 861). Some modern authorities have referred to him as "al-Fa@res^" or claim he was of Persian ancestry (Zerekl^, A¿lam2 V, p. 133; Dehkòoda@, s.v. "Fathá b. K¨a@qa@n"; Yéldéz, p. 452), but this appears to be erroneous. Mas¿u@d^ (Moru@j VII, p. 191) gives Fathá the nesba al-Tork^, and his father, a military officer named K¨a@qa@n ¿OrtÂu@j, was almost certainly a Turk (Gordon). ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH ,Arabic-Persian term used to denote proclamations and letters announcing victories in battle or the successful conclusion of military campaigns. They might be composed on the actual battle field by one of the ruler's secretaries or put together later in the ruler's chancery. These last tended to have a more polished form, and some may have been written more as literary exercises than as propaganda, the normal purpose of the fathá-na@ma. FARHAD DAFTARY ,relations with Persia. A major Isma¿ili Shi¿ite dynasty, the Fatimids founded their own caliphate, in rivalry with the ¿Abbasids, and ruled over different parts of the Islamic world, from North Africa and Sicily to Palestine and Syria. The Fatimid period was also the golden age of Isma¿ili thought and literature. Established in 297/909 in Efr^q^ya, the seat of the Fatimids was later transferred to Egypt in 362/973, and the dynasty was finally overthrown by S®ala@há-al-D^n (Saladin) in 567/1171, when the fourteenth and last Fatimid caliph, al-¿AÚzµed (555-67/1160-71), lay dying in Cairo. ... TAHSËN YAZICI , Persian poet of the Timurid era, born in N^æa@pu@r (hence his nesba N^æa@bu@r^) at an unknown date (d. 852/1448). There is no information on his birth date or family. Fatta@há^ initially used the pen name (takallosá) Toffa@há^ (from Ar. toffa@há, apple), the Arabic equivalent of his Persian sobriquet (laqab) S^bak (little apple), which he later changed to Fatta@há^ by anagram (H®ab^b al-s^ar, Tehran, IV, p. 15). In his Asra@r^ wa K¨oma@r^ he also used the pen names "Asra@r^" and "K¨oma@r^. ... HAMID ALGAR (or in some early sources fotya@; pl. fata@wa@ or fata@w^), the authoritative ruling of a religious scholar on questions (masa@÷el) of Islamic jurisprudence that are either dubious or obscure in nature (æoboha@t) or which have newly arisen without known precedent (mostahádat¯a@t). It is in connection with the latter category that the word fatwa@ has been regarded as cognate with fata@, "young man" (Esáfaha@n^, p. 373). The query eliciting a fatwa@ may, however, relate to an existing ordinance (háokm) of Islamic law, unknown to the questioner, or to its application to a specific case or occurrence; the fatwa@ then functions simply as a clarification of the relevant ordinance (taby^n-e háokm). ... STEVEN ANDERSON ,the assemblage of animal species, generally excluding domestic animals (q.v.), living within a defined geographical area or ecological zone. O. L. KRYZHANOVSKIIŸ ,ii. AFGHANISTAN. See AFGHANISTAN iii. JAMES R. RUSSELL , Arm. P¿awstos (Latin, "fortunate"), fifth-century author of the Patmut¿iwn Hayoc¿ (History of the Armenians) or Buzandaran. He is surnamed Buzand, a word taken to mean either "the Byzantine" or, as Anahit Perikhanian has proposed, "composer of epics": from OIr *bava(t)-zanta-, cf. NP. zandva@f "Zoroastrian, lit. chanter of the Zand" (pp. 653-57). Buzandaran would mean something like "Epic Histories." There seems little doubt that, whoever the person P¿awstos may have been, the History ascribed to him was composed in Armenian by an Armenian steeped in the Iranian traditions of the newly Christianized land, for his description of the events of the fourth century, from the death of St. ... . See FEVZI EFENDI. . See FEVZË MOSTA& Uacute;RÈ. JALAÚL MATÈNÈ , scholar and educator (b. Maæhad, 1316/1898; d. Maæhad, 4 ˆahr^var 1350 ˆ./26 August 1971). Son of Sayyed ¿Abd-al-Maj^d T¨eqat-al-Esla@m, head steward (kòa@dem-ba@æ^) of AÚsta@n-e Qods-e Razµaw^ (q.v.), Fayya@zµ received his elementary and secondary education at traditional schools (see EDUCATION iii, iv) in Maæhad, studying Islamic jurisprudence with Abu'l-Qa@sem Azg@and^ and literature with Ad^b N^æa@bu@r^ (q. ... , see ¿ABD-AL-RAZZAÚQ LAÚHÈJÈ. HAMID ALGAR (b. 1006/1598 or 1007/1599; d. 1090/1679), prolific and versatile scholar of the Safavid period, celebrated chiefly for his Sufi inclinations. Born in Ka@æa@n to a family renowned for its learning, Fayzµ began his education with his father, ˆa@h Mortazµa@, from whose rich library he was also able to benefit. At the age of twenty he went to Isfahan to pursue his studies, but after about a year he moved to Shiraz to study Hadith and jurisprudence with Ma@jed Bahára@n^, one of the leading representatives of the Akòba@r^ school (q. ... R. D. MCCHESNEY and A. H. TARZI , Afghan court chronicler and secretary to the amir H®ab^b–Alla@h Khan (q.v.; r. 1319-37/1901-19). Fayzµ Moháammad was born in 1279/1862-63, in the village of Zard Sang in the Qara@ba@g@ district of Ghazni (GÚazn^), and died in Kabul in 1931. His father, Sa¿^d Moháammad b. K¨oda@yda@d, was of the Moháammad K¨úa@ja clan (qawm) of the Haza@ras. ... DANIEL BALLAND , atoponym of auspicious meaning ("blessed abode") which enjoys great popularity throughout the Iranian world. Besides numerous villages of various importance (e.g. 77 occurrences of the name in Iran according to Pa@pol^-Yazd^, p. 392), it designates two important towns: one is the main town and administrative center of the Afghan province of Badakòæa@n (q.v.), the second is the town founded 1132/1719-20 which served as the first capital of the nawwa@b of Awadh, now a district headquarters in Uttar Pradesh, 120 km east of Lucknow (Bazmee Ansari; Cole, index). ... MUNIBUR RAHMAN (b. Agra, 5 ˆa¿ba@n 954/24 September 1547 [D^va@n, f. 78b]; d. Lahore, 10 S®afar 1004/15 October 1595), Mughal court poet, also known as Fayzµ^ Fayya@zµ^, who wrote mainly in Persian. His family was descended from a Yemeni who had settled in Sind in the 15th century; in the early 16th century Fayzµ^'s grandfather moved to Nagaur in Rajasthan, where the poet's father, Shaikh Moba@rak (911-1001 /1505-93), was born. The latter had a strong inclination to spiritual pursuits, but his broad religious views brought him into conflict with orthodox clerics. ... MOOJAN MOMEN (b. Qom, 1906; d. Haifa, 19 November 1980), Bahai teacher, missionary, and author. Fayzµ^'s father, ¿Abd-al-H®osayn Khan, and mother, S®edd^qa, were first cousins and descendants of Molla@ Mohásen Fayzµ (q.v.). Fayzµ^ moved with his family to Tehran at the age fifteen, where his parents, although they were not Bahais, enrolled him in the Bahai-run Tarb^at school. Influenced by his Bahai teachers and the Bahai weekly classes of dars-e akòla@q (lit: instructions on ethics), he eventually came to consider himself a Bahai. ... . See MANAÚQEB K¨úAÚNÈ. PARVIZ AHUR (b. AÚmol, 1295 ˆ./1916; d. Tehran, 1340 ˆ./1961), popular fiction writer and translator. Son of a cleric, M^rza@ Abu'l-H®asan Fa@zµel La@rija@n^, Fa@zµel went to primary and secondary schools in AÚmol. He also studied Islamic jurisprudence as well as Arabic and Persian literature with scholars of his native town. He worked as high school teacher, first in Sa@r^ and Ba@bol until 1938, and later (1939-61) in Tehran. In 1945, he earned a B.A. degree in philosophy from the Faculty of Theology of the University of Tehran (ˆa@ya@n, p. ... ÈRAJ AFˆAÚR (b. 14 Dòu'l-h®ejja 1198/29 October 1784; d. 1259/1843), poet, litterateur, and secretary during the reigns of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah (1212-50/1797-1834) and Moháammad Shah Qa@ja@r (1250-64/1834-48). His family belonged to the Turkmen Ba@yandor tribe and resided at B^ja@r, the administrative center of Garru@s. Fa@zµel Khan was the title bestowed upon him by Fath®-¿Al^ Shah (AÚryanpu@r, I, pp. 54-55; Ba@mda@d, Reja@l III, p. 50). ... MOOJAN MOMEN , Bahai scholar and missionary (b. Ba@bol, 1298/1881; d. K¨orramæahr, 5 Dey 1336 ˆ./26 December 1957). His father M^rza@ Mahámu@d was a merchant and government official and a Shaikhi by religion. His mother was the daughter of the poet M^rza@ AÚqa@ Bozorg Qasásáa@b Ma@zandara@n^. Fa@zµel received his early education in his hometown before moving in 1903 for further studies to Tehran, where he became a teacher (modarres). He encountered a number of Bahais there and eventually became a Bahai in about 1909. ... HUÚˆANG ETTEH®AÚD , (b. Tu@n, 25 Moháarram 1288/15 April l871; d. Tehran, 13 Bahman 1339 ˆ./2 February 1960), scholar and teacher of Islamic philosophy. Like Sayyed Moháammad Ka@záem ¿Asásáa@r and Jala@l-al-D^n Homa@÷^, two other prominent men of learning, Fa@zµel Tu@n^ belonged to a generation of scholars who had received a traditional Islamic education and subsequently went on to teach at the newly founded University of Tehran. His early life followed the familiar pattern of peregrinations as a student (tÂalaba). ... . See ESFARAÚ÷ENÈ, FAZ˜L B. AH®MAD. DAVID PINGREE , mathematician and astronomer (fl. 900 C.E.). His family originated from Nayr^z/N^r^z, a small town near Shiraz. Almost nothing is known of his personal life. The fact that he dedicated several works to the caliphs al-Mo¿tazµed (279-89/892-902) and al-Moktaf^ (289-95/902-8) and also the dedication notice to a vizier in his Resa@la f^ aháda@t¯ al-jaww, suggest that he, already a mature scholar, spent some time at the caliphal court in Baghdad around the turn of the 10th century (Sezgin, GAS VII, p. ... ETAN KOHLBERG , Imami traditionalist, theologian, and jurisprudent (d. Moháarram 260/October-November 873). After studying with his father ˆa@dòa@n b. K¨al^l (according to several sources, K¨al^l was ˆa@dòa@n's laqab; see Moháaddet¯ Ormav^, pp. 44-48), Fazµl moved as a young man from Persia to Baghdad, where he met H®asan b. ¿Al^ b. Fazµzµa@l (d. 224/838-39), followed him to Ku@fa, and studied with him there (Kaææ^, pp. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (d. 202/818), high official of the early ¿Abbasids and vizier to the caliph al-Ma÷mu@n (r. 198-218/813-33). His father Sahl was a Zoroastrian from the vicinity of Ku@fa who became a Muslim and attached himself to the Barmakids (q.v.), seeking employment also for his two sons Fazµl and Háasan. At Yaháya@ Barmak^'s prompting, Fazµl himself also became a Muslim, reportedly in 190/806 (Jahæ^a@r^, pp. 230-31; according to T®abar^, III, p. 709, at the hands of al-Ma÷mu@n), and entered the service of Ha@ru@n al-Raæ^d's son al-Ma÷mu@n. ... . See ASTARAÚBAÚDÈ, FAZ˜L-ALLAÚH. , Shaikh. See NU&Uac ute;RÈ, FAZ˜L-ALLAÚH. TAHSËN YAZICI (Moháammad; or ¿Al^; see Kaæf al-záonu@n II, p. 1506) ÇAG¦DA‡LAN Turkish poet, known also as Qara Fazµl^ (b. ? in Istanbul; d. 971/1563 in Kütahya). His father was a saddler. Fazµl^, who does not seem to have received a systematic education, developed his poetic talent by associating himself with poets and the learned of the time. His first such mentor was the poet R^a@zµ^ (d. 953/1546) of Üsküp (Skopje), from whom Fazµl^ received instructions in Persian literature, and, at the same time, began to write Turkish and Persian poetry. ... MICHAEL ZAND (d. after 1237/1822), Central Asian bilingual poet (Persian and Chaghatay), tadòkera compiler, and historian. Fazµl^ spent his childhood and youth in poverty. For a time he was an official in his birthplace, Namanga@n, and in To@raqo@rg@a@n, apparently before joining the court of the ruler of K¨o@qand, Moháammad ¿Omar Khan M^ng (ca. 1225-37/1810-22). Twice banished from the court, he succeeded finally to rank as its poet laureate (malek al-æo¿ara@÷). ... ¿ABD-ALLAÚH MARDUÚK¨ò , known also as Nezáa@m-al-D^n Fazµl-Alla@h, chief of the ˆaba@nka@ra Kurds in F@ars during the 5th/11th century. He was the son of ¿Al^ b. H®asan b. Ayyu@b of the Ra@ma@n^ clan of the ˆaba@nka@ra and the founder of the line of ˆaba@nka@ra rulers in Fa@rs, which lasted intermittently FARHAD DAFTARY (or feda@w^), devotee, a person who offers his life for others or in the service of a particular cause. The term has been used of such devotees affiliated to several religious and political communities and organizations in the Islamic world. In particular, it was applied to the young, self-sacrificing devotees of the Neza@r^ Isma¿ili community of Persia and Syria during the Alamu@t period (483-654/1090-1256; see ALAMUÚT). The Neza@r^ feda@÷^s, also designated more commonly in Syria and in the Arabic sources as feda@w^s (feda@w^ya), were sent on dangerous missions to remove the prominent enemies of their community, enemies who had posed serious threats to the survival of the Neza@r^s in particular localities. ... FARHAD DAFTARY (b. ca. 1266/1850; d. 1342/1923), foremost Persian Neza@r^ Isma¿ili author and poet of modern times, who is referred to as H®a@j^ AÚkòu@nd in the Persian Neza@r^ community. Feda@÷^ was born in Dezba@d/D^zba@d or Dezba@d-e Ba@la@ (Razma@ra@, Farhang IX, p. 180), an Isma¿ili village in the mountains between Maæhad and N^æa@pu@r in northern Khorasan. He was a descendant of Ema@mqol^ K¨a@k^ K¨ora@sa@n^, an important Neza@r^ poet of the Safavid times (d. ... FARHAD KAZEMI , a Shi¿ite fundamentalist group with a strong activist political orientation. It was founded in 1945 by a charismatic figure, Sayyed Mojtaba@ M^rlawhá^ (b. 1923; d. 1955). Claiming descent from the Safavids who had established the Shi¿ite state in Persia in the early 16th century, M^rlawhá^ adopted the princely title Nawwa@b S®afaw^. After graduating from the German Technical School in Tehran (Madrasa-ye sáan¿at^) and a stint as an employee of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (q. ... . See COM MUNISM iii TAHSËN YAZICI , a Persian teacher and poet of Turkish origin (b. Istanbul, 1203/1789; d. 1262/1846). There is no information available concerning his youth and education. He was a servant and student of the well-known contemporary scholar Esma@¿^l Farrokò Efendi. He matured under his tutelage and, above all, became highly accomplished in Persian. After serving in several capacities at the imperial court, the imperial mint, and in Rumelia, he came to Istanbul and settled there to give Persian lessons. Among his students were Jevdet Pasha, the statesman and historian, and Fatîn Efendi, author of a tadòkera of Turkish poets. ... WERNER SUNDERMANN or Keta@b al-fehrest, a celebrated catalogue of books in Arabic, drafted in 377/987 by Ebn al-Nad^m. HUÚˆANG A¿LAM (arabicized from archaic Pers. pelpel < Skt. pippal^, which designated both the vine and the berries of Piper longum L. "Indian long pepper"; Monier-Williams, p. 628), modern Persian term designating the fruits and/or berries of two botanically different groups of plants: the pepper proper and the capsicum peppers (Rosengarten, pp. 128-47, 352-65). DANIEL BALLAND and JEAN-PIERRE DIGARD (Mid. and New. Pers., namad), material produced by process of felting, the entanglement of animal fiber in all directions, appropriately done to form a soft and homogeneous mass. The technique was originally devised in nomadic communities of Central Asia (Pazyryk, 5th to 3rd centuries B.C.E., see Bidder, pp. 29 ff.; Burkett, 1979, pp. 7 ff.; Baranski), spreading toward China and the Greek world well before the 3rd century B.C.E., but for a long time confined to the Asian continent (Laufer). JANET AFARY in Persia. The struggle for women's rights that began in the mid-19th century and, more specifically, on the eve of the 1905-1909 Constitutional Revolution (q.v.) and continued to the present time has been one of the main forces for democratic change in the 20th century Persia. HAMIDEH SEDGHI iii. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD ZIBA MIR-HOSSEINI iv. IN THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC MÈNUÚ YUÚSOFNEÛAÚD ,a rural district (dehesta@n) of the county (æahresta@n) of Gonbad-e Qa@bu@s (q.v.). It is situated north of the Alborz range (q.v.) in the eastern part of Ma@zandara@n, bordered to the north by the rural districts of Ba@g@l^-ma@ra@ma@ and Daland; to the east by Qal¿a-ye M^ra@n; to the west by Katu@l; and to the south by the district (bakòæ) of Ba@stÂa@m/BestÂa@m in Semna@n province (Markaz-e a@ma@r-e Èra@n, Naqæa, p. ... .See MÈR FENDERESKI, ABU'L-QAÚSEM. HUÚˆANG A¿LAM (ra@z^a@na <*ra@z^a@nag, arabicized as ra@z^a@naj), the aromatic sweetish potherb and medicinal plant Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (= Anethum foeniculum L., etc.; fam. Umbelliferae). NORMAN CALDER (jurisprudence), term used to designate the processes of exposition, analysis, and argument which constitute human effort to express God's law (æar^¿a). Technical definitions in the pre-modern period suggest that it is an epistemological category, indicating knowledge of religions æar¿^ rules as derived from the recognized sources. One who possesses such knowledge is a faq^h (jurist, pl. foqaha@÷). By extension, the term feqh is applied to the contents of an educational curriculum, a body of literature and, generally, to the academic activities of the juristic elite. ... ÈRAJ AFˆAÚR , a major hagiography of Abu@ Esháa@q Ka@zaru@n^ (b. 352/963, d.426/1033; q.v.), a famous Sufi and founder of a selsela variously referred to as Ka@zaru@n^ya, Esháa@q^ya, or Moræed^ya. The original Arabic text, by Abu@ Bakr Moháammad b. ¿Abd-al-Kar^m b.¿Al^ b. Sa¿d al-K¨atÂ^b (d. 502/1109), the third kòal^fa of the order, is no longer extant, but evidence of direct textual borrowings from it can be found in the Tadòkerat al-awl^a@÷ of ¿AtÂtÂa@r (Meier, p. ... BAQER PARHAM ,æahresta@n in Khorasan consisting of three administrative districts: the city of Ferdows and its immediate suburbs, Boæru@ya and Sara@ya@n. It is located in southern Khorasan between the Kala@t mountains to the north and northeast and the Kav^r-e Namak and Daæt-e Lu@t to the west and northwest. The climate in this part of Khorasan is one of the dryest in the entire country; annual precipitation is only 66 mm (Aæraf, pp. 1-2). Irrigation by means of springs and qanats (underground aqueducts), supplemented since the years just preceding the Islamic Revolution in Persia (1357 ˆ. ... ESMAIL NOORIALA ,the name of two periodicals, a bi-monthly and a weekly magazine published in Tehran. DJALAL KHALEGHI-MOTLAGH (329-410 or 416/940-1019 or 1025), one of the greatest epic poets and author of the ˆa@h-na@ma, the national epic of Persia. See also ˆAÚH-NAÚMA. EIr. ii. HAJW-NAÚMA DJALAL KHALEGHI-MOTLAGH, EIr. (329-410 or 416/940-1019 or 1025), one of the greatest epic poets and author of the ˆa@h-na@ma, the national epic of Persia. See also ˆAÚH-NAÚMA. AH®MAD TAFAZ˜Z˜OLÈ (arabicized from Afr^du@n; Pahl. and Man. Mid. Pers. Fre@do@n; NPers. Fereydu@n or Far^du@n; Av. ÿrae@taona), Iranian mythic hero. He is mentioned several times in the Avesta with the epithet AÚƒ£iia@ni "of the house of AÚƒ£iia" (AirWb., p. 323), said to have been his father (Y. 9.7). AÚƒ£iia is to be compared with Vedic AÚptya, both from Indo-Iranian *AtpÁas. Both the Indian hero Trita AÚptya and the Avestan ÿrae@taona, son of AÚƒ£iia, defeated dragons: Vis‚varu@pa and Daha@ka respectively. ... ,angels in Islam and Persian folklore. See Supplement, ANGELS. . See FEREˆTA, TAÚRÈK¨-E. GAVIN R. G. HAMBLY , popular title of Golæan-e ebra@h^m^, a general history of Muslim India by .See FEREÚDUÚN. RUDOLF VESELY´ (FEREYDUÚN AH®MAD BAYG), ¿ABD-AL-QAÚDER, Ottoman secretary, admin istrator, head of the chancery, and author. A prote‚ge‚ of the famous grand vizier Moháammad Pasha S®oqollu@, Feridun Beg also distinguished himself at the siege of Szigetva‚r (974/1566) and was subsequently promoted to the posts of secretary of state and chancellor (ra÷^s al-kotta@b and neæa@nj^). He died on 21 S®afar 991/16 March 1583. .See FORUÚD , (Democratic Party of Azerbaijan), the dominant political party in Azarbayjan during the P^æavar^ period. See Supplement. GAVIN R. G. HAMBLY ,Josephe-Pierre, 19th-century French traveler. Little biographical information survives relating to this intrepid explorer in Afghanistan. A professional soldier who saw service during the Algerian campaigns of 1830-37, he was one of several French officers loaned to Moháammad Shah's government in 1839, following the withdrawal of British military advisors over the issue of Herat. In Tehran he attained the rank of adjutant-general but fell foul of the Russian legation, leading to his repatriation to France in 1843. ... MEHDI AMANI . Fertility and mortality in a population depend on sociocultural history, sanitary conditions, and biological factors. Although the last element is generally similar in all human communities, sociocultural and sanitary factors vary considerably. ETRAT ELAHI (fesenju@n, fasu@jan), awell known Persian dish (kòoreæ, a kind of stew) made of walnut or almond, poultry (usually duck) or small meat balls (kalla gonjeæk^) and pomegranate sauce or juice. The earliest dictionary mentioning it (Farhang-e AÚnandra@j; q.v.) refers to it as fasu@jan and states that it is a dish coming from the province of G^la@n and "the G^la@n^s know how to cook it well." The Farhang-e Naf^s^ spells the word fesenju@n instead of fasu@jan, as does the Farhang-e Mo¿^n (q. ... MARY BOYCE .This article treats mainly religious or communal festivals and commemorations in Persia and Afghanistan. For specific festivals and secular celebrations, see under individual entries. WERNER SUNDERMANN KEITH HITCHINS The major Bahai festivals and holy days have been fixed by the founders and central figures of the Bahai faith (q.v.). Of the list below, the first five (totaling seven holy days) were established by Baha@÷-Alla@h (q.v.) in al-Keta@b al-aqdas (par. 110-111; see AQDAS), and the last two were authorized by ¿Abd-al-Baha@÷ (q.v.). On these nine holy days, Bahais are to suspend all work. The Bahai calendar is based on the solar year. However, for the time being, all of the festivals and holy days listed below, except the first two and the sixth, are celebrated in the Middle East on their anniversaries according to the Muslim lunar calendar. ... x. In Afghanistan .See FESTIVALS iii. HABIB BORJIAN ; (official Soviet name: Abdurauf Abdurahimov, b. Bukhara, ca. 1886; d. Tashkent, 1938), teacher, man of letters, and the most important thinker of the Jadid movement of modern Central Asia. He wrote in both Persian (later known as Tajik) and Turki (late Chagatay, q.v.; subsequently Uzbek). His biography can be divided into four periods: (1) the years of his madrasa training and teaching until 1909; (2) the time he was the principal theorist of the Jadid movement, 1910-20; (3) the years he was leader of the Bukharan People's Conciliar Republic, 1920-23; and (4) his final years as educator, writer, and scholar, 1923-37. ... MICHAEL ZAND (also, mistakenly, Sa¿^d; Miklukho-Makla¥, No. 2825) KAMAÚL (b. about 1070/1660 in the Zardu@za@n quarter of Samarkand; d. after 1110/1699, probably in Bukhara), Tajik poet. Little is known about his life. Our main source on his biography is Mal^háa@ Samarqand^, according to whom (fol. 93b) FetÂrat was born into the family of a gold-thread embroiderer (hence his designation Zardu@z). In 1098/1687 he went to Bukhara to study and got married there (Mal^háa@, fol. ... .See ¿AYYAÚR; FOTOWWAT. ,European term sometimes applied to Medieval Persia; see EQT®AÚ¿. JEAN CALMARD , JEAN-BAPTISTE,called Joanneàs (b. Saulx, near Vesoul, Haute-Saône, France, 6 October 1842; d. Saulx, 29 November 1926), French military physician, Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah's personal physician from August 1889 to October 1892, and author of a well known travelogue, Trois ans aà la cour de Perse. TAHSËN YAZICI , Ottoman author who wrote some books in Persian (b. Tavas district of Denizli province, 1826; d. Istanbul, 28 Rab^¿ II 1318/25 August 1900). Fevzi Efendi studied with a number of scholars, including Evliyâzâde Ali Rézâ (Awl^ya@÷zada ¿Al^-Rezµa@) Efendi in Manisa. Fevzi Efendi was appointed mufti of Edirne ca. 1847 and became known as "Edirne Müftüsü" because of his long tenure in that office. HAMID ALGAR (d. 1160/1747), author of the Bolbolesta@n, an imitation of Sa¿d^'s Golesta@n (q.v.), the only prose work written in Persian known to be by a Bosnian author. dialect. See LORÈ. PIERRE OBERLING ,group of Lor tribes located mainly in Luristan. During the two centuries in which the whole of Luristan was ruled by hereditary wa@l^s (descended from H®osayn Khan Solv^z^, appointed by Shah ¿Abba@s I in 1006/1597-98) all the tribes in the region were called Feyl^, but, at the beginning of the 19th century, the situation changed. Moháammad-¿Al^ M^rza@, eldest son of Fathá-¿Al^ Shah Qa@ja@r (1212-50/1797-1834) and governor-general of Kerma@næa@h, seized P^æ-e Ku@h (the eastern part of Luristan), leaving to the wa@l^ only Poæt-e Ku@h (the western part). ... J. T. P. DE BRUIJN . i. Traditional Forms. SÈMÈN BEHBAHAÚNÈ and EIr. ii(a).HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MODERN FICTION HOURA YAVARI ii(b).THE NOVEL JAMAÚL MÈRS®AÚDEQÈ ii(c).THE SHORT STORY HOURA YAVARI ii(d).THE POST-REVOLUTIONARY SHORT STORY HOURA YAVARI ii(e).POST-REVOLUTIONARY FICTION ABROAD HOURA YAVARI ii(f).BY PERSIANS IN NON-PERSIAN LANGUAGES SHAHWALI AHMADI ii(g).IN AFGHANISTAN KEITH HITCHINS ii(h).IN TAJIKISTAN .See AÚDUR, AÚTAˆ, AÚTAˆKADA. .See EQT®AÚ¿; LAND TENURE. HUˆANG A¿LAM , the "fruit" of several species and subspecies of Ficus L. (fam. Moraceae) in the geobotanical area covered by K. H. Rechinger's Flora Iranica (q.v.). However, the edible varieties of anj^r (yellow, greenish, dark violet, b^-da@na "seedless," etc.) offered fresh on the market are produced mainly by the cultivated or improved fig tree, i.e., Ficus carica L. (or subspecies thereof; see below). MICHELE BERNARDINI , Spanish diplomat and traveler (b. Zafra, Badajoz, December 1550; d. at sea on the return from Persia, 22 July 1624). Figueroa served Philip II during the war in Flanders and subsequently became governor of Badajoz. In 1614 he was sent as Philip III's ambassador to the court of Shah ¿Abba@s I. However, Figueroa was detained in Goa for three years and did not arrived in Persia until 12 October 1617. He remained there until 1619, dealing with matters related to the conflict between the Safavids and Ottomans and to Portuguese control over Hormuz but without achieving the desired results from Shah ¿Abba@s. ... . See BADÈ¿. .See ELEPHANT. .See HAZELNUT. ,district and spring near Ka@æa@n. See BAÚGÚ-E FÈN. ,TREATY OF. See FRANCE iii; GARDANE MISSION. . See Supplement; see also CINEMA. MARK GARRISON , asurvey of sites. Fire altar is a term adopted by modern researchers to designate the stand upon which sacred fire was placed. Strictly speaking, the designation "fire altar" is incorrect, since the structure was not used to receive a sacrifice, but simply to hold the fire for the purposes of veneration, probably contained within a metal or clay bowl. Mary Boyce has suggested the appellation "fire-holder"; although more accurate, this designation has not won wide acceptance (Boyce, Zoroastrianism II, p. 52; Houtkamp, p. ... . See AÚTAˆKADA . See AÚTAˆ. RUDI MATTHEE in Persia. This article surveys the history and production of various firearms and artillery in Persia from their introduction to the 19th century. .See FARMAÚN. KLAUS SCHIPPMANN , Sasanian king (r. 459-84), son of Yazdegerd II (r. 439-57). After Yazdegerd's death his other son, Hormozd, hitherto viceroy of S^sta@n, was crowned as Hormozd III (q.v.). The relevant sources are not clear as to which of the two sons was the elder. Armenian sources refer to Hormozd as the elder (Patkanian, p. 169), whereas Persian sources have it the other way around (Rawlinson, p. 311). F^ru@z was forced to flee, probably to the Hephtalites (q.v.) who occupied Khorasan at this time. F^ru@z returned after nearly two years, backed by Hephtalite troops as well as Persians under the command of Raha@m, of the Mehra@n family of nobles (Ensslin, col. ... FARIBORZ MAJÈDÈ and HUÚˆANG ETTEH®AÚD , one of Tehran's oldest high schools, founded by Parsi philanthropist Bahramji Bikaji as a memorial to his son F^ru@z, who was lost at sea in the Mediterranean in 1915. Bikaji's initial plan was to build an elementary school in Afghanistan, where his daughter and son-in-law served in the court. However, in a meeting in 1931 with Arba@b Keykòosrow ˆa@hrokò, head of the Zoroastrian Society of Tehran (see ANJOMAN-E ZARTOˆTÈAÚN), it was decided that the school should be built in Tehran with a total investment of twenty thousand Rupees. ... AH®MAD EDAÚRAÙÈ GÈLAÚNÈ (not Moæref^ as in Majma¿ al-fosáaháa@÷, p. 946), poet at the court of the Saffarids Ya¿qu@b b. Layt¯ (r. 253-65/867-78) and his brother ¿Amr b. Layt¯ (r. 265-88/878-901). Next to nothing is known about his life. Hermann Ethe‚ mentions (p. 218) him with the epithet háak^m (philosopher, sage) without indicating his source. Moháammad ¿Awf^ refers to him as a master poet who, like rain, cleansed the Persian language of impurities (besa@n-e g@ayt¯ gat¯t¯ o fasa@d az sokòan-e pa@rs^ du@r kard; Loba@b II, p. ... . See FARMAÚNFARMAÚ, FÈRUÚZ MÈRZAÚ. . See NOS®RAT-AL-DAWLA FÈRUÚZ MÈRZAÚ. See ANBAÚR. .See TURQUOISE. DIETRICH HUFF , townand district (æahresta@n) in Fa@rs (q.v.), about 110 km south of Shiraz. The town has an altitude of ca. 1,300 m and geographical coordinates 28° 50´ N, 52° E (Gazetteer of Iran III, pp. 256-58, 292). The plain is 10 to 20 km wide and is abundantly watered by springs and the perennial F^ru@za@ba@d river, the ancient Kòonayfeqa@n or Bora@za (Ebn al-Balkò^, pp. 134, 151; tr., pp. 39, 44). It is categorized by medieval geographers as belonging to the sards^r (the cool climate) but on the border of the garms^r (warm climate), hence regarded as especially agreeable. ... . See Supplement. BERNARD HOURCADE ,name of two towns: (1) a fortified city in the medieval Islamic province of GÚu@r (q.v.) in Central Afghanistan, which was the capital of the senior branch of the Ghurid sultans (see GHURIDS) for some sixty years in the later 6th/12th and 7th/13th centuries; (2) fortress and surrounding settlement in the Dama@vand region of the Alborz mountains in northern Persia. WILLIAM L. HANAWAY ,pre-Safavid prose romance. The hero is F^ru@zæa@h, son of Da@ra@b of the Kayanid house. The earliest surviving version was related by the story–teller Mawla@na@ Shaikh H®a@j^ Moháammad b. Shaikh Ahámad b. Mawla@na@ ¿Al^ b. H®a@j^ Moháammad T®a@her^ (or T®a@mer^), known as B^@g@am^ (q.v.). The original text probably consisted of five volumes, of which three survive. ... RIKA GYSELEN inPersia. i. Achaemenid Period. JÜRGEN PAUL iii.ISLAMIC PERIOD WILLEM FLOOR MASSOUD KARSHENAS v.PAHLAVI PERIOD DAVID YEROUSHALMI ,WALTER JOSEPH (b. 12 November 1902; d. 14 July 1973), a scholar of Oriental Jewry and Islamic civilization. Born in Frankfurt am Main, Fischel received a degree in political science from the University of Frankfurt and a Ph.D. from the University of Giessen. He moved to Jerusalem in 1926, where he was granted a doctoral degree by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and appointed research fellow and lecturer at the Faculty of Oriental Studies. He remained with the Hebrew University until 1945. In the following year, he settled permanently in Berkeley as professor of Semitic Languages and Literature at the University of California until his retirement in 1970. ... BRIAN W. COAD .With about 1,800 km of coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, and about 990 km on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, plus some inland fresh waters, Persia has a great variety of aquatic fauna: mollusks, crustaceans, chelonians, mammals (dolphins, whales, seals), and particularly, fishes. Thus the country has rich aquatic resources and considerable potential for fishing and aquaculture; see FISHERIES AND FISHING. NAJMIEH BATMANGLIJ ii.SALT WATER FISHES WILLIAM PIROYAN and EDEN NABY Experiences:The Nations of Persia—Their Manners, Customs, and Their Belief, 2nd. ed., Milwaukee, 1904. J. Struys, The Voyages and Travels of Jan Struys II, London, 1684. "S[urb]. Sargis Zo@ravari to@n™ T¿awrizum," Alik¿, 5 July 1994, p. 1. "S[urb]. T¿ade@i vank¿i uxtaworneri veradarj™," Alik¿, 19 July 1994, p. 1. J.-B. Tavernier, Les six voyages de Turquie et de Perse II, Paris, 1981. "T¿ehranahayut¿ean æk¿e¬ to@nakatarut ¿iwn™, 'Dahe@ faèrµ' i arµit¿ov," Alik¿, 9 February 1994, p. ... NANCY HATCH DUPREE x.IN AFGHANISTAN Festive ceremonies in Afghanistan mark special religious days and major events in individual life cycles. Few are formally organized, being celebrated primarily to keep family bonds strong and community ties congenial. HOUSHANG ALAM .There was no real fishing organization in Persia until the second half of the 19th century when Russian subjects, encouraged and backed by the Tzarist Russia's expansionist policy, got increasingly involved in coastal and fluvial fishing activities in the Caspian provinces of Persia, especially when members of the Russian Armenian Lianozov family entered the scene. In the Qajar period, traditionally, bulk fishing in those provinces was leased, if ever, by local governors to private entrepreneurs for annual lump sums regardless of the quantity and composition of fish catches. ... DICK DAVIS (31March 1809/14 June 1883), British translator of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (London, 1859), as well as Ja@m^'s Sala@ma@n o Absa@l (Sala‚ma‚n and Absa‚l: an Allegory, Translated from the Persian of Ja‚mi, London, 1856) and ¿AtÂtÂa@r's Mantáeq al-táayr (Bird Parliament, first published as "A Bird's Eye-View of Farid-uddin Attar's Bird-Parliament"; Fitzgerald, 1903, VII, pp. 255-312). The first of these is by far the most famous translation ever made from Persian verse into English, and it had a considerable influence on the development of late Victorian and Edwardian British poetry as well as the awakening of a much wider interest, in English speaking countries and Europe, in Persian literature than had previously been the case. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI .This article is meant to supplement earlier entries on Iranian vexillology (see ¿ALAM VA ¿ALAÚMAT, BANNERS, and DERAFˆ). HABIB BORJIAN ii.OF AFGHANISTAN HABIB BORJIAN iii. OF TAJIKISTAN JEAN CALMARD ,French painter and architect renowned for their outstanding illustrated account of their travels in Persia during 1839-41. CHARLES MELVILLE . i. Geographicalsurvey. KARL HUMMEL and vegetation, including plant species and larger vegetation complexes, in Persia. See also BOTANICAL STUDIES. ii. INPERSIA GENERALCHARACTERISTICS Scrublands.Coniferous scrub is known only from the subalpine levels of the Alborz. It consists of Juniperus excelsa and Juniperus communis subsp. communis. Elsewhere cold-adapted deciduous scrub prevails. On the northern slopes of the Alborz the Hyrcanian forests give way gradually to deciduous scrub, and then either to the dwarf scrub and herbaceous formations characteristic of high mountain elevations or, in the east, to the juniper woodlands of Khorasan. Because of declining precipitation at higher elevations and farther east, the rich array of Hyrcanian forest species disappears. ... WOLFGANG FREY, HARALD KÜRSCHNER, and WILFRIED PROBST The initial phase of anthropogenic influence. Finds at ¿Obayd^ya in the upper Jordan valley show evidence of human habitation in the Near East in the early Pleistocene (Zohary, 1973). Hundreds of thousands of years intervened between that period and the first attested cultures of the early Stone Age in the Near East. Owing to their constant need for edible plants, the early humans must have exhausted certain species in the main settlement areas along the partly wooded margins of the steppes. Such edible species would have been replaced by inedible ones. ... WOLFGANG FREY , amonumental work on the plants of Persia. Edited by Karl Heinz Rechinger of Vienna since 1963, Flora Iranica now consists of some 172 fascicles and is nearly complete. Only two spermatophyte families, the Cyperaceae and the Rubiaceae, are as yet lacking; the Fabaceae with the extensive genera Astragalus and Astracantha have not been finished. The club mosses, the horsetails, and the ferns have also not yet been published. .See ˆAH-NAÚMA MANUSCRIPTS. .See SUPPLEMENT. JOSEF ELFENBEIN , explorerand writer (b. Lincolnshire, England, 1852; d. Cairo, Egypt, 1903). After the Indian Mutiny of 1857-58, the need for swifter communication between London and India was strongly felt. Efforts began in 1859 to establish direct telegraphic links between the two countries. In 1862 a telegraph line was built by the British government running from Karachi westward along the Makra@n coast of Baluchistan, as far west as Ùa@hbaha@r (qq.v.) in Persia. It was extended in 1868 to Ja@sk, and thence by submarine cable to Bu@æehr (q. ... GERD GROPP ,GUSTAV LEBERECHT (b. 18 February 1802, Bautzen; d. 5 July 1870, Dresden), German Orientalist. Flügel studied theology and Orientalistics in Leipzig from 1821 to 1824 with, among others, Ernst Friedrich Karl Rosenmüller. A stipend from the imperial court enabled him to take up residence in Vienna from 1827-29, where he examined the Oriental manuscripts at the royal library and in Hammer-Purgstall's collection, and to undertake extensive travels in the Austro-Hungarian empire and Germany. In 1829 and again in 1839 he visited Sylvestre de Sacy and the (future) Bibliotheàque Nationale in Paris, returning to Dresden in 1830. ... JENS KRÖGER , pioneer of Islamic paleographical studies (b. 20 April 1874 in Isabella, Brazil; d. 24 January 1935 in Basel, Switzerland). Of Swiss origin, Flury grew up in Germany and Switzerland after his father's early death in Brazil. He studied theology but was reluctant to become a minister. When Flury had finished his theological studies, he was given an opportunity to teach at the German School in Cairo during the years 1899-1902. This resulted in his desire to pursue teaching as a career as well as his interest in Islamic art. ... .See AˆRAF-¿ALÈ KHAN FOGÚAÚN. ,Buddhist cave site in Afghanistan. See AFGHANISTAN viii. PHILIP G. KREYENBROEK in Iranian languages. The term 'folk poetry' can be properly used for texts which have some characteristics marking them as poetry and belong to the tradition of the common people, as against the dominant 'polite' literary culture of the area. ULRICH MARZOLPH . This article aims to provide a summary of folklore studies made in or about the Iranian world. OF AFGHANISTAN Folklore may be defined as roughly comprising the oral-traditional component of culture, complementary or competitive with an official, canonical "written" culture, but this definition presents certain problems. In Afghanistan in the 20th century, as in Persia until recently, a predominantly oral culture has long mingled with an established, elaborate literary tradition, both religious and secular, including prose and verse forms of verbal art. Additionally, most forms of traditional technical knowledge, as well as values, customs and beliefs in daily life, are primarily mediated orally (e. ... .See cassia. B. A. Litvinski¥ , earlymedieval settlement and Buddhist monastery in Afghanistan, in the province of Parva@n (Parwan). The site is situated in the GÚu@rband valley, five kilometers south of S^a@hgerd and 117 kilometers north-east of Kabul, at 34° 58 ´ N 68° 53 ´ E. It was named after a village located nearby. .See COOKING. HOUCHANG CHEHABI . Thegame of football was introduced to Persia in the first two decades of the 20th century by British residents and American missionaries. In Tehran the employees of the British legation, the Imperial Bank, and the Indo-Persian Telegraph Company each had a team and competed with each other. In the south of the country engineers in the oil-fields of AÚba@da@n and Masjed(-e) Solayma@n played the game too. First the Persians watched, then they began joining the expatriates' teams. In the beginning these first Persian football players were sometimes criticized for playing the "infidels' games" and even pelted with rocks (Bigdel Chahsavani, p. ... SAYYED MOHAMMAD DABIRSIAGHI , aneffervescent drink preserved in heavy and usually rounded clay vessels. The beverage was kept cool by placing ice around the container. A reference to fu@ga@n in Log@at-e fors (ed. Eqba@l, p. 390) has led some lexicographers, including Dehkòoda@ and Mo¿^n, to regard the word foqqa@¿, which is used both in Arabic and Persian, as of Persian origin. However, it is more likely that foqqa@¿ is not a Persian loan-word and is related to foqqa@¿a in the sense of bubbles that rise upon water, as suggested by F^ru@za@ba@d^ and other Arabic lexicographers (S®a@deq^, p. ... .See EUPHRATES. MEIR M. BAR-ASHER , Shi¿ite(most probably Imami) Koran commentator and Hadith scholar. The dates of his birth and death are unknown, but the time he flourished can be estimated by the dates of the scholars whom he quoted or who transmitted Hadith on his authority. They include Abu'l-H®asan ¿Al^ b. Ba@bawayh (d. 329/940) and his son, Abu@ Ja¿far ¿Al^ b. Ba@bawayh (d. 381/991; q.v.), who cites Fora@t in his works (Majles^, I, p. 37; K¨úa@nsa@r^, V, p. 339), as well as Ja¿far b. ... .See BAHMAN ARDAˆÈR. WILLEM FLOOR ,administration and ministry. .See ECONOMY. and diplomacy. See also belgian-iranian relations; anglo-iranian relations; anglo-persian agreement; anglo-iranian war; anglo-russian convention; and under individual countries. . i. In Persia. OSCAR WHITE MUSCARELLA of art objects and manuscripts. i. Introduction. FRANCIS RICHARD iii.OF ISLAMIC ART MANOUCHEHR KASHEFF (b. Shiraz,Sáafar 1271/November 1854, d. Shiraz, 10 Sáafar 1339/23 October 1920), pen name of the poet, scholar, and artist M^rza@ Moháammad-Nasá^r (or Nasá^r-al-D^n) H®osayn^ ˆ^ra@z^, also known as M^rza@ AÚqa@ and M^rza@-ye Forsáat. WOLFRAM KLEISS .The present article deals with the fortified passages and defenses that are implied under the term ba@ru@. Certain passes in Persia still feature barriers going back to the Achaemenid period. An example is the stone wall at the Kotal-e Sangar in Fa@rs, which bars the way from Persepolis and B^æa@pu@r to K¨u@zesta@n on the saddle (not a real pass) between the Mamassan^ plain (plain of Deh-e Now) and the Fahl^a@n plain, and which is identical with the medieval and modern caravan route (today's modern highway between Shiraz and Ahva@z). ... .See CASTLES. JEAN DURING (lit. descent;Foru@vard in Bukharian tradition, Ayaq in Azeri moqa@m), general designation of the concluding motif of a melodic sequence in Persian music. DJALAL KHALEGHI-MOTLAGH (or Fero@d), sonof S^a@vakòæ and half brother of Kay K¨osrow. His mother is Jar^ra (according to the ˆa@h-na@ma; T®abar^ mentions Borza@far^d as her name), the eldest daughter, or the sister (Mojmal, ed. Baha@r, p. 29), of P^ra@n, the commander-in-chief of Afra@s^a@b's (q.v.) army. In his first campaign against Afra@s^a@b to avenge the murder of S^a@vakòæ, Kay K¨osrow instructs T®o@s, his commander-in-chief, not to take the route crossing Foru@d's territory of De‘-e Kala@t (Kala@ Dez or Dez-e Foru@d in the area of Sarakòs according to Bundahiæn 9. ... BAGHER AGHELI (b. Isfahan1301/1884; d. Tehran, 6 Bahman 1338 ˆ./26 January 1960), educator and author. He had his elementary education at home with his father, Moháammad-H®osayn Foru@g@^ D ¨oka@÷-al-Molk, and elder brother (Moháammad-¿Al^) and later went to Da@r al-fonu@n and Alliance Française (qq.v.). He continued studying Persian and Arabic literature in the old Sepahsa@la@r School (Madrasa-ye qad^m-e Sepahsa@la@r) and became interested in philosophy, spending much of his time studying ancient and modern philosophy. ... IRAJ AFSHAR MOH®AMMAD-¿ALÈ D¨OKAÚ÷-AL-MOLK, statesman,scholar, and man of letters (b. Joma@da@ II 1294 MANOUCHEHR KASHEFF (b. Isfahan, 15 Rab^¿ II 1255/27 June 1839; d. Tehran, 11 Ramazµa@n 1325/19 October 1907), poet, journalist, literateur, translator, and author. He was born into a family of merchants who traced their lineage to a certain H®a@j^ Molla@ Mo÷men, a contemporary of Shah ¿Abba@s I (r. 996-1038/1588-1629; M.-¿A. Foru@g@^, in ¿AÚqel^, p. 257). His father, Moháammad-Mahd^ Arba@b Esáfaha@n^, was a merchant engaged in international trade, but he was also a scholar (see his Esáfaha@n nesáf-e jaha@n, ed. ... RICHARD N. FRYE , pioneerof modern architecture in Persia, an influential professor of architecture at the University of Tehran, and a noted collector of Persian art HESHMAT MOAYYAD , 19th-centurypoet (b. 1213/1798 in Karbala@; d. 1274/1857 in Tehran). JEAN DURING ,a master of Persian music. Born in Tehran to a family of educated aristocrats, he developed a sharp interest and received his early education in music by frequenting the music circle of his brother Mo÷addeb-al-SaltÂana. Later he received private lessons in playing the seta@r and ta@r from the masters of the time, M^rza@ ¿Abd-Alla@h and AÚqa@ H®osaynqol^ (qq.v.). He also learned the piano and the violin, but he especially distinguished himself with his remarkable virtuosity in playing the seta@r. ... ABD-AL-HOSEIN ZARRINKUB (b.ca. 1903, Boæru@ya, a district of Ferdows [q.v.], Khorasan, d. 1349 ˆ./1970 Tehran) Persian literary scholar and critic, professor at the University of Tehran, member of the Persian Academy. .See JAVAÚNMARD AND JAVÚANMARDÈ. .See ¿ES®AMÈ. FRANÇOISE OLIVIER-UTARD (1865-1952),the first head of the French Archaeological Mission in Afghanistan (see DÉLÉGATIONS ARCHÉOLOGIQUES FRANÇAISES ii.) and a noted scholar on Grœco-Buddhist art. .See under individual entries, e.g., BONYAÚD-E FARHANG-E ÈRAÚN, BONYAÚD-E ˆAHÈD, BONYAÚD-E ˆAÚH-NAÚMA-YE FERDOWSÈ, MOSTAZAFAN FOUNDATION, PAHLAVI FOUNDATION. JOSEF VAN ESS (d. Baghdad, probably before 230/845), Mu¿tazilite theologian of Basran affiliation and student of Abu'l-Hodòayl (q.v.). In contrast to most of his schoolfellows, he was of pure Arab extraction, belonging to the tribe of Banu@ ˆayba@n. [Nonetheless, his biography is included because of Mu¿tazilite influence on Shi¿ite theology—EIr.] He seems to have been a merchant dealing with fu@tÂa cloths imported from India. He traveled extensively by both land and sea, and he corresponded with adherents in Khorasan (Ebn al-Nad^m, ed. ... MAHMOUD and TERESA OMIDSALAR (Av. raopi-, Mid. Per: ro@ba@h; NPers. ru@ba@h), in Persia. In pre-Islamic Iran, the fox was considered as one of the ten varieties of dog, created against a demon called xabag de@w (Bundahiæn, tr., Baha@r, pp. 79, 103). It was considered an evil deed to eat its flesh (Bundahiæn, tr. Baha@r, p. 134). Muslim law is not uniform regarding its treatment. Although, according to one Hadith, it is called the worst of all wild animals (Dam^r^, I, p. 247), the Shafi¿ites consider the consumption of its flesh permissible, while the Hanafites forbid it (Dam^r^, I, p. ... EIr. (ca. 885-936/1480-1556), widely regarded as the greatest lyric poet in Azerbayjani Turkish, who also wrote extensively in Arabic and Persian. He adopted the pen name (takòallosá) of Fozµu@l^ (presumptuous) in order to be "unique," as he reveals in the preface to his Persian d^va@n (Karahan, in EI2 II, p. 937; Bombaci, 1970, p. 13). MUHAMMAD A. DANDAMAYEV ,a Margian leader. According to the B^sotu@n (q.v.) inscription of Darius I (3.10-21), the people of Margiana, (i.e., Marv) revolted against him and made Fra@da their chief (king according to the Elamite and Babylonian versions). Darius ordered Da@daraæi, satrap of Bactria, to crush the rebellion; Fra@da was defeated on the 23rd day of the month of Kisl^mu (AÚçiya@diya in the OPers. calendar, q.v.). It is, however, not known whether this defeat occurred in the accession year of Darius or in his first regnal year, and, depending on the year, the choice is either 10 December 522 or 28 December 521 B. ... WILLIAM W. MALANDRA ,an Avestan-Pahlavi glossary so named after its first entry, Av. o^m glossed by Pahl. e@wag, though the work is introduced with the lengthy title: "On the understanding of the speech and words of the Avesta, namely, what and how its zand is." A more comprehensive statement introduces the work (chap. 2a): "These are the words from the Avesta: male and female; singular and conjoined (i.e., dual and plural); goodness and badness; least, middling and greatest; from-it-ness, which comes from that, and with-it-ness, which moves with, and to-it-ness, which is connected; the administration of justice; according to (the one) to whom the word of the De@n has come (i. ... D. N. MACKENZIE , "a Pahlavi dictionary," is rather a description than the title of an anonymous glossary of some five hundred mostly Aramaic heterograms (ideograms), in the form used by Zoroastrians in writing Middle Persian (Book Pahlavi), each explained by a "phonetic" writing of the corresponding Persian word. The work was previously known to Parsis, by the traditional pronunciation of the two words of the first lemma, as "Mo@na@ (or Mo@no@) Xuda@" (see below). MARIE-LOUISE CHAUMONT , a Sasanian administrative title. In Old Persian the substantive frama@tar appears in royal titles and is always accompanied by the word paru- meaning "numerous, many"; it is generally translated as "master, lord [of many]" (Kent, Old Persian, p. 198). The title was used in set formulae by Achaemenid rulers (Kent, Old Persian, pp. 142, 147, 148, 150). Frama@tar is constructed from fra + stem ma@ = farman/framan "order" + agent suffix tar "who maintains." The Achaemenids thus describe themselves as "givers of commands to many" (cf. ... JEAN CALMARD . i.Introduction. ii.Relations with Persia to 1789. FLORENCE HELLOT-BELLIER iii.RELATIONS WITH PERSIA 1789-1918 YANN RICHARD iv.RELATIONS WITH PERSIA SINCE 1918 MASSOUD FARNOUD v.ADMINISTRATIVE AND MILITARY CONTACTS WITH PERSIA NADER NASIRI MOGHADDAM TheFrench Revolution inspired many generations of Persian commentators who described it directly or obliquely in terms of what they regarded as its salient characteristics such as sedition (fetna), corruption (fesa@d), a general disturbance by the populace (balwa@-ye ¿a@mm), insurrection (æu@reæ), the great revolution (enqela@b-e ¿azá^m), and the great revolution (enqela@b-e kab^r; Rouhbakhshan, p. 24, p. 29; Tawakkol^-T®arq^, pp. 411-12). In later decades, some reformist writers cited the French Revolution as an illustration of a historical precedent in their endeavors to reform the state (dawlat), to empower the people (mellat), and to imagine a constitutionally-based Persia. ... J. DUCHESNE-GUILLEMIN ixTHE IMAGE OF PERSIA AND PERSIAN LITERATURE AMONG FRENCH AUTHORS CHRISTOPHE BALAY x.FRENCH LITERATURE IN PERSIA YVES PORTER xi.PERSIAN ART AND ART COLLECTIONS IN FRANCE VINCENT HACHARD and BERNARD HOURCADE xii(a).IRANIAN STUDIES IN FRANCE: OVERVIEW PHILIPPE GIGNOUX xii(b).IRANIAN STUDIES IN FRANCE: PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD BERNARD HOURCADE xii(c).IRANIAN STUDIES IN FRANCE: SOCIAL SCIENCES AND MODERN PERSIA DJAVAD HADIDI xiii. INSTITUT FRANÇAISDE RECHERCHE EN IRAN GUITTY DEYHIME xvi.LOAN WORDS IN PERSIAN DATUS C. SMITH, JR. , an American non-profit corporation seeking to aid development of indigenous book publishing in the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The program in Persia (the first after Egypt) was the largest of the seventeen around the world and was the most varied in the kinds of activities undertaken. Franklin was formed under the aegis of the international committees of the American Publishers Association and the American Library Association. The objective was to help developing countries publish their own books in their own languages, and thus end a continuing dependence on foreign books published in Europe and North America. ... .See AFRAÚSÈAÚB. .See MEASURES. .See FRAˆOÚ.K‰R‰TI. ALMUT HINTZE - (Sk.tr. vráddhi-kráti-, aksáaya-, Mid. Pers. fraæegird, Man. Mid. Pers. præ(y)gyrd; probably: making wonderful or excellent), Avestan compound consisting of the adjective fraæa- and the ti-abstract of kar (to make). It is an eschatological term referring to the final renovation and transfiguration of Ahura Mazda@'s creation after evil has been utterly defeated and driven away. The etymological connections of OAv. f™raæa-, YAv. fraæa-, OP fraæa- are not entirely clear, neither is the basic meaning of the adjective. ... DENIS WRIGHT , 15th laird of Reelig (1783-1856), traveler, writer, and artist. He was the eldest son of Edward Satchell Fraser and grandson of James Fraser, the author of The History of Nadir Shah (London, 1742). Born in Edinburgh, he spent his boyhood in the family home at Moniack (now Reelig House) in the Scottish Highlands near Inverness, where this land-owning branch of the Fraser clan had been settled since the 15th century. Fraser was tutored at home before attending school in Edinburgh. At the age of sixteen he went to Berbice, Guyana, to manage his debt-encumbered family's sugar and cotton plantations. ... .See JAÚMAÚSP. JOSEF WIESEHÖFER "leader, governor, forerunner" ( ,Median rebel against Darius I. See phraortes. MARY BOYCE (OP *fravarti, Pahl. fraward, frawahr, fro@har, frawaæ, frawaxæ), theAvestan word for a powerful supernatural being whose concept at an early stage in Zoroastrianism became blended with that of the urvan. The urvan is the human soul, which in pre-Zoroastrian times was believed after death to pass a shadowy existence in the underworld, from where it returned once a year to its former home at the feast of H amaspaƒmae@daya (see FRAWARDAGAÚN). It then received prayers and offerings from its descendants, whom it rewarded with blessings (see DEATH among Zoroastrians). ... .See SÈAÚMAG. .See FRAVAˆI. WILLIAM W. MALANDRA (New Pers. farvardaga@n), nameof the ten-day Zoroastrian festival (ga@ha@nba@r) at year's end in honor of the spirits of the dead. The name itself is elliptic for (ro@za@n ^) fraward^ga@n (ten days dedicated to) the frawards. The festival is divided into two five-day halves. The first half is known as the lesser five (panj-e keh, kòardag or kaso@g), the second half, forming the five intercalary days, is known variously as the greater five (panj-e meh or vazrog) and Gathic (ga@ha@n^g). ... (New Pers. Farvard^n), nameof thenineteenth day of a month and also the name of the first month of the year in the Zoroastrian calendar. See CALENDARS i. MARY BOYCE (New. Pers. Farvard^n Yaæt), thethirteenth of the Zoroastrian yaæts (see AVESTA), devoted to the fravaæis (q.v.). It is accounted one of the eight great yaæts, and is the longest of all (158 verses). It is also the most frequently recited, after that to Ohrmazd, being used in funerary rites (see DEATH). For this reason it is found generally in K¨orda Avestas (service books), as well as in the old yaæt manuscripts F1 and J10 (Kellens, 1975, pp. 5-7), and its text is relatively well preserved. ... AHMAD TAFAZZOLI (Mid. Pers.of Av. Vourukaæa with wide extending inlets, also called Warkaæ in Mid. Pers.), name of the cosmic ocean in Iranian mythology. According to a myth preserved in the Pahlavi books, at the beginning of the creation the rain god Tiætriia/Tiætar made the clouds rain all over the earth. Then the spirit of Wind (Me@no@g ^ wa@d) swept the scattered water and pushed it towards the end of the earth, from which Fra@xkard was formed (Bundahiæn [TD2] 62-63; Za@dspram 3. ... AHMAD KARIMI-HAKKAK inPersian Poetry. The term æe¿r-e a@za@d, Persian for the French vers libre and English free verse, entered Persia in the 1940s and immediately began to be used in a variety of senses and applied to diverse subspecies of the emerging canon of æe¿r-e now (new poetry), especially to highlight those features in which this body of poetry was felt to differ from classical Persian poetry and the contemporary practice modeled after it. However, because the new poetry is not uniform in its departures from the classical canon, the term has never been defined with satisfactory accuracy or applied with precision. ... FARHAD DAFTARY and FAQUIR M. HUNZAI . i. In Twelver Shi¿ism. ii. In Isma¿ili Shi¿ism. HASAN AZINFAR, M.-T. ESKANDANI, and EDWARD JOSEPH inPersia. This famous fraternal order, bound by rituals and secret oaths, was introduced to Persia and adopted by Persian notables in the 19th century. It developed in the early 20th century and burgeoned in the period from 1950-78. Its practice still continues among some middle- and upper-class Persians in exile at the turn of the 21st century. The topic will be treated in five parts: HAMID ALGAR ii.IN THE QAJAR PERIOD iii.IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD HASAN AZINFAR, M.-T. ESKANDANI, and EDWARD JOSEPH iv.THE 1979 REVOLUTION SOLOMON BAEVSKIIŸ (b. Warsaw,23 August 1879; d. St. Petersburg, 19 January 1968), founder and the head of the Soviet school of the comparative-historical method in Iranian linguistics. In 1903 he was graduated from St. Petersburg University, where he studied with K. G. Salemann and V. A. Zhukovski¥. He continued his study of ancient Iranian Languages with Christian Bartholomae (q.v.) at Giessen University in Germany. After 1917 he taught Avestan and Old, Middle, and New Persian and headed the subdepartment of Iranian philology at St. ... and Persia. See FRANCE ii and iii. .See EMAÚM-JOM¿A. .See CERAMICS xiv. .See AMPHIBIANS. .See BOUNDARIES. (Mid. Pers. me@wag). Thisarticle presents mainly some general points and statistics about fruits in Persia-past and present; for the more important individual fruits see the relevant articles. MAHMOUD OMIDSALAR "[possessing]steel armor," is the name of a hideous demon in the story of Am^r Arsala@n (q.v.). This name was probably borrowed by the author of the story from an older prose epic, Romu@z-e H®amza (see MARCEL BAZIN ,a town and district in western G^la@n (Figure 1). The town of Fu@man is located 21 km to the west-southwest of Raæt, on the left bank of Ga@zru@db@a@r River close to the piedmont of T®a@leæ highlands. Fu@man was the residence of the Dabuyids (q.v.) between 660 and 761. During the Mongol period, according to the Masa@lek al-absáa@r f^ mama@lek al-ams®a@r of ˆeha@b-al-D^n Ahámad ¿Omar^ (cited by Rabino, 1915-16, pp. 161-62), Fu@man was one of the main towns of G^la@n together with La@h^ja@n. ... SHOLEH QUINN , authorof the Ta@r^kò-e G^la@n, a local history of G^la@n covering the years 923-1038/1517-1628. In 1018-19/1609-10, he was in the company of Behza@d Beg Astara@ba@d^, the vizier of G^la@n, in the village of Laæta-neæa@. Behza@d Beg ran into difficulties when K¨va@ja Moháammad-Rezµa@, known as Sa@ru@ K¨va@ja, (Blonde K¨úa@ja), the vizier of Azerbaijan, imprisoned his officials. Upon hearing this news, Behza@d Beg armed the peasants of his region and headed for Gaskar and AÚsta@ra@. ... M. H. BOKHARI and W. FREY , termused for two species of plants of the genus Fumaria in Persia, Fumaria officinalis and Fumaria parviflora. Fumaria parviflora is distributed from Europe and North Africa through the Near and Middle East to Central Asia. The annual, wild herb is very often found in Persia and Afghanistan. The plant is bitter and slightly acrid. .See BURIAL; CORPSE. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (arabicizedform Bu@æanj; Mid. Pers. Pu@æang [Markwart, Provincial Capitals, p. 11], also reflected in the Bu@æang of the H®odu@d al-¿a@lam, tr. Minorsky, pp. 64, 104), a town of medieval eastern Khorasan, situated just to the south of the Har^ru@d River, and variously described in the sources as being between six and ten farsakòs to the west-southwest of Herat. GERHARD BÖWERING (correctlyBUÚˆANJÈ) HERAVÈ, ABU'L-H®ASAN ¿ALÈ b. Ahámad b. Sahl (d. 347/958 or 348/959), an important exponent of the fetya@n (java@n-marda@n) of Khorasan. He came from Bu@æanj (Mid. Pers. Pu@æang, also Arabized as Fu@æanj, q.v.), a village seven farsakòs from Herat. Fu@æanj^ studied with Abu@ ¿Al^ H®osayn b. Edr^s Ansáa@r^ Herav^ (d. 301/913-14) and Abu@ ¿Abd-Alla@h Moháammad b. ... |