RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Gk.Ga‚bai), the name of two places in Persia and Sogdiana. PETER ZIEME (b. 7April 1901, d. 15 January 1993), German scholar who worked in the field of Central Asian (primarily Turkic) studies, first as a linguist but later as an art historian. After completing a dissertation in Sinology, von Gabain studied Turcology with Johann Wilhelm Bang Kaup (q.v.), the founder of the Berlin school of Turkic studies, and she began to work on the Old Turkic materials kept at the Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Although she left Berlin after the Second World War, she remained in close contact with the Academy there. ... .See KURDISTAN. .See KURDISH DIALECTS. . See AMÈR NEZ®AÚM GARRUÚSÈ. . See FAZ˜EL KHAN GARRUÚSÈ. .See GAYOÚMARD. .See KARˆAÚSP FRANÇOIS DE BLOIS ,a long heroic epic by Asad^ T®@us^ (d. ca. 465/1072-73; q.v.). The poem was completed, as the author says in the epilogue (ed. Yag@ma@÷^, ch. 144, v. 2), in 458/1066, and it is dedicated to a ruler of Nakòjava@n by the name of Abu@ Dolaf, who does not seem to be known from any other source. The only complete edition of the work was published by H®ab^b Yag@ma@÷^ (Tehran, 1317 ˆ./1938, and reprints), based on several manuscripts, among them the oldest dated copy, British Library Or. ... See KARSEÚVAZ. ,natural and gas industry in Persia. See Supplement. ,a concept in Shi¿ite law (usurpation, unlawful seizure). See Supplement. JEAN-PIERRE DIGARD and CAROL BIER (gava inKurdish and Lori, Èzadpana@h, s.v.; kòersak in Bakòt^a@r^, Digard, pp. 128-31), a hand-woven pile rug of coarse quality and medium size (90 x 150 cm or larger) characterized by an abstract design that relies upon open fields of color and a playfulness with geometry. This kind of rug is common among the tribes of the Zagros (Kurdish, Lori-speaking ethnic groups, Qaæqa@÷^s). The first known reference to gabba is found in a farma@n by Shah T®ahma@sp (r. ... HELMUT SLABY (b. Innsbruck,28 March 1823; d. Bozen, 5 July 1890), baron of Ravenstein and Kobach, Austrian engineering officer, instructor at the Da@r al-fonu@n (q.v.), and the manager of all civilian and military buildings of the Persian government from 1860 to 1888. He received his early education in Innsbruck and studied philosophy in Verona and engineering at the Technical College in Vienna. In 1846 he joined the Austrian civil service, where he carried out railway installations, road layouts, and river adjustments. ... .See DARVAÚZA. HELMUT HUMBACH (GAÚÿAÚS), the core of the great Mazdayasnian liturgy, the Yasna, consisting of five ga@ƒa@s, or modes of song (ga@) that comprise seventeen songs composed in Old Avestan language (OAv.), and arranged according to their five different syllabic meters. WILLIAM W. MALANDRA Although one can find useful insights, especially into the relationship of the later traditions to the Avestan text, the works of both Mills and Darmesteter on the Gathas were almost immediately rendered obsolete through the publication of Bartholomae's Wörterbuch (1904) and his Die Gatha's des Awesta (1905), suggestively subtitled "Zarathustras Verspredigten übersetzt." For nearly a century the Wörterbuch has endured as the reference point for all serious philological work on the Gathas, as well as the Avesta generally. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT ,Old Persian personal name, spelled g-u-b-ru-u-v (DB IV 84 etc.) and reflected in Elamite Kam-bar-ma, Babylonian Gu-ba-ru(-÷) (DB etc.), Ku-bar-ra (DNc 1), Gu-ba(r)-ri, etc., Aramaic gwbrw (not gwbrwh, as restored in the past), Greek Go@bry´a@s, Go@bry´e@s, and Latin Gobryas (q.v.). The reading of the Old Persian form cannot be ascertained with reliability, mainly because the Babylonian form suggests an original with -bar- and the Greek rendering is just against this. As to the etymological interpretation one has to admit that the second element of the name (the first one obviously being Iran. ... JACQUELINE CALMARD-COMPAS (b. Langeais,in Indre-et-Loire, France, 1663; d. Paris, 29 May 1743), French missionary priest (and later Abbe‚) who left valuable observations on Persia and played a part in Franco-Persian relations (see FRANCE ii). He studied at Tours and at the Se‚minaire des Missions Étrangeàres, Paris. He had an audience with Louis XIV (Archives du Ministeàre des affaires e‚trangeàres, Me‚moires et documents, Indes orientales 6, fol. 6) before leaving for Persia on 16 December, 1689. ... ERNST BADIAN ,site of one of the greatest battles in history, resulting in the decisive victory of Alexander the Great over Darius III (qq.v.) on 1 October 331 B.C.E. (the date, long debated, is now certain: see A. J. Sachs and H. Hunger, Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia, Vienna, 1988, pp. 178-79). The exact location, about 60 miles from Arbela (q.v.), after which the battle was often named, cannot be recovered. Speculation based on modern toponymy (as in Schachermeyr) is unhelpful. The sources seem to place it south of Jabal Maqlu@b (ca. ... PIERRE BRIANT ,according to the B^sotu@n inscriptions (q.v.), the Magian pretender who seized the Achaemenid throne by claiming to be Bardiya (Smerdis), the son of Cyrus the Great (qq.v.). No event has been more abundantly documented and more bitterly discussed in the rich history of the Achaemenids than the transition of power from Cambyses (Kambu@jiya) to Darius I (522 B.C.E., qq.v.). Shortly after his accession to the throne and his great victories, Darius had the official version inscribed on the rock of B^sotu@n in three languages (Elamite, Old Persian, and Babylonian) and diffused in all the languages of the empire (an incomplete Aramaic version has been found in the back of a papyrus from the Egyptian island of Elephantine [q. ... .See CATTLE. .See PLOW .See SOGHDIA. MANSOUR SHAKI , aNew Persian term deriving, in all likelihood, from Aramaic GBR÷/gabra@ (lit. man), which in the Sasanian period was used to indicate the free peasants in the region of Mesopotamia (Stayermanova, II, 25.2.1). The term is used in all stages of New Persian literature from the earliest period (e.g., ˆa@h-na@ma, Moscow, I, p. 149; Bal¿am^, ed. Baha@r, p. JEAN DURING (also knownas daf, q.v.), is the most widespread percussion instrument in the Republic of Azerbaijan, played as much in artistic as in popular music and professional ensembles. It is also used in Armenia and the Persian Azerbaijan. In Azerbaijan ga@va@l is made up of a circular wooden frame of a diameter of thirty-eight centimeters on which catfish or, failing that, goat skin is stretched. In modern times, the use of synthetic skin, more resistant to humidity, but less appreciated, is also common. The frame is made of various kinds of wood, such as walnut, acacia, vine, and mulberry. ... .See KATÈRA . See MAH®MUÚD GÈLAÚNÈ. .See AHUÚ. AMIR ISMAIL AJAMI , theowner of the oxen (ga@v) in the traditional farming system of Persia. The owner of the oxen or other animal power was a major element in the sharecropping arrangement for cultivation of wheat and barley in the arid and semi arid regions of the country. The sharecropping was based on five factors of production: land, labor, oxen, water, and seed; each with one-fifth share of the crops. The sharecropping agreement was made between the landowner and the peasant. Oxen could be provided either by the landowner or by the sharecropper or by a third party. ... .See DABUIDS. CHRISTIAN BROMBERGER , arrangedfights between bulls. These now take place only in the Caspian provinces of G^la@n and Mazandara@n. In the past, however, they were common throughout Persia and formed part of the entertainment in local festivities along with other games involving pitting animals and creatures of all kinds against each other, including rams, buffaloes, camels, guard dogs, bears, cocks, and even spiders and scorpions. A wide-ranging selection of accounts of these spectacles by travelers to Persia from the 17th to the 19th century is given by Henri Masse‚ (Masse‚, Croyances, pp. ... .See GOÚR. .See CERAMICS. .See Supplement. GIULIANO LANCIONI , ItalianArabist and Orientalist (b. Rome, 27 April 1904; d. Rome, 13 December 1996), who contributed to the study of Persian literature. His first contact with Arabic literature was through his father Giuseppe, who was the librarian of the Accademia dei Lincei and collaborated with Leone Caetani. Among Giuseppe's scholarly works is an important book on the pre-Islamic Arab poetess K¨ansa@÷. Francesco studied classical Arabic literature at the University of Rome, where he wrote his degree (laurea) thesis (1925) on the Arab poet Motanabb^ under the guidance of Carlo Alfonso Nallino and Michelangelo Guidi (for excerpts of his translation of Motanabb^'s poetry see his Studi su al-Mutanabb^, Rome, 1972, Appendix, pp. ... .See GYPSUM. SHEILA S. BLAIR , plasterwork or stucco. Gypsum plaster has been used as a building material in Persia for more than 2500 years. Originally it may have been applied as a rendering to mud brick walls to protect them from the weather, but it was soon exploited for its decorative effects as it alleviates the bleakness of brick and rubble walls and provides a ground for applied decoration. A cheap and flexible medium of decoration, it can be secured to almost any material of construction used for exterior and interior surfaces and can be moulded, carved, and painted in a wide variety of ways. ... MINU YUSOFNEZHAD ,a village in the Karaj district, situated at an altitude of 2,210 m at 110 km northwest of Tehran and 7 km south of the Kandava@n Tunnel on the main road to the Caspian coast. It had a population of about 166 in 1365 ˆ./1986. Its farmlands on both sides of the Tehran-Ùa@lu@s road are irrigated by the river Karaj. Its products are fruits and plants for animal fodder. Of natural plants, marjoram, marshmallows, and bugloss grow there. Of wild animals, jackal, wolf, fox, boar, and bear inhabit the area. ... ECKART EHLERS ,town and oilfield in the province of K¨u@zesta@n, southwestern Persia. Ga±sa@ra@n, located in the arid foothills of the Zagros, approximately 70 to 80 km southeast of Behbaha@n, owes its growth to the discovery of oil, which was found there in 1928. Ga±sa@ra@n subsequently developed into one of the most important oilfields in Persia. It has been exploited commercially since 1940 and is connected via a 267 km pipeline to AÚba@da@n (q.v.). Ga±sa@ra@n became connected via another pipeline to the export terminal on the island of K¨a@rg in 1961 and, in the early 1970s, with the oil-refinery near Shiraz and the chemical factory at Marvdaæt, where natural gas is one of the major components of fertilizer production. ... .See BEGGING. FRIDRIK THORDARSON (Rus: ComakGadiev; b. 14 January 1883, d. 24 October 1931), Ossetic writer. Comaq was born in South Ossetia as the son of Gädiatiò Sek´a. He studied for some years at the historical-philological faculty of the University of Dorpat, Estonia, but returned to the Caucasus during the civil troubles in 1905-7 and engaged in political activities; about this time his first poems appeared. In 1908 he was deported to Siberia, but he came back in 1917 and joined the Bolsheviks. After that his work was dedicated to the cause of the new regime. ... AHMAD KAZEMI MOUSSAVI (lit. the"pool of Kòomm"), the name of a pool near a small oasis along the caravan route between the cities of Mecca and Medina, near an area currently known as Joháfa. According to Shi¿ites, this is the site at which the Prophet Moháammad announced the authority of ¿Al^ b. Ab^ T®a@leb (q.v.) over the Muslim community on 18 D¨u'l-háejja 10/16 March 632, as he was returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage (H®ajjat al-wada@¿) to Mecca. Many Sunnite authorities likewise consider GÚad^r K¨omm the site of a Prophetic announcement regarding ¿Al^, but do not recognize it as a political appointment; in fact, some of the most extensive collections of GÚad^r K¨omm material can be found in three Sunnite sources, namely the Mosnad of Ahámad b. ... , ademon. See UDA. .See GOLˆAÚN-E MORAÚD. .See ABU'L-H®ASAN GÚAFFARÈ. .See AMÈN-AL-DAWLA KAMBIZ ESLAMI (b. Tehran, 5 Moháarram 1276/5 August 1859, d. 8 Farvard^n 1326 ˆ./28 March 1947), Qajar official from the time of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah to the time of Ahámad Shah. He was the son of M^rza@ Ha@æem Khan Am^n-al-Dawla and the nephew of Farrokò Khan Am^n-al-Dawla (q.v.). , aprominent Qajar painter. See KAMAÚL-AL-MOLK. KAMBIZ ESLAMI , Qajar diplomat and minister during the reigns of the last four Qajar kings (b. 1276/1859-60, d. S®afar 1337/November-December 1918). He was the son of Farrokò Khan Am^n-al-Dawla (q.v.), a high-ranking Qajar official. He spent his early years in the inner circle of Na@sáer-al-D^n Shah's court and then traveled to Europe to continue his education. In 1309/1891 he received the title Mo¿a@wen-al-Dawla, and was named the head of the Commerce Court (Majles-e teja@rat) and deputy minister of justice. ... KAMBIZ ESLAMI , Qajar minister and engineer (b. in Borza@ba@d, a village near Ka@æa@n, 10 ˆa¿ba@n 1260/24 August 1844, d. Tehran, 15 Joma@da@ II 1333/30 April 1915). At the age of fifteen, he was among the forty-two students sent by the government to France to continue their education under the supervision of Moháammad-H®asan Khan Am^r(-e) Nezáa@m Garru@s^ (q.v.). After studying French at schools in Dieppe and Rouen, he attended the St. Louis school in Paris and graduated first in his class. ... BORIS A. LITVINSKY (b. 1908;d. 1977), Tajik statesman, academician, and historian. Gafurov was born in the Ispisar township near K¨ojand, Tajikistan, and studied law in Samarkand. From 1930 on, Gafurov worked as a government official in Dushanbe, Tajikistan, at the same time pursuing his interest in journalism. In 1931, he entered the Institute of Journalism in Moscow, graduating in 1935. In 1940-41, having completed postgraduate studies at the Institute of History, Soviet Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Gafurov defended his thesis "Istoriya sekty ismai'litov s nachala XIX v. ... .See ARTSRUNI and BAGRATUNI. MARY BOYCE a MiddlePersian, Parthian, and New Persian word meaning either "place" or "time." .See GAÚHAÚNBAÚR MARY BOYCE ,Middle Persian name for the feasts held at the end of each of the six seasons of the Zoroastrian year. In the Avesta, seasons and feasts are both called ya@irya ratavo@ (yearly times; Air Wb., cols. 1497-98, s.v. ratu-), and the term rad was still used in this sense in early Middle Persian, as was ga@h (q.v.) in its meaning of "(appointed) time" (MacKenzie, 1970, pp. 264-66). NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,weekly newspaper published in Kabul from 6 Dalw 1347/27 January 1968 to 10 T¨awr 1352/30 April 1973, owned, edited, and published by Menha@j-al-D^n Gah^z (1922-73), who was apparently assassinated by Soviet agents (Moháammad-Esháa@q, pp. 20-21). After a short interval, its publication was resumed by the publisher's son for only three months. .See CALENDAR. HUSHANG A¿LAM (Pers. ba@r^ja, ba@rzad), a slightly bitter odorous gum resin obtained from several Asian umbelliferous plants (especially the genera Ferula L. and Dorema Don), for which numerous medicinal uses have been recorded. MUNIBUR RAHMAN , one of the greatest poets of Muslim India who wrote poems in both Persian and Urdu (b. Agra, 8 Rajab 1212/27 December 1797; d. Delhi, 2 D¨u'l-qa¿da 1285/15 February 1869). According to a reference in one of his poems, he was of Turanian origin (Koll^ya@t I, p. 157). His paternal grandfather came to India from Transoxiana during the reign of Shah ¿AÚlam (1759-1806). His father, ¿Abd-Alla@h Beg Khan, served under native Indian princes. GÚa@leb lost his father when he was five years old and was brought up by his uncle until the latter also died three years later. ... TAHSËN YAZICI (Mehmed Esad Galib Dede) also known as Shaikh GÚa@leb (‡eyh Galib), poet in Turkish and Persian (b. Istanbul, 1171/1757; d. Galata, 26 Rajab 1213/3 January 1799). His father, MosátÂafa@ Raæ^d Efendi, was a poet, scholar, and member of the Mawlaw^ order with Mala@mat^ tendencies. Very little is known about GÚa@leb's childhood and education. He began his study of Persian early, reading Toháfa-ye ˆa@hed^, the versified Persian-Turkish dictionary of Ebra@h^m ˆa@hed^ (d. ... .See Supplement. .See NARSEH .See GÈLAKÈ; T®AÚLEˆÈ. . See HARZANDÈ. . See PUBLISHING HOUSES. SHAHNAZ RAZPUSH & EIr. , a water pipe chiefly used in the Middle East and Central Asia for smoking tobacco (Syr. Ar: nafas; called háoqqa in India; ±elam/±el^m in Afghanistan; Pu@r-e Da@wu@d, pp. 208-9). Tobacco was reportedly introduced into Persia by the Portuguese in the early 16th century. Shah ¿Abba@s I (996-1038/1588-1629), who disliked tobacco, made its use illegal (Falsaf^, II, pp. 278-82; Pu@r-e Da@wu@d, p. 199), but people kept using it. The name of the implement for smoking, g@alya@n, was apparently derived from the Ar. ... .See GÚILZÈ. . See GÚEMAÚM HAMADAÚNÈ. . See KARK¨A RIVER. .See BANDAR ¿ABBAÚS. .See BANDAR ¿ABBAÚS. .See BAÚZÈ. . See AHRIMAN. MINU YUSOFNEZHAD , county (æahresta@n) andport city on the Persian Gulf in the province of Bu@æehr (q.v.). M. JAMIL HANIFI , oneof two ˆe@ra@n^ Pashtun/Paxtun tribal segments (the other being the Bakòt^a@r), who claim origin in southwestern Afghanistan and acknowledge descent from a male, non-Pashtun sayyed ancestor. They numbered about 8,000 in the early 20th century, occupying an area of approximately 460 square miles in the western foothills of the Solayma@n mountains and concentrating at the town of Ku@la@±^ in the De@ra Esma@¿^l K¨a@n District, the Northwest Frontier Province. ... M. JAMIL HANIFI , author of the Persian Tawa@r^kò-e kòoræ^d-e jaha@n, an important chronicle containing genealogical accounts and tables of Pashtun/Paxtun tribal groups. He belonged to the Ebra@h^mzay section of the Ganda@pu@r (q.v.) Pashtun tribal segment. His dates of birth and death are not known. He was the mayor of the city of Ku@la@±^ in the De@ra Esma@¿^l K¨a@n district of Northwest Frontier Province for an unspecified period during the third quarter of the 19th century. ... ANTONIO PANAINO (var.ganád™r™£a- or ganádara£a-; Mid. Pers. Gandarw/Gandarb), a term attested the Avesta as the name of a monster living in the lake Vourukaæáa (see FRAÚXKART; Yt. 5, 38; Mayrhofer, 1979, I, p. 153). He is son of Jam and of a witch (pa@r^g) according to the Pahlavi Riva@yat (Williams, I, pp. 55-56; II, p. 13). Written as the hapax ganádr™£a- (var. ganád™r™£a- or ganádra£a-), it is the name of a Zoroastrian, the father of Paræináta (Yt. ... WILLEM VOGELSANG (OP. Ganda@ra), aprovince of the Persian empire under the Achaemenids. The name of Gandha@ra or Gandha@r^ occurs in ancient Indian texts as the name of a people, obviously the inhabitants of Ga@ndha@ra, a district traditionally placed in the extreme northwest of the Indian subcontinent. It was located along both banks of the Indus, around the famous cities of Takshas‚ila@ (Taxila) and Pushkala@vat^ (modern Charsada, northeast of Peshawar). .See Supplement. ,the New Persian word for wheat designating both the plant and the grain. All New Iranian names of wheat derive from Av. gantuma-. The middle consonant is unstable (Bal. gandim, T®a@leæ^ gand™m, Par. and Orm. ganom, Kurd. ganim, Khot. ganama), Yaghnobi (g@antum/amtun < Sogd. ©nt[w]m: ©antom) being the only New Iranian language to have retained the Av. -t-. Initial g->g@- in most Eastern Iranian languages (Pash. @gan™m, but Wanetsi g@and™m, Eækaæm^ g@und™m, Sanglechi g@o@nd™m, Munj^ g@o[n]d™m, Yid. ... . See Supplement. .See KANG DEÛ. ABBAS MILANI (b. Sabzava@r3 Ramazµa@n 1310/21 March 1893; d. San Francisco, 9 Farvard^n 1331 ˆ./29 March 1952), physician, diplomat, and well-known scholar on the poet H®a@fezá. He was a prolific writer and, during his many years abroad, corresponded with several eminent figures of the time. His diaries, notebooks, and letters have been compiled and edited in twelve volumes under the general supervision of his son, Cyrus Ghani (Ya@dda@ætha@-ye Doktor Qa@sem GÚan^/The Memoirs of Dr. ... G. L. TIKKU and EIr. ,pen name of Molla@ MOH®AMMAD-T®AÚHER KAˆMÈRÈ(1630-69), one of the most celebrated poets of Kashmir who wrote in the Indian Style (sabk-e hend^). He was a pupil of another famous poet from Kashmir, Shaikh Moháammad-Mohásen Fa@n^ (q.v.; d. 1081/1670-71), through whom he met many other poets including S®a@÷eb and Kal^m. ARIF NAUSHAHI , also known as GÚan^mat Panja@b^ HASSAN JAVADI , liberal journalist, historian, and poet (b. Salma@s, Joma@da@ II 1296/May-June 1879, d. Tabr^z. 30 Bahman 1313 ˆ./19 February 1936). As a young man, he pursued a career in commerce while occasionally writing articles for the liberal paper H®abl al-mat^n. During a trip to Daghistan he met ¿Abd-al-Rahá^m T®a@lebof and upon his return home he founded, on 21 Moháarram 1325/6 March 1907, the bi-weekly liberal paper Farya@d (q.v.) in Urmia, of which only twenty-three issues were published. ... S. H. ASKARI , an Indo-Persian collection of sayings (malfu@záa@t) of the Ùeæt^ saint of Jaunpour Aræad Badr-al-H®aqq (1047-1113/1637-1701), whose lineage is traced back in the book to the third caliph ¿Ot¯ma@n. It was compiled in 1134-35/1721-22 by Aræad's son and successor Abu'l-Fayya@zµ Qamar-al-H®aqq from the notes made by Shaikh ¿Abd-al-ˆaku@r, a confident of Aræad. It is divided into ten chapters, totaling 552 folios in Phulwarisharif manuscript. ... MAHMOUD OMIDSALAR (the treasure brought by the wind), name of one of the eight treasures of the Sasanian K¨osrow II Parve@z (r. 591-628 C.E.) according to most Persian sources. The ˆa@h-na@ma, however, mentions it also among the riches of a much earlier king, the Kayanid Kay K¨osrow (ed. Khaleghi, IV, p. 351, v. 2825; Bonda@r^, I, p. 303). According to the legend, it was the hoard of riches that one of the Byzantine emperors had loaded unto ships to send to Ethiopia (Bal¿am^, ed. Baha@r, p. ... , archaeologicalsite of the Neolithic and later periods. See ECBATANA. GERHARD BÖWERING , popularly known as Ba@ba@ Far^d, a major Shaikh of the Ùeæt^ya (q.v.) mystic order, born in the last quarter of the 6th/12th century in Kahtwa@l near Molta@n, Punjab. His family, who held the office of local judges, had migrated from Kabul in Afghanistan to the Indus valley during the lifetime of Ba@ba@ Far^d's grandfather, Qa@zµ^ ˆo¿ayb. Having received his basic instruction at home, Ba@ba@ Fa@r^d memorized the Koran and continued his Muslim education in the madrasa of Menha@j-al-D^n Termedò^ in Molta@n. ... . See Supplement C. EDMUND BOSWORTH (Ar. Janza), theIslamic name of a town in the early medieval Islamic province of Arra@n (the classical Caucasian Albania, Armenian Alvank¿; see ARRAÚN). In imperial Russian times, the town was called Elisavetpol after 1813; in Soviet times, when it came within the Azerbaijan SSR, it was first called Gandzha and then, after 1935, Kirovabad; now, in the independent Azerbaijan Republic, it has reverted to the old name of Ganja and is the Republic's second largest city after Baku (q.v.). It lies at latitude 40° 39´ N. ... ,TREATY OF. See NAÚDER SHAH. .See CARD GAMES. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN (b. Tabr^z, 9 AÚba@n 1397 ˆ./31 November 1918; d. Geneva, 17 ˆahr^var 1374 ˆ./8 Sept. 1995), journalist, cabinet member, and university professor. One of his ancestors, Jawa@d Khan Z^a@dlu@, was the last Persian governor of Ganja and was killed with one of his sons when the Russians stormed the city in 1218/1804 (Heda@yat, Rawzµat al-sáafa@ IX, pp. 388-90; Atkin, pp. 40-41, 82-83); thereafter his family emigrated to Tabr^z and Raæt. His father, Ha@jj M^rza@ ¿Al^-Naq^ Ganja÷^ (Tabr^z 1251-Tehran, Mehr 1308 ˆ. ... .See GANZAK MOHAMMAD-EBRAHIM BASTANI PARIZI , a military leader and governor of Kerma@n, S^sta@n, and Qandaha@r under Shah ¿Abba@s I (996-1038/1588-1629). He was present at the head of his Kerma@n^ forces in many battles (e.g., against the Uzbeks in 1006/1597, in Khorasan in 1011/1602, against the Ottomans in 1013/1604). He also put down the rebellion in Baluchistan in 1020/1611 and captured the Bampu@r stronghold. He is also reported to have participated in the Georgian campaign of 1025/1616 (Eháya@÷ al-molu@k, p. ... NASSEREDDIN PARVIN , a biweekly magazine published in Tabr^z for a year (1 D¨u'l-qa¿da 1320-15 ˆawwa@l 1321/30 January 1903-4 January 1904) by the joint efforts of M^rza@ Moháammad-¿Al^ Tarb^at, Sayyed H®asan Taq^za@da, M^rza@ Yu@sof AÚæt^a@n^ E¿tesáa@m (later E¿tesáa@m-al-Molk, q.v.), and M^rza@ Sayyed H®osayn ¿Ada@lat, who operated from a bookstore owned by Tarb^at (Keta@b-kòa@na-ye Tarb^at). It was the first scholarly Persian periodical published in Persia. ... STUART C. BROWN (lit. treasure book), location in a pass at an altitude of about 2,000 m across the Alvand Ku@h (q.v.) leading westward to Tu@yserka@n, 12 km southwest of Hamada@n (q.v.). Apparently, in the pre-Hellenistic period, this was the major east-west pass through the Alvand. On a vertically cut rock face are two trilingual (OPers., Neo-Babylonian, Neo-Elamite) cuneiform inscriptions in panels each measuring 2 by 3 m. The texts, praising Ahura Mazda@ and listing lineages and conquests, are identical except for the royal name. ... , translator of Jav^da@n kòarad, q.v. MATTHEW W. STOLPER (treasurer), titleof provincial and sub-provincial financial administrators in the Achaemenid empire, extended to workers attached to Achaemenid treasuries; title of financial administrators in Parthian and Sasanian provinces; title of temple administrators in post-exile Judaism and in Hellenistic Babylonia. MARY BOYCE (Ganja, Gk. Gazaca, Lat. Gaza, Ganzaga, Ar. Janza, Jaznaq), a town of Achaemenid foundation in Azerbaijan. The name means "treasury" and is a Median form (against Pers. gazn-), adopted in Persian administrative use (Hübchmann, pp. 231-32; Marquart, p. 160 n. 2; Henning, pp. 196-98). Like other towns similarly named, notably GÚazna (q.v.) in Afghanistan, and Gazioura in Pontic Cappadocia (place of the treasury; Russell, pp. 28 n. 24, 73-74), Ganzak was presumably the satrap's seat. Little is known of Achaemenid Azerbaijan (Kleiss, p. ... BERNFRIED SCHLERATH ,an Avestan proper name only attested in Yt. 13.16: "An eloquent man will be born, who makes his words heard in verbal contests, whose judgment is sought after, who comes away from the discussion victorious over the defeated Gaot™ma." The word is a superlative formation of Av. ga„- "neat, cow" (Kellens, p. 404, but it cannot be excluded that it is a borrowing from Skt. go‚tama- or gautama- (descendant of Gotama), also epithet of Buddha (Pa@li gotama-). So the idea arose (Herzfeld, pp. 628 ff. ... EZZAT O. NEGAHBAN and Stone Age cave dwellers in Iran. Caves and rock shelters were particularly attractive living places for the hunter gatherers of the early Paleolithic period and the geographic situation of the Iranian Plateau with its bordering mountain systems including the Zagros range on the west and the Alborz range on the north has meant that there were many cave sites which would have been suitable for early cave dwelling man. Although this multiplicity of cave habitats would seem to lend itself to the extended study of the early Stone Age hunting and gathering way of life, there has in fact been comparatively little scientific study of early cave man in Persia, possibly because of the stronger attraction to the archeologists of the rich Neolithic remains of prehistoric agricultural settlers found throughout the country. ... .See BEÚT GARMEÚ. .See Supplement. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH ,name of a region in early Islamic times, situated to the north of the upper Har^ru@d and the Paropamisus range and on the head waters of the Mor@g@a@b. To its east was Ba@dòg@^s (q.v.) and to its northeast Gu@zga@n (q.v.). GÚar±esta@n thus corresponds to the region known at present as F^ru@zku@h (q.v.) and forms part of the province of Ba@d@g@^s in contemporary Afghanistan. The term g@ar±a perhaps reflects an Iranian word for mountain, as suggested by Maqdes^/Moqaddas^ (p. ... . See Supplement. JEAN CALMARD (1807-9),a diplomatic and military project between France and Persia which represented Napoleon's last attempt to realize his Oriental ambitions. From late 1795, Persia became part of French projects against British India (Greaves, p. 375). Napoleon had viewed his Egyptian campaign (1798-99) as a foothold to launch a conquest of India (Amini, p. 27 ff.). He is also said to have combined with the Tsar Paul I a joint attack on India (Gotteri, II, p. 508; Amini, pp. 60 f.). From the renewal of Franco-Ottoman relations (June 1802), he sought information on Persia. ... LISA GOLOMBEK , referringto a garden estate, intended primarily for pleasure rather than permanent residence or production of crops, formally laid out, usually incorporating architectural elements, such as ornamental pools, gate-houses, and pavilions. Numerous gardens mentioned in historical texts are designated by name, either of the founder, or of the flora or fauna associated with them. Poetical names, such as delgoæa@ (easing the heart) or jaha@nnema@ (image of the world), commonly occur after the 15th century. ... HOWARD CRANE Landscape architecture has a long history in the Indian subcontinent. An indigenous garden tradition is referred to in the plays of Ka@lida@sa (5th century; Raghuvamás‚a, act 14.30; Kuma@rasambhava, act 6.46) and ›u@draka (6th century; MrácchakatÂika, acts 5-6, 8), Ka@dambar^ of Ba@náabhatÂt (7th. cent.; pp. 612-16), and elsewhere, although archeologists have so far discovered no remains of gardens from this period. Garden architecture is also mentioned by historians of the Delhi Sultanate (602-932/1206-1526) such as ˆams Sera@è ¿Af^f (pp. ... iv. InPersia there are only three botanical gardens (ba@g@-e g^a@h-æena@s^) in the exact scientific sense of this term. These rather new establishments are described below in chronological order. Other major attempts or projects to establish such gardens will be mentioned subsequently. vi. IN PERSIAN ART Thegarden as an artifice has inspired other forms of art, particularly poetry, painting, and the decorative arts. As with poetry, reference to the garden and its vegetation may recreate the garden in another form, use the garden as a setting or allude to elements associated with the garden. For poetry (see BAÚGÚ iii) the first category would include descriptions and impressions of gardens as the subject of the poem (e.g., see Farrokò^'s pp. 53-55, description of the royal garden in GÚazna; ¿Abd^ Beyg ˆ^ra@z^, apud S®afar^, pp. ... DANIEL BALLAND , acity in the Solayma@n Mountains of eastern Afghanistan, 122 km south of Kabul. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , Persian historian of the early 5th/11th century whose exact dates of birth and death are unknown. , sisterof Bahra@m Ùo@b^n (q. v.). .See KAÚRUÚN. ETRAT ELAHI .Garlic is used as an ingredient in a variety of Persian dishes mainly as a condiment. The leaves are used with other fresh aromatic vegetables in sabz^-polow and ku@ku@-sabz^. Varieties of a@æ (q.v.), specially a@æ-e reæta, are often served decorated on the top with saute‚ed slices of garlic bulbs and onion mixed with mint. In formal settings such as a wedding party, garlic and onion slices may be arranged in an intricate floral pattern or an expression appropriate for the occasion. ... BERNARD HOURCADE , aregion (Qeæla@q and Garmsa@r) in the province of Semna@n situated beyond the Caspian Gates. It has been known particularly as a stopover on the great road to Khorasan. It had an abundance of water (rivers, canals, and qana@ts) and fodder, but no great caravansary or town developed there due to its proximity to Vara@m^n and Rey. Garmsa@r was also a station on the Safavid road linking Isfahan to Ma@zandara@n across the H®ablaru@d valley, bypassing Tehran via the desert (kav^r) of Mas^la and the heights of S^a@hku@h, where several Safavid and Qajar caravansaries and a small palace (Qasár-e ¿Ayn-al-Raæ^d) were built, as well as a paved road (ra@h-e sang-faræ) to cross the marshlands south of Garmsa@r (Mostawf^, pp. ... XAVIER DE PLANHOL (warm zones and cold zones), two terms identifying regional entities that form a major geographical contrast deeply affecting the popular conscience in Persia. Both terms are currently used in the everyday language in the south, especially among the nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes. In cold winters, the high central plateau and its outer chains contrast with the peripheral lowlands that remained for a long time marginal with respect to Persia's high civilization; however, their mild winter climate soon allured Iranians to more or less prolonged seasonal stays. ... WILLIAM W. MALANDRA ,the Pahlavi name for heaven and paradise, derived from GAv garo@.d™ma@ma- (lit. "house of song"; cf. YAv garo@.nma@na-, Man. Mid. Pers. gr÷sm÷n, Prth. grdm÷n, Sogd. °©r’mn). It frequently appears as a synonym for wahiæt, paradise, e.g., in hendiadys wahiæt ud garo@dma@n (Pahlavi Texts, p. 151) or in the phrase wahiæt^g…pad garo@dma@n ^ Ohrmazd "resident of Paradise in Ohrmazd's garo@dma@n" (Wiæta@sp Yt. 42). ... KAMBIZ ESLAMI , one of the finest collections of Near Eastern manuscripts, bequeathed to the Princeton University Library by Robert Garrett (1875-1961), a graduate (1897) and a trustee of the University (1905-61). Although the collection contains mostly Arabic manuscripts, its Persian holdings are significant, including a number of important and exquisite manuscripts, such as a copy of ¿Omar K¨ayya@m's Roba@¿^ya@t (dated 868/1463-4), illustrated copies ,buffalo. See CATTLE. . See GYAUR KALA. HUSHANG A¿LAM (lit."ox-tongue," in reference to the rough, tongue-shaped leaves of the plant), the popular designation for several medicinal species of the borage family (Boraginaceae). WILLIAM W. MALANDRA , the name of the primordial Bovine in Zoroastrian mythology. Although the name gav- ae@vo@.da@ta@- appears in two Avestan litanies (N^a@yiæn 3.2; S^h ro@zag 2.12) together with måºha- gaociƒra- "the Moon containing the seed of cattle" and gaw- pouru.sar™’a@ "the Bovine of many species," the only other information is contained in the Pahlavi books, especially the Bundahiæn and the Wiz^dag^ha@ ^ Za@dspram. The meaning of the name is not altogether certain. ... . See NAWWAÚB-E DAKHAN. K. A. NIZAMI , author of Golza@r-e-abra@r, a Persian hagiography of Indian saints (b. 11 Rajab 962/2 June, 1554 in Mandu, d. ?). GÚawt¯^ received his earliest education from his father, a Sufi and Koran reciter (háa@fezá) well-versed in religious sciences. His father died when he was eleven years of age. He later studied with Shaikh Kama@l-al-D^n Qoreæ^, Shaikh Borha@n-al-D^n Kalp^, and Sayyed Moháammadæa@h. A romantic adventure brought him to Agra, where he spent five years. ... .See ISFAHAN. SAID AMIR ARJOMAND ,term used by the Shi¿ites to refer to the occultation of the Hidden Imam. The notion of a concealed savior is not unknown in the Judaeo-Christian apocalyptic literature. In the Similitudes of Enoch, we read of "that Son of Man" who "became the Chosen One; he became concealed in the presence of (the Lord of the Spirits) prior to the creation of the world, and for eternity" (1 Enoch, 48.2, 6). In Islam, the idea of g@ayba had its origin in the Kaysa@n^ya, a chiliastic sect formed after the failure of Mokòta@r's uprising in Ku@fa, whose members had considered Moháammad b. ... PETER JACKSON (d.617/1220), Turkish general of the K¨úa@razmæa@h ¿Ala@÷-al-D^n Moháammad b. Tekeæ. The title is supplied by Jovayn^ (ed. Qazv^n^, I, p. 60); the form Qa@der Khan employed by Ju@zja@n^ (T®abaqa@t I, 311, II, 103-4, tr. Raverty, pp. 272, 966-67) seems to be a corruption. Jovayn^ gives his personal name as Èna@l±oq (the lesser inal/yinal), though it is possible that this too is a title. GÚa@yer Khan was a kinsman of the K¨úa@razmæa@h's mother Terken K¨a@tu@n, who according to Jovayn^ belonged to the Qangli peoples (II, 198). ... PETER JACKSON , fifthMongol Il-khan of Persia (690-94/1291-95); his coins also bear the name Èrinj^n Du@rj^ (Tibetan Rin-chen rDo-rje "Jewel Diamond") bestowed upon him by Buddhist lamas. He was the son of the Il-khan Abaqa (q.v.) by Nu@qda@n K¨a@tu@n of the Tatar tribe; the date of his birth, which is garbled by Raæ^d-al-D^n (p. 230), is unknown. On the accession of his brother Arg@u@n (q.v.) in 683/1284, Gaykòa@tu@ was sent to govern Anatolia (Ru@m). After Arg@u@n's death in 690/1291, his candidature carried the day against his nephew GÚa@za@n (q. ... MANSOUR SHAKI (Gayu@mart¯,Kayu@mart¯; Mid. Pers. Gayo@mart/d, Av. gaya mar™tan "mortal life," Man. Gehmurd; Ar. Jayu@mart), the sixth of the heptad in Mazdean myth of creation, the protoplast of man, and the first king in Iranian mythical history. The particulars of Gayo@mart's life and death are given somehow differently in Middle Persian books. Our main source of information on this first righteous man is the Bundahiæn, of which the essential features are as follows: HIROSHI KUMAMOTO , thename of a town in Khotanese documents in the A. F. R. Hoernle, Mark Aurel Stein, Sven Hedin, and N. F. Petrovsky collections (mostly either in the locative singular form gayseta "in Gaysa@ta" or as a secondary adjective gaysa@taja "of Gaysa@ta"). Some of the documents in which this name occurs are dated using regnal year of the Khotanese king Vis‚a' Va@ham® in the second half of the 8th century C.E. MINU YUSOFNEZHAD , atown in the province of Isfahan, of the æahresta@n of Barkòúa@r and Mayma, situated 18 km north of the city of Isfahan at an altitude of 1,578 m above sea level; it has a population of 17,874 (Markaz-e a@ma@r-e Èra@n, AÚma@r-g^r^, p. 7; idem, Naqæa [1]; Weza@rat-e defa@¿, p. 229). Its products are wheat, barley, vegetables, cotton, fruits, pistachios, and jujube fruit; native plants are ash-tree and milk vetch (gavan; Astragalus). Of wild animals, wolves, jackals, foxes, and rabbits are found in the area. ... M. R. GHANOONPARVAR ,common term in Persian for several species of the genera Tamarix (desert trees) and Astragalus (spiny shrubs of gavan); also the name of a confection made with the sweet exudate (gaz-angob^n) produced on Astragalus. This article deals only with the exudate found on A. adscendens Boiss. and Haussk. and the candy made from it. .See JEHAÚD. .See GANZAK. .See GANZAK. ETAN KOHLBERG , nesba oftwo Imami authors and traditionists. FRANÇOIS DE BLOIS , Persian poet of the early 5th/11th century. His nesba identifies him as a native of Ray. His pen-name occurs in the early sources, in verse and prose, both as GÚazµa@÷er^ and GÚazµa@r^. Nezáa@m^ ¿Aru@zµ^ lists him among the poets of the Buyids (q.v.; Ùaha@r maqa@la, text, p. 45); if this is true, then he is likely to have served the last Buyid rulers in Ray before the Ghaznavid conquest of that city in 420/1029. He has left us with only one complete poem, a long ode (qasá^da) in praise of the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahámu@d (388-421/998-1030), which, according to a Ghaznavid poet of the next generation, Mas¿u@d-e Sa¿d-e Salma@n, GÚazµa@÷er^ sent from Ray to GÚazna and for which he received a reward of 1,000 dinars. ... ,the most important Persian lyric, adopted also by literatures influenced by the classical Persian tradition, in particular Turkish and Urdu poetry. GERHARD BÖWERING (450-505/1058-1111), one of the greatest systematic Persian thinkers of medieval Islam and a prolific Sunni author on the religious sciences (Islamic law, philosophy, theology, and mysticism) in Saljuq times. W. MONTGOMERY WATT ii.THE EH®YAÚ÷ ¿OLUÚM AL-DÈN NASROLLAH POURJAVADY iii.THE KÈMÈA-YE SA¿AÚDAT. See KÈMÈAÚ-YE SA¿AÚDAT. WAEL B. HALLAQ v.AS A FAQÈH MICHAEL E. MARMURA vi.GÚAZAÚLÈ AND THEOLOGY WILFERD MADELUNG vii.GÚAZAÚLÈ AND THE BAÚTáENÈS NASROLLAH POURJAVADY , outstanding mystic, writer, and eloquent preacher (b. ca. 453/1061, d. 517/1123 or 520/1126). The younger brother of the celebrated theologian, jurist, and Sufi, Abu@ H®a@med Moháammad GÚaza@l^ (q.v.), Ahámad GÚaza@l^ was born in T®a@bara@n, a village near the city of T®u@s in Khorasan, and it was in T®u@s that he received his early education, primarily in jurisprudence. He turned to Sufism while still young, becoming the pupil first of Abu@ Bakr Nassa@j T®u@s^ (d. ... MUNIBUR RAHMAN (b. Maæhad, 933/1526-27, d. Ahmadabad, Gujarat, 27 Rajab 980/3 December 1572), poet laureate in Persian (malek-al-æo¿ara@÷) at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar (q.v.). Nothing is known about his family background, even his real name is unknown. His birthdate is known from a reference in one of his poems (D^va@n, fol. 86; ¿Abba@s^, p. 52; Ha@d^, p. 30). During his youth he went to Qazv^n and joined the court of Shah T®ahma@sb (r. 930-84/1524-76) for some time. ... R. AMITAI-PREISS (b. 29 Rab^¿ I 670/5 November 1271; d. 11 ˆawwa@l 703/17 May 1304), the oldest son of Arg@u@n Khan (q.v.) and his eventual successor as the seventh Il-khanid ruler of Persia (r. 694-703/1295-1304). Following his father's accession in 683/1284, he was appointed governor of the eastern provinces, i.e., Khorasan, Ma@zandara@n, Qu@mes and Ray, a position which he continued to hold under his uncle Gaykòa@tu@ (q.v.), who gained the throne in 690/1291. From 1289 until 1294, GÚa@za@n was occupied with the revolt of his erstwhile lieutenant Nowru@z b. ... CHARLES MELVILLE , averse chronicle of the reign of the Il-khan GÚa@za@n Khan (694-703/1295-1304), by K¨úa@ja Nu@r-al-D^n b. ˆams-al-D^n Moháammad A‘dar^. The work, in the style of Ferdows^'s ˆa@h-na@ma, was started in 758/1357 (fol. 13r) and completed in 763/1362 (fol. 300r); it was dedicated to the Jalayerid ruler, Oways b. H®asan. . See GÚAZ˜AÚ÷ERÈ RAÚZÈ. DJALAL KHALEGHI-MOTLAGH ,an Iranian hero of De‘-e Saf^d (q.v.), a fortress near the border seperating Iran from Tu@ra@n, during the reigns of the Kayanid kings No@dòar and Kay Ka@vu@s (ˆa@h-na@ma, ed. Khaleghi, I, p. 305; II, pp. 130-40). Already an old man in the reign of Kay Ka@vu@s, Ga‘daham was unable to fight Sohra@b when the latter invaded Iran and attacked the fortress. Therefore, after Hoj^r, the then castellan (negahba@n) of the fortress, is defeated and taken captive by Sohra@b and his own daughter Gorda@far^d (q. ... .See AÚHUÚ. .See ISFAHAN DIALECTS. .See CITIES. ROBERTA GIUNTA , aprovince and city in southeastern Afghanistan, the latter situated 136 km south of Kabul at an altitude of about 2,200 meters (33° 34´ N, 68° 27´ E). EIr. , a poet at the court of the Ghaznavid sultan Bahra@mæa@h b. Mas¿u@d III (r. 511-?522/1117-?1157; q.v.). His d^va@n, mentioned by Sad^d-al-D^n ¿Awf^ (q.v.), has not survived, but a few of his poems are quoted by later anthologists and historians who refer to him under a variety of appellations and sobriquets. In Nezáa@m^ ¿Aru@zµ^ Samarqand^'s Ùaha@r maqa@la (q.v.), written in 550-52/1155-57, his name appears in the list of the Ghaznavid poets as ˆa@h Bu@ Raja@÷ with no further comments (ed. ... . See DICTIONARIES iii. LISA GOLOMBEK ,a village approximately 2.5 miles northeast of the city of Herat in present-day northwestern Afghanistan at 34°22' N and 62°14' E, situated at an elevation of 4,100 feet. The name has also been applied at times to the eastern end of the minor mountain ridge to the north of Herat (Gazetteer of Afghanistan III, p. 133; Ya@qu@t, Bolda@n IV, p. 225; H®a@fezá-e Abru@, I, p. 27, ed. Ma@yel Herav^, pp. 25, 89). SHIRO ANDO (b.874/1469-70), a Timurid sáadr and author of a collection of biographies of Sufis known as the Maja@les al-¿oææa@q (sometimes mistakenly ascribed to Sultan H®osayn Ba@yqara@, q.v.). Through his mother, a sister of M^r Raf^¿-al-D^n H®osayn, he belonged to a prominent family of sayyeds in N^æa@pu@r. .See GÚAZAÚLÈ. .See GABR, MAJUÚS WILLEM J. VOGELSANG ,a place-name known only from Classical sources. In the Alexander biographies and later geographies the name was used to denote much of present-day southern Baluchistan in south Pakistan and southeast Persia. According to Arrian, the province extended from the land of the Oritans, along the western banks of the Arabius or Arabis River (the modern Hab, west of Karachi) and the nearby mountains (Kirthar range; the Arbita mountains of Ptolemy, Geography 6.21) to the borders of Carmania (Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri 6. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT ,BERNHARD, scholar of Indo-Iranian studies (b. 30 April 1881 in Bielitz, the present-day Bielsko-Bia¬a in Poland; d. 5 July 1964 in New York). Geiger studied Hebrew and Arabic before being persuaded by Leopold von Schroeder to turn to Indian and Iranian studies. Among his teachers in Vienna, Bonn, Prague, Göttingen, and Heidelberg were the Indologists Leopold von Schroeder, Moriz Winternitz, and Franz Kielhorn and the Iranists Friedrich Carl Andreas (q.v.) and Jacob Wackernagel. He received his doctorate in 1904 with a thesis on the pre-Islamic Arab poet T®arafa b. ... BERNFRIED SCHLERATH ,German scholar of Iranian and Indian philology (b. Nuremberg 21 July 1856, d. Neubiberg 2 September 1943). He studied classical and Oriental languages at Bonn, Berlin, and finally at Erlangen, where he studied with Friedrich von Spiegel and received his doctoral degree in 1876. He taught at the classical secondary school in Neustadt an der Hardt from 1880 till 1884 and then in Munich until 1891, when he was appointed as full professor of Indo-European studies at the University of Erlangen. In 1920 he moved to Munich to replace his friend Ernst Kuhn as professor of Aryan philology. ... ,tribes in the Arsacid and Sasanian periods. See GÈLAÚN. BERNFREID SCHLERATH ,KARL FRIEDRICH, German scholar of Iranian and Indian studies (1852-1929). 1. Life. Geldner was born the son of a parson in Saalfeld on Saale, Thuringia, on 17 December 1852. He studied Sanskrit and the .See KELIM. HERMANN LANDOLT ,Swiss scholar, writer, and translator of Persian literature (b. Wal denburg, Switzerland, 24 December, 1928; d. 19 January 1972). He was educated at the universities of Basel, Zürich, and Berlin. He became a noted writer in his early twenties, and his novel Holger und Mirjam was published in Zürich in 1951. His interests in the Islamic world began after a visit to Tunisia in 1952. As a result, he chose Islamic Studies as his main academic field in 1953, and completed his university education in 1957 under Fritz Meier at Basel with a Ph. ... .See GAYOÚMART. PARVIZ MOHEBBI . The first-known reference in Persian to gem cutting is found in an anonymous treatise on jewelry, Jowhar-na@ma-ye nezáa@m^, written in 592/1195-96 under the last K¨úa@razmæa@h. According to Èraj Afæa@r (pp. 40-41), both Nasá^r-al-D^n T®u@s^ and Abu'l-Qa@sem Ka@æa@n^ used this treatise in their works (see bibliography) without mentioning it. Similarly, the information on gem cutting found in Moháammad b. Mansáu@r's Gowhar-na@ma, written in the 15th century, is just a duplication of the earlier works. ... TAHSËN YAZICI ,mehmed nurÎ, Turkish poet and translator of Persian works (b. 1897 in the Ag¡én district of Elazég¡; d. Istanbul, 1976). Gençosman was educated in Diyarbakér, Elazég¡, and Konya, and became official clerk of Elazég¡ before being called up for military service in World War I. At the end of the war, he was given the task of accompanying back to their homeland German soldiers who had been taken prisoner in Turkey by the victorious allies. After returning, he began writing for periodicals and newspapers such as Osmanlé, Ocak, Bahalék, and Yeni Fikir in Konya and Donanma and Servet-i Fünun in Istanbul. ... STEPHANIE CRONIN ,the first modern highway patrol and rural police force in Persia. It was established in 1910 by the Persian government with the help of Swedish officers and continued its services into the Pahlavi era. This article discusses the history of the Gendarmerie during two periods: (1) the Swedish period, 1910-1921, and (2) the Pahlavi period, 1921-79. in Persia HAMMED SHAHIDIAN ii.IN THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC Gender relations in the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) are contentious and volatile. It is difficult to provide a single, comprehensive explanation of the ideology of gender in Islam or the Islamic Republic. Even in religious circles, interpretations of "women in Islam" have been influenced by an individual's specific historical circumstances and considerations as well as by koranic axioms and Hadith narratives. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, for example, had reacted vehemently in 1961 to the enfranchisement of women. ... . See ÙENGÈZ KHAN. MAHMOUD OMIDSALAR (Ar. andPers. jenn; incorrect plural, ajenna, used in Persian), name of a cathegory of supernatural beings believed to have been created from smokeless fire (Koran 55:14; El-Shamy, Motif A2905.1, "Jinn created from fire") and to be living invisibly side-by-side the visible creation. They are repeatedly mentioned in the Koran, where chapter 72 (Su@rat al-jenn) is named after them. Arab lexicographers derive the term from the root janna (to conceal; Lane, pp. 402-03; cf. Abu'l-Fotu@há, XVI, p. 244), but it possibly has a foreign origin (Nöldeke, pp. ... MICHELE BERNARDINI ,an important port city in Liguria, in northwestern Italy, which during the Middle Ages played a significant role between Europe and the East, including Persia. Genoa was sacked by Muslim raiders from North Africa in 935 but became an economic and commercial power during the First Crusade (1096-1101). In 1097, Genoa established its first oriental settlement at Antioch (Bratianu, 1929, pp. 46-52). The decline of the Syrian colonies, reconquered by the Muslims in the course of the 13th century, and the Pope's ban on commerce with Mamluk Egypt, led the Genoese to transfer their aims elsewhere. ... XAVIER DE PLANHOL of Persia and Afghanistan. For physical geography see Supplement and under individual areas, countries, and provinces (e.g., AFGHANISTAN i; AZERBAIJAN i; CENTRAL ASIA i; etc.) See also AÚB, CLIMATE, GEOLOGY, HYDROLOGY. XAVIER DE PLANHOL ii.HUMAN GEOGRAPHY XAVIER DE PLANHOL iii.POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY The significant Persian-speaking areas of the world are divided today into three states. One of them, Tajikistan, is very recent. It corresponds with the part of the Iranian world that was annexed as a result of the Russian colonial expansion in Central Asia in the late 19th century and which, set up as a Soviet Socialist Republic in 1929, became an independent state after the demise of the USSR in 1991. The other two, Persia and Afghanistan, are much more ancient structures, with a centuries-old evolution behind them. ... CYRUS ALAI iv.CARTOGRAPHY OF PERSIA The equivalent terms for carte and map in pre-modern Persian and Arabic were sáu@rat (configuration) and occasionally æakl (form), rasm (drawing), or naqæ (painting, figure). In contemporary Persian naqæa denotes map, while kòar^tÂa in contemporary Arabic and harita in modern Turkish (< Gk xarti) is used (Harvey, 1980, p. 10; idem, 1992, 9. 7; Harley and Woodward, I, p. xvi; Maqbul Ahmad, pp. 1077-78). The current Persian term for cartography is naqæa-nega@r^. ... ECKART EHLERS .This article is concerned with those aspects of the geology of Persia that are of immediate economic and cultural significance for the country and its inhabitants. The focus will therefore be on three aspects: (1) geological structure and orohydrographic differentiation of Persia; (2) geology and natural hazards; (3) geology and natural resources. .See OCCULT SCIENCES. .See GOÚDARZ. KEITH HITCHINS (Pers. Gorjesta@n; Ar. al-Korj). i. Theland and the people. KEITH HITCHINS ii.HISTORY OF IRANIAN-GEORGIAN RELATIONS Between the Achaemenid era and the beginning of the 19th century, Persia played a significant and at times decisive role in the history of the Georgian people. The Persian presence helped to shape political institutions, modified social structure and land holding, and enriched literature and culture. Persians also acted as a counterweight to other powerful forces in the region, notably the Romans (and Byzantines), the Ottoman Turks, and the Russians. But the Persian-Georgian relationship was by no means one-sided, for the Georgians contributed substantially to Persia's military and administrative successes and even affected its social structure, especially under the Safavids. ... GOCHA R. TSETSKHLADZE iii.IRANIAN ELEMENTS IN GEORGIAN ART AND ARCHEOLOGY Ancient Georgian tribes had close cultural contacts with Near Eastern civilizations from the 18th century B.C.E. (Figure 3), as evidenced by the gold figurine of a stag (Sumerian influence) and the silver bowl with two friezes of relief decoration of a procession, and "tree of life" and animals (Hittite artistic traditions) from the Trialeti mound (Miron and Orthmann, pp. 30, 32). Iranian elements appeared from the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E., as they did in the art of the entire Caucasian region. ... ALEKSANDRE GVAKHARIA iv.LITERARY CONTACTS WITH PERSIA The tribes of Georgia had a well-established and vast literary tradition and folklore long before the Christian era. None of the pre-Christian Georgian literary works have survived, however. Christianity became established in Georgia as an official religion at the beginning of the 4th century, and in the 5th century the first surviving literary work, Tsamebay tsmidisa Shushanikisi (The martyrdom of Shushanik) by Jacob Tsurtaveli (ed. M. Malazonia and I. Lolasvili, Tbilisi, 1986), which laid the foundation of Georgian clerical literature, was created. ... THEA CHKEIDZE v.LINGUISTIC CONTACTS WITH IRANIAN LANGUAGES Due to many centuries of close contacts between Georgia and Persia, a large number of Iranian loanwords came into the Georgian language. These belonged to various spheres of vocabulary and were borrowed at different periods and from different dialects: from Eastern Iranian Scytho-Alan-Ossetic, and from Western Iranian Median, Parthian and, to an even greater extent, from the Middle Persian of the Sasanian period (3rd-7th cent.) and New Persian. Only a brief survey of these loanwords can be given here, but analysis of the borrowed vocabulary reveals its versatile semantic character: technical terms, basic vocabulary pertaining to all aspects of everyday life, and expressive vocabulary. ... KEITH HITCHINS vi.IRANIAN STUDIES AND COLLECTIONS IN GEORGIA The institutional foundations of Iranian studies in Georgia were laid after the Russian Revolution of 1917. Two centers emerged, namely the University of Tbilisi and the Georgian branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, which later became the Georgian Academy of Sciences. Scholars in both institutions recognized that a knowledge of Eastern languages, especially Persian, was essential for the study of Georgian history, literature, and language. RUDI MATTHEE vii.GEORGIANS IN THE SAFAVID ADMINISTRATION Safavid interaction with Georgia and its inhabitants dates from the inception of the state in the early 16th century, when Georgians fought alongside the Qezelba@æ in Shah Esma@¿^l I's army (Grey, ed., pp. 190, 193; Scarcia Amoretti, p. 61). Under Shah T®ahma@sb I (930-84/1524-76), Georgians, taken captive during the shah's four expeditions into Georgia, began to be imported into Safavid territory. T®ahma@sb's campaign in 961/1554 is said to have brought thirty thousand people from the Caucasus to Persia (Shah T®ahma@sb, p. ... PIERRE OBERLING viii.GEORGIAN COMMUNITIES IN PERSIA Many thousands of Georgians, Armenians, and Circassians who were transplanted to Persia by Shah ¿Abba@s I (996-1038/1588-1629) were peasants, and they were settled in villages in the Persian hinterland. ,Treaty of. See Georgia iii. EZAT O. NEGAHBAN ,a rich archeological site located in western Azarbaijan about 7 km south of the town of Urmia (Rezµa@÷^ya) plain made known through the aerial survey of ancient sites in Persia carried out by Erich F. Schmidt in the 1930s. With the publication of Schmidt's pioneer work it was clear that careful investigation of one of these mounds on the Urmia plain was desirable to obtain a chronology of archeological levels for this part of the ancient world in which little scientific excavation had previously been conducted. ... ,son of Ja@ma@sp. See JAÚMAÚSP. ,a Turkic tribe of Khorasan, Gorga@n, and Ma@zandara@n. According to E¿tema@d-al-SaltÂana (pp. 157-58), the Gera@yl^ are descendents of the once powerful Kereit of Mongolia, whose leader, Wang Khan, was defeated by Ùeng^z Khan (q.v.) in 1203. But there is no solid evidence to support this claim. Nor is there any way to substantiate E¿tema@d-al-SaltÂana's conjecture that the Gera@yl^ accompanied Ùeng^z Khan or Hülegu (Hola@ku@) Khan to northeastern Persia. ... FARHAD DAFTARY ,a fortress on the summit of an isolated rocky hill in the Alborz mountains, situated some 18 km west of Da@mg@a@n (q.v.) in northern Persia. Thrust forward into a sloping plain, the hill of Gerdku@h rises about 300 meters above its base, and seen from the south, the access direction to the site, the hill appears dome shaped; hence its name Gerdku@h (round mountain). In medieval times, Gerdku@h was also known as De‘-e Gonbada@n (q.v.), which Islamic sources have identified with the one mentioned in the ˆa@h-na@ma (ed. ... .See WALNUT. MARCUS MILWRIGHT (lit: making gereh "knot"), aterm used to refer to various geometric designs in woodworking and architectural decoration. DANIEL BALLAND ,a small oasis-city on the right bank of the Helmand river in Southern Afghanistan, the headquarters of the district (woloswa@l^) of Nahr-e Sera@j (see below) within the province of Helmand (q.v.). It is located at an altitude of 840 m near the easiest passages over the middle Helmand. These were originally a succession of several fords practicable for foot passengers; at times when the river was unfordable, rafts or ferry-boats were usually available, apparently manned since the 18th century by a state-colony of persianized Baluchis reputedly settled there by Na@der Shah (Yate, p. ... ERICH KETTENHOFEN (Germanicia; Mid. Pers. Germanyo@s), cityin the ancient country of Commagene in the Roman province of Syria, present-day Mara¶ in southeast Turkey. According to the inscription of ˆa@pu@r I, the city was captured in 252 or probably in 253 (about the date see DICHOÚR) in the course of ˆa@pu@r's second campaign against the Romans (ˆKZ, Mid. Pers., l. 10: glmnwsy, Parth., l. 8: grmnyws; Greek, l. 17: Germanikia; on the form of the name in both Iranian versions, cf. Huyse, I, p. ... PIERRE BRIANT ,name of an ancient Persian tribe engaged in farming (Herodotus 1.125). Since this is the only mention of this name by Herodotus (it is absent from his list of Darius's tributaries and Xerxes's contingents), one may identify it with the name of Karmanioi, mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium (Pauly-Wissowa, X/2, cols. 1955-56). Nearchus later refered to them as inhabitants of Carmania (q.v.), and observed that "they lived like the Persians, with whom they were neighbors and were similarly equipped for war" (Indica 38. ... OLIVER BAST . i. German-Persiandiplomatic relations. ii. Archeological excavations and studies. iii. Iranian studies in German: Pre-Islamic period. iv. Iranian studies in German: Islamic period. v. German travelers and explorers in Persia. vi. Collections and study of Persian art. vii. Persia in German literature. See Supplement. viii. German cultural influence in Persia. ix. Germans in Persia. x. The Persian community in Germany. DIETRICH HUFF ii.ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS AND EXCAVATIONS The first Germans who reported on the historical and archeological monuments of the ancient Persian world, were, as in other nations, adventurers and travelers of a different kind. Their reports can be significant as contemporary descriptions of the condition of monuments in late medieval times, particularly those which have vanished or are seriously altered nowadays; their interests in antiquities, however, were mostly determined and limited by their view of biblical history. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT iii.IRANIAN STUDIES IN GERMAN: PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD. BERT G. FRAGNER iv.IRANIAN STUDIES IN GERMAN: ISLAMIC PERIOD OLIVER BAST v.GERMAN TRAVELERS AND EXPLORERS IN PERSIA JENS KRÖGER vi.COLLECTIONS AND STUDY OF PERSIAN ART IN GERMANY CHRISTL CATANZARO vii.PERSIA IN GERMAN LITERATURE. See Supplement. viii. GERMAN CULTURAL INFLUENCE IN PERSIA German culture was and is very highly appreciated in Persia, but its influence on Persian culture is usually overrated. A lasting influence was mainly exercised on Persians who either attended a German school in Persia, had other personal contacts with Germans, studied in Germany, or worked there. OLIVER BAST ix.GERMANS IN PERSIA The Germans in Persia who have risen to a certain prominence fall mainly into one or more of the following categories: a) travelers and explorers (see above); b) experts in the service of the Persian government; c) agents and soldiers; d) members of German institutions in Persia. ASGHAR SCHIRAZI x.PERSIAN COMMUNITY IN GERMANY The history of the Persian community in Germany may be divided into three different phases: .See HOSTAGE CRISIS; IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR. .See CORIANDER. .See GÈSUÚ-DARAÚZ. SHAUL SHAKED , a pair of Middle Persian terms that designate the two forms of existence according to the traditional Zoroastrian view of the world as expressed in the Pahlavi books. The term ge@t^g alludes to the material, visible, and tangible aspect of the world; me@no@g refers to the aspect of the world that is essentially mental, invisible, and intangible. The two terms have their antecedents in Avestan usage, where they correspond respectively to astuuant-, (lit. "boney," from ast- "bone") and mainiiauua- (lit. ... WILLIAM W. MALANDRA (the fashioner of the Cow), a divine craftsman who figures prominently in the Gathas (q.v.) of Zoroaster but falls into obscurity in the Younger Avesta, being there associated with the fourteenth day of the month, known in Middle Persian simply as Go@æ. Through his poetry Zoroaster articulated a new religious vision (dae@na@; see DEÚN) based on the reinterpretation of many traditional concepts. In his system the G™@uæ Taæan is explicitly identified both with Ahura Mazda@ himself and his creative aspect, the (Sp™@niæta) Mainyu "The Most Beneficent Spirit. ... WILLIAM W. MALANDRA "the soul of the Cow," the name of the archetypal Bovine, whose plight is a subject of Zoroaster's ga@ƒa@ (Y. 29), often identified as "the Cow's Lament." In this poem Zoroaster drew upon an old Indo-Iranian motif of a semi-divine cow. While the grammatical gender of gau- is feminine, the word can refer to "cattle, bovines" generally, and has been so understood by various interpreters (e.g., Lommel, pp 177 ff.). In the later Pahlavi literature the Go@æorun DJALAL KHALEGHI-MOTLAGH ,one of the foremost heroes of the national epic in the reigns of Kay Ka@vu@s and Kay K¨osrow (qq.v.). According to the ˆa@h-na@ma, he is the son of Go@darz and father of Be@‘an/B^‘an and a direct descendant of Ka@va the Smith (Ka@va-ye AÚhangar; qq.v.) through his paternal grandfather, Kaæva@d. He probably was a historical personality from the Parthian era who, contrary to traditional accounts, was the father of Go@darz II, who shared the throne with Vardanes in the middle of the first century C. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH ,an Islamic Dynasty of Turkish slave origin (366-582/977-1186), which in its heyday ruled in the eastern Iranian lands, briefly as far west as Ray and Jeba@l; for a while in certain regions north of the Oxus, most notably, in Kúa@razm; and in Baluchistan and in northwestern India. Latterly, however, its territories comprised eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and northwestern India, with its last rulers reduced to the Punjab only. The genesis of the Ghaznavids lay in the process which took place in the middle decades of the 4th/10th century, whereby Turkish slave commanders made themselves in effect autonomous on the southern fringes of the Samanid empire, i. ... Laurianne Martinez-Seàve , Frencharcheologist of Ukranian origin (b. Kharkov, 1895; d. Budapest, 5 September 1979, while attending the Congress of the International Federation of Classical Studies). Ghirshman was one of the pioneers of archeological research in Persia, where he spent almost thirty years excavating numerous sites. He also wrote a number of comprehensive and highly popular works on the pre-Islamic civilization of Iran, including Parthes et Sassanides (Paris 1962) and Perses. Proto-iraniens. Meàdes-Ache‚me‚nides (Paris, 1963), both in the Univers des Formes series founded by Andre‚ Malraux. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , amedieval Islamic dynasty of the eastern Iranian lands. They began as local chiefs in GÚu@r (q.v.) in the heartland of what is now Afghanistan, but became a major power from the mid-12th century until the opening years of the 7th/13th century. GÚu@r was then the nucleus of a vast but transient military empire which at times stretched from Gorga@n (q.v.) in the west to northern India in the east, only to be overwhelmed by the K¨úa@razmæa@hs (q.v.; see also CHORASMIA ii) and to disappear, as far as the eastern Iranian lands were concerned, on the eve of the Mongol cataclysm. ... .See BOTANICAL STUDIES. MINA MAREFAT (Heydar Ghiaï-Chamlou; b. Tehran, 23 October 1922; d. Cap d'Antibe, 6 September 1985), an influential pioneer of modern architecture in Persia and professor at the University of Tehran. GÚÚ^a@÷^ studied architecture at the Faculty of Fine Arts (see FACULTIES ii) and then continued his studies at the École des Beaux Arts in Paris (1948-53). He returned to Persia in 1954 and began teaching at the Faculty of Fine Arts, training the new generation of Persian architects. His private commissions in and around Tehran included the German Embassy, Hotel Carlton, Hotel Hilton, Cinema Moulin Rouge, Cinema Radio City, the Tehran Pars Casino and Drive-In Theater, as well as a number of private homes and apartment buildings. ... . See GIYAN TEPE. ,a Lori dialect. See GÈOÚNÈ. , a book mentioned as a canonical work of Mani in the Coptic Kephalaia (chap. 148), in the Homilies (p. 25.3-4), and Psalms (p. 46.29), as well as in the Chinese compendium of Mani's teachings, third article (Copt. p±o@me nngigas, p±o@me nnsalaæire; Chin. ju huan ). In Mir. Man. III, text b, l. 134-35, the work is called kawa@n (k÷w÷n, kw÷n) "giants." If the recipient was Ma@r Ammo@, it may have been a Parthian translation. But it could also have been addressed to a priest called Frih-Ma@r-Ammo@ and written in Middle Persian. ... MEHRDAD SHOKOOHY , prime minister of the Mughal emperor Jaha@ng^r and father of the emperor's wife, Nu@r Jaha@n. He was the younger of the two sons of K¨úa@ja Moháammad-ˆar^f Hejr^, a poet and minister of ˆaraf-al-D^n Moháammad Khan and his son Ta@ta@r Soltáa@n, the governor (beglarbeg^) of Khorasan. Moháammad-ˆar^f later joined the court of Shah Táahma@sb, where he was first made minister of Yazd, Abarqu@h, and B^a@ba@nak for seven years and then minister of Isfahan, where he died in 984/1576-77. ... . See DELHI SULTANATE . See DAˆTAKÈ. DAVID PINGREE , astronomer and mathematician (b. in Ka@æa@n in ca. 770-80/1368-78; d. in Samarqand 19 Ramazµa@n 832/22 June 1429). We know nothing of Ka@æa@n^'s early life save that his father must have been an accomplished astronomer and mathematician in order to understand the anecdotes that Ka@æa@n^ related to him in his letters, describing his life at the court (tr. in Bagheri, E. Kennedy, 1960; Tk. and Eng. tr. in Sayili, 1960b). The first dated event in Ka@æa@n^'s life was his observation of a lunar eclipse at Ka@æa@n on 12 D¨u'l-háejja 808/2 June 1406, the first in a triplicity of observed lunar eclipses that he compared in his Z^j-e kòa@qa@n^ to a triplicity observed by Ptolemy. ... PETER JACKSON and CHARLES MELVILLE (d. 736/1336), Il-khanid vizier, the son of Raæ^d-al-D^n Fazµl-Alla@h Hamada@n^ (executed 718/1318), the celebrated historian and vizier of GÚa@za@n Khan. On the fall of Demaæq K¨úa@ja b. Ùoba@n (q.v.) in 727/1327, GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n was appointed vizier by Abu@ Sa¿^d (q.v.) in succession to Na@sáer-al-D^n ¿AÚdel, who was unjustly regarded as Demaæq K¨úa@ja's ally. Despite glowing testimony in the sources to his noble character and great abilities (e. ... . See GÚÈAÚT¨ BEG. PRISCILLA SOUCEK , a painter (naqqa@æ) active in Herat in about 822-30/1419-30, where he was in the employ of the Timurid Ba@ysong@or b. ˆa@hrokò. No Timurid author provides any personal details about his life, nor are his other names recorded. His fame derives from a ru@z-na@ma (diary) that he kept during a trip to the Ming court in China as one of Ba@ysong@or's envoys in a group that numbered more than 400 people, including 200 representing ˆa@hrok LISA GOLOMBEK , master architect in Khorasan during the reign of the Timurid ˆa@hrokò (807-50 /1405-47). Next to nothing is known about him. His name appears together with that of the renowned architect of ˆa@hrokò, Qewa@m-al-D^n b. Zayn-al-D^n ˆ^ra@z^ (d. 842/1438), in the inscription of the west ayva@n of the K¨argerd madrasa, which was built for the Timurid vizier P^r Ahámad K¨úa@f^. According to this inscription, dated 846/1422-23, Qewa@m-al-D^n died before the building was completed, which was then finished by GÚ^a@t¯-al-D^n. ... . See DELHI SULTANATE i; TUGHLUQIDS. , Timurid historian. See Supplement. . See DICTIONARIES PIERRE OBERLING ,a Kurdish tribe of the Qazv^n region. According to Parv^z Varja@vand (pp. 456-57), the GÚ^a@t¯vand were moved from western Persia to their present location during the reign of AÚqa@ Moháammad Shah Qa@ja@r (1193-1212/1779-97). They comprise the following clans (t^ra): Koma@s^, Darv^ævand, Salkòu@r^, and Moháammad Beyg^. A Kurdish tribe by the name of Koma@s^ still resides in Kurdistan. It occupies an area east of Mar^va@n, near the Iraqi border (Kom^s^yu@n-e mell^, I, p. ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , a series of publications, which has continued for almost a century, mainly, but not exclusively, dedicated to editions and translations of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish texts. The Series is financed by the Gibb Memorial Trust, which was originally set up with money left for this purpose by Mrs. Jane Gibb of Glasgow (d. 1904) in memory of her prematurely-deceased son, Elias John Wilkinson Gibb (1857-1901). Gibb was a largely self-taught scholar of Arabic, Persian, and, above all, of Ottoman Turkish. He had published in 1882 his Ottoman Poems Translated into English Verse in the Original Forms, the forerunner of the work for which he will always be remembered, the classic six-volume History of Ottoman Poetry (London, 1900-1909), only one volume of which was published in his own lifetime, with the remaining ones edited and seen through the press by his friend Edward G. ... MICHAEL ROGERS (b.1737; d. 1794) and The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (London, 1776-88) as it relates to Persia and the Iranian world. in Persia. The following articles constitute a preliminary attempt at studying various aspects of gift giving in a chronological and historical framework, from the pre-Islamic era to the early modern period. An anthropological approach, dealing with the practice of gift exchange in local communities, tribal clans, villages, extended families, neighborhoods, and urban quarters needs a separate and more detailed treatment. Since the meaning and the function of gift exchange and its practice in pre-modern societies need clarification, this entry will begin with some introductory remarks on the subject. ... RUDI P. MATTHEE iv.IN THE SAFAVID PERIOD The Frenchman Guillaume Olivier claimed at the turn of the 18th century that gift giving was more common in Persia than in the Ottoman Empire (V, p. 257). This may have been true, but it is hard to verify, because virtually all available information on the practice of gift giving in pre-modern Persia is limited to the political elite. It is clear, though, that offering gifts was a conspicuous part of traditional social and political life in Persia, including Safavid Persia, a society that set great store by a reputation of generosity and liberality, and that p^ækaæ was a considerable source of revenue, as well as an important source of expenditure, for the royal court. ... WILLEM FLOOR v.IN THE QAJAR PERIOD .See GÈLAÚN v. Languages NASSEREDIN PARVIN ,title of four newspapers published in Raæt. 1. Biweekly organ of the provincial anjoman (q.v.) of G^la@n (Anjoman-e wela@yat^-e G^la@n), it was published from 18 D¨u'l-háejja 1326/11 January 1909 to 3 Jama@da I 1327/23 May 1909, twelve issues in all. It replaced Anjoman-e wela@yat^-e G^la@n which had suspended publication on 22 ˆa¿ba@n 1325/30 September 1907. Its managing editor was H®asan Khan Asadza@da Esáfaha@n^, who at times signed also as H®asan b. ... MARCEL BAZIN (Ar. J^la@n), province at the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea. i. Geography and Ethnography. ii. Population. iii. Archeology (Marlik). iv. History in the early Islamic period. v. History under the Safavids. vi. History in the 18th century. vii. History in the 19th century. viii. History in the 20th century. See Supplement. ix. Monuments. x. Languages. i. GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOGRAPHY HABIBOLLAH ZANJANI ii.POPULATION EZAT O. NEGAHBAN iii.ARCHEOLOGY The archeology of G^la@n, particularly in the pre-Islamic period, is usually studied in the wider context of the entire south Caspian region, including Mazandara@n and Gorga@n. Articles on three important locations, Marlik Tepe (below), Amlaæ, and Deylama@n (qq.v.), illustrate the perennial difficulties faced by archeological research in Persia, where illegal and therefore unrecorded excavations and forgeries have led to false attributions of provenience, resulting in serious and at times insurmountable obstacles to a better historical understanding of the region in the pre-Islamic period (see forgeries ii). ... WILFERD MADELUNG iv.HISTORY IN THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD The Gelae (Gilites) seem to have entered the region south of the Caspian coast and west of the Amardos River (later Saf^dru@d) in the second or first century B.C.E. Pliny identifies them with the Kadusii previously living there. More likely they were a separate people, coming perhaps from the region of Da@g@esta@n, and superseded the Kadusii. Subsequently they also crossed the Amardos river and, jointly with the Deylamites (q.v.), supplanted the Amardi. Like the Deylamites, they are mentioned as mercenaries of the Sasanian kings but do not seem to have come under their effective rule. ... MANOUCHEHR KASHEFF v.HISTORY UNDER THE SAFAVIDS Based on an article by REZA REZAZADEH LANGAROUDI vi.HISTORY IN THE 18TH CENTURY The rapid decline of the Safavids in the first decades of the 18th century, leading to their ultimate demise in 1722, created a general state of chaos in the country. The northern regions of the country in particular became vulnerable to foreign influence and occupation. The first concerted efforts by czarist Russia to dominate the Caspian Sea and the Persian provinces of G^la@n, Ma@zandara@n, and Astara@ba@d, as well as Azerbaijan, began in the same era. This turbulent century also saw the rise to power of three powerful tribal leaders, Na@der Shah Afæa@r (1149-60/1736-47), Kar^m Khan Zand (1164-93/1751-79), and AÚqa@ Moháammad Khan Qa@ja@r (1193-1211/1779-97). ... Based on an article by REZA REZAZADEH LANGAROUDI vii.HISTORY IN THE 19TH CENTURY During the 19th century, Persia underwent major political, economic, and social changes which were partly instigated by the Anglo-Russian colonial interests in the country and the beginnings of the incorporation of Persia into the emerging inter national economy. In G^la@n, which was within the Russian sphere of dominance, increasing contacts with Russia led to a number of major developments in the 19th and early part of the 20th century. These included the expansion of foreign trade and the rise of maritime transportation in the Caspian Sea and their concomitant impact on patterns of import and export, production, and consumption. ... MANOUCHEHR SOTOUDEH ix.MONUMENTS G^la@n is an area with high precipitation, where the annual rainfall may reach as high as 120 cm. Building materials, except for hard rocks, rapidly wear out, turning aging structures into mounds of rubble. Trees, weeds, and grass grow on these mounds, changing old buildings into hills covered with vegetation. Many such hillocks, locally called ku@l, ku@t^, d^n, and dev^n, stud the Caspian shoreline, each one presenting a site worthy of archeological excavation and research. None of them, however, have so far been scientifically excavated and studied except for Ùera@g@-¿Al^ Tappa at the mouth of the Gowharru@d River, which was excavated by Ezzat-Allah Negahban and is better known as Marlik Tepe (see Van den Berghe, pp. ... ix.LANGUAGES Introduction: Linguistic diversity. In G^la@n there are three major Iranian language groups, namely G^lak^, Ru@dba@r^, and T®a@leæ^, and pockets of two other groups, Ta@t^ and Kurdish. The non-Iranian languages include Azeri Turkish and some speakers of Gypsy (Romany, of Indic origin). G^lak^ is spoken by possibly three million people as a first or second language, and has had a budding literature and fledgling prose publications, including newspapers, but both G^lak^ and T®a@leæ^ are rapidly losing ground in many cities of Tava@leæ due to heavy immigration of people from Azerbaijan. ... INA BAGHDIANTZ McCABE ,a compendium of reports collated as a journal by Petros di Sarkis Gilanentz (Gilanenc¿), which constitutes an important source for the history of events in Transcaucasia and Persia during the period March 1722 to August 1723, notably the Afghan invasion and siege of Isfahan. , prince addressed in the Qa@bu@s-na@ma. See ONS®OR-AL-MA¿AÚLÈ. .See CHERRY. M. JAMIL HANIFI (Pashtu/Paxtu plural of sg. masc. GÚilza@y and sg. fem. GÚilzey), one of three major Pashtun/Paxtun tribal confederations in Afghanistan. The other two are the Dorra@n^, formerly the Abda@l^ (qq.v.), in western Afghanistan and the Karla@nr^, who straddle the border between Afghanistan and the Northwest Frontier Province. Although the name of this confederation is often transcribed in Western literature as GÚilz^ (or Ghilzai, etc.), the present author holds that the correct transliteration for this Pashtu term is GÚalz^, which will be used throughout this article. ... ERICH KETTENHOFEN ,present-day Jend^res, a town in the ancient region of Cyrrhestike in Syria (Strabo, Geography 16.2.8; Pliny, Natural History 5.19.81; Theodoret in the 5th century calls it a village; cf. Honigmann, 1923, p. 191). Here Pacorus, the Parthian crown prince, was defeated and killed by the Roman commander Ventidius Bassus in the year 38 (Debevoise, pp. 118-19; Karras-Klapproth, pp. 121 f.; cf. Schippmann, p. 43). During the second campaign of ˆa@pu@r I (240-70) against the Romans, the city was captured in 253 (252 according to Potter et al. ... Colin MacKinnon , a Persian dialect of the Northern Lor type, spoken in the village of Gia@n/Gio@ (the archaeological site Giyan Tepe, q.v.), 12 km west of the city of Neha@vand. Gio@ni is closely related to Ba@la@ Gariva÷i and K¨orrama@ba@di, all of which differ markedly from Southern Lori dialects such as Bakòtia@ri and from standard Persian. Gio@ni shows numerous Northwest Iranian features. b. Jani Beg. See KISTAÚN QARAÚ b. Jani Beg. Richard M. Eaton (or Ge@su-dara@z; b. Delhi, 4 Rajab 721/30 July 1321; d. Gulbarga, 16 D¨u'l-qa¿da 825/1 November 1422), the popular title of Sayyed MOH®AMMAD b. Yusof H®osayni, the most important transmitter of Sufi; traditions from North India to the Deccan plateau. He was born in Delhi, where his ancestors had migrated from Herat. He accompanied his father to Dawlata@ba@d in 727/1327, when Sultan Moháammad b. Tog@loq declared that city the co-capital of the Dehli Sultanate. In 735/1335-36 he returned to Delhi with his family and the next year became a follower of the great Ùeæti shaikh, Nasáir-al-Din Mahámud Ùera@g@-e Dehli (d. ... Nassereddin Parvin ,a leftist daily paper published from 2 Tir 1322 ˆ./24 June 1943 to 26 Day 1322 ˆ./6 December 1943 by K¨alil Enqela@b AÚdòar as the official organ of the Workers union (Etteháa@diya-ye ka@rgara@n). Its masthead read: "The Union of Persian workers is neither attracted nor affiliated to any political parties." The Union was headed by Yusof Eftekòa@ri, an old member of the Persian Communist party (see communism i), who had been trained at the Comintern Communist University for the Toilers of the East and apparently had Trotskyist tendencies (Eskandari, pp. ... .See GEÚV. Farhang Mehr ,Arba@b ROSTAM (b. Yazd, 1267 ˆ./1888; d. San Diego, Calif., 15 Mehr 1359 ˆ./7 October 1980), Majles representative, senator, president of Anjoman-e Zardoætia@n (q.v.) of Tehran, businessman, and philanthropist. Born to Bahman and K¨erman K¨a@nom in Yazd, he studied at Kaykòosrowi high school of Yazd and also attended Madrasa-ye morsalin of Yazd to improve his knowledge of English. After graduating from high school in 1908, Giv moved to Tehran and engaged in international trade, first in company with his brother Giv ˆa@hpur and a few years later in the Yaga@negi company. ... Jamshid Sadaqat-Kish , atraditional footwear in Persia, mainly consisting of an upper part made of twined white cotton thread sewn up on the edges of a cloth and leather or rubber sole. Ezat O. Negahban , or Ûia@n Tappa, a large archaeological mound located in Loresta@n province in western Persia, about 10 km southeast of Neha@vand and southwest of Gia@n village in the K¨a@va valley. Excavation at Tepe Giyan, directed by George Contenau and Roman Ghirshman under the sponsorship of the Muse‚es Nationaux and the École du Louvre, was carried out for the two seasons of 1931-32. Tepe Giyan, about 350 m long and 19 m high above the surrounding area, reveals five major cultural levels; the lower three levels contain occupational remains while the two topmost levels are occupied by graves. ... Eckart Ehlers and ice fields in Persia. Due to Persia's location in the very center of the arid dry belt, stretching from North Africa in the west to Central Asia in the east, and also due to its very specific topography, glaciers and/or permanent ice fields are restricted and concentrated in a very few locations. The admittedly hypothetical reconstruction of the recent snow line for Persia (Figure 1) reveals an average height of approximately 4000 m in northern Persia and about 5000 m in the southwest of the country. Mountains and mountain ranges, however, reach more than 4000 m in only a very few places. ... Parvin Loloi (d. ca. 1813), lexicographer and prolific translator of Persian literature into English. He served in the Bengal Army and later, owing to his remarkable linguistic ability, became one of the three professors of Persian at Fort William College in Calcutta in 1800, the year of its establishment. He was a founding member of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and carried out his scholarly works and translations under the patronage of Warren Hastings. Jens Kröger in Persia. Glass blowing was invented in the Syro-Palestinian region during the Parthian period in the mid-first century B.C.E. and quickly spread from there to neighboring regions. Due to this invention, which probably reached Mesopotamia in the first century C.E., glassware could be produced more easily and in greater numbers than by the techniques known earlier. .See CYLINDER SEALS. Kurt Rudolph in Persia. i. In the pre-Islamic Iranian world. .See boz. D. N. Mackenzie ,the name of a mythical ruler first appearing in medieval Zoroastrianism. In Pahlavi his name is variously spelled gwpt-, gwkpt-, gwpyt- + -æh, -MLKA. According to the Bundahiæn (29.5 ff.), "the son of Agre@rah [Av. a©rae@raƒa] i Paæanga@n, whom they call Go@badæa@h," is the spiritual master (rad) of a land, evidently neighboring EÚra@n-we@z (q.v.), the name of which is badly corrupted in all manuscripts. It is later (Bundahiæn 29.13) said to be "on the road from Turkestan to Ùinesta@n. ... TahsËn Yazici , Ottoman poet, calligrapher, and Sufi who wrote in both Turkish and Persian (d. 974/1566). According to GÚoba@ri himself (Ka¿ba-na@ma, MS Manisa, fol. 10), he was born in Ak¶ehir (AÚq-æahr). He came to Istanbul, most probably after completing his primary education, where he studied with the celebrated scholars of the time and received calligraphy lessons from Shaikh H®amd-Alla@hza@da Mosátáafa@ Dada (Mostaqimza@da, p. 246). He excelled in the g@oba@r style of calligraphy (q. ... A. D. H. Bivar ,medieval township in Kerma@n province, located at 57° 29 E and 47° N, 70 km by road south of Kerma@n City (historical Bardsir) at the intersection of the medieval eastern highway and the route from Kerma@n to Ba@ft, Esfandaqa, and Jiroft. The name is Arabic, feminine diminutive from g@abara "to be dusty." The township is sited in the angle of the perennial Ùa@ri and seasonal GÚobayra@ rivers. It was overlooked by Percy Sykes, who passed further west (p. 426, on nearby Bahra@mjerd) and by Aurel Stein, whose surveyor, Moháammad Ayyub Khan, recorded GÚobayra@ village (also called Kovayra) west of the confluence, but not the medieval ruins (Map no. ... Jean Calmard ,joseph arthur de, (b. Ville-d'Avray, near Paris, 14 July 1816; d. Turin, 13 October 1882), French man of letters, artist, polemist, Orientalist, and diplomat, whose influential socio-historical and racial theories were expounded in his writings, and particularly in his Essai sur l'ine‚galite‚ des races humaines (hereafter Essai). Michael Alram , Austrian numismatist (b. Vienna, 4 August 1919; d. 8 December 1997). He joined the military in 1938, after graduating from high school, and spent the next nine years in the service, returning to Vienna only after the end of World War II. Göbl entered the University of Vienna in 1947, where he studied ancient history, classical archeology, and ancient numismatics, graduating in 1950. The title of his doctoral thesis was "Numismatisch-historische Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Kaiser Valerianus und Gallienus. ... Rüdiger Schmitt ,the most widely known (Greek) form of the Old Persian name Gaub(a)ruva (q.v.). Several bearers of this name, who cannot always be kept separate from one another with complete certainty, are historical persons: .See AHURA MAZDAÚ: BAGA; K¨ODAÚ. Ève Gran-Aymerich and Mina Marefat (b. Chaumont, France, 1881; d. Paris, 1965), French architect, archeologist, art historian, and director of the Archeological Services of Iran (Eda@ra-ye koll-e ¿atiqa@t). A graduate of the École des Beaux-Arts of Paris, Godard also studied Middle Eastern and especially Iranian archeology. Like Ernst Herzfeld (q.v.), with whom he had an equivocal relationship of both rivalry and friendship in Iraq and later in Persia, he was both an architect and an archeologist. He first visited the Middle East in 1910 in the company of another architect, Henri Viollet, who was on his third trip to Iraq to study and sketch historical monuments. ... Mary Boyce, A. D. H. Bivar, A. Shapur Shahbazi ,name of various Iranian historical figures; an Iranian epic hero in wars against the "Turanians" in northeastern Iran; and the scion of a clan of paladins in Iranian traditional history. T. Cuyler Young, Jr. , an archeological site in the central Zagros, which was occupied from ca. 5,000 to 500 B.C.E. It is located at 48° 4 ´ E and 34° 31 ´ N in the Kanga@var valley, approximately halfway between Hamada@n and Kerma@næa@h. The site today covers approximately fifteen hectares. The north side, however, was severely eroded by the K¨orramrud river sometime between about 1400 and 750 B.C.E. Thus the original site may have covered twenty hectares. The mound rises approximately 32 m above virgin soil. ... , see DE GOEJE. Hamid Tafazoli (1749-1832), and the infl;uence upon him of the Persian poet H®a@fezá (q.v.; ca. 1320-90 C.E.). Goethe, the most renowned poet of German literature, was already from his youth deeply interested in the East and in Islam. He planned to write a drama about Moháammad, as witnessed by the poem Mahomets-Gesang (Mommsen, 1967, p. 455; Bürgel, p. 8). But it was not until later, during his period of romanticism, that the poet devoted his attention to the literature and history of Persia. Goethe considered literature (language) and religion as the best aids to discovering other cultures. ... H. E. Chehabi in Persia and Afghanistan. Named after the celebrated German poet and writer, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), the Goethe Institute was founded in 1951 in Munich as a non-profit organization Habib Borjian ,town and district in the oasis of Bukhara. The modern town (GÚejdova@n) is located at 253 m above sea level, 49 km north-northeast of Bukhara, at 40° 6' N and 64° 41' E. The district is irrigated by the Pirmast canal that branches westward off the Zarafæa@n River and corresponds to K¨arg@a@nrudò mentioned by EsátÂakòri (p. 310) and Ebn H®awqal (p. 486). According to Vasili¥ Barthold, the present-day GÚejdova@n corresponds to Lower K¨arg@a@na of the early Islamic geographers (EsátÂakòri, p. ... . See ¿ABD-AL-K¨AÚLEQ GÚOJDOVAÚNI. . See geoy tepe. ,tree of magical efficacy in Zoroastrian mythology. See HAOMA. .See GUKLAÚN. Huæang A¿lam ( Layla S. Diba , rose and nightingale, a popular literary and decorative theme. . See GAÚVZABAÚN. , See GOLGOLAÚB. . See GOLSORK¨I. Nassereddin Parvin , literary, socio-satirical newspaper, published from 27 ˆa¿ba@n 1336/7 June 1918 until 19 D¨u'l-qa¿da 1342/ 22 June 1924, first every ten days, then biweekly, and, from the third year, weekly. It was suspended on two occasions, once for seventeen days and again for forty days, without the reason being made clear. Huæang A¿lam (< gol-a@b; Arabicized as jol[l]a@b), rose water, a distillate (¿araq) obtained chiefly from the gol-e moháammadi (see GOL), the best-known product made from rose petals in Persia. It is widely used in sherbets, sweetmeats, as a home medicament, and (in special gola@b-pa@æes "rose-water sprinklers") on some religious occasions (e.g., in funeral services in mosques, an attendant offers it to each arriving participant to sprinkle on his hands and face before touching a copy of the Koran to be read silently during the service). ... .See PEAR. .See Supplement; on @gola@ms as military slaves, see BARDA AND BARDA DAÚRÈ. , author of Golesta@n-e nasab. See NAZ®IR. , author of Tadòkera-ye fa@rsi and other works. See MOS®H®AFI. , poet and author of Dorr-e manzáum. See RAF¿AT. Arif Naushahi (b. Lahore, 1244/1828; d. near Medina, 24 D¨u'l-háejja 1307/14 August 1890), historian, hagiographer, and poet in Persian and Urdu. He belonged to the Mofti family of Lahore, who traced their lineage to Shaikh Baha@÷-al-Din Zakariya@ Molta@ni (d. 661/1262), the founder of the Sohravardi Sufi order in India and the spiritual mentor of Fakòr-al-Din ¿Era@qi (q.v.). The family had taken up residence in Lahore in the 15th century. The contemporary historian Kanhayya@ La@l Hendi (d. ... . See Supplement. . See NAQˆBANDI ORDER. . See ¿AZÈZ-AL-SOLT®AÚN. . See ¿ABBAÚS I; BARDA iv. . See AMÈN-E K¨ALWAT. , provincial governor and minister of Na@sáer-al-Din Shah. See SEPAHDAÚR. Arif Naushahi , Sayyed, secretary (monæi) by profession, political intermediary, and author of a popular history of India called Siar al-mota÷akòkòerin (b. Shahjahanabad, i.e. Delhi, 1140 /1727-28, d. after 1195/1781). His father, Nasá^r-al-Dawla Heda@yat-¿Al^ Khan Baha@dor As¿ad Jang (d. 3 Jomada II 1179/13 November 1765; Siar al-mota÷akòkòerin, 1866, II, pp. 522, 613), had served in several official positions, including as deputy governor (na@yeb sáuba) of ¿Azáima@ba@d (the present-day Patna). ... Maryam Ekhtiar (b. Tehran, 1245/1829-30; d. Tehran, 1304/1886-87), a calligrapher and epigraphist of late 19th-century Persia. He was a master of the nasta¿liq, æekasta-nasta¿liq, and æekasta scripts (see CALLIGRAPHY) and signed his works with the invocation "Ya@ ¿Ali madad" or "GÚola@m-Rezµa@, Ya@ ¿Ali madad ast." .See BAHRAÚM O GOLANDAÚM (?KAÚTEBI). EIr. ,a weekly satirical magazine founded by Kayumart¯ S®a@beri which first began publication on 23 October 1990. The circulation of Gol-a@qa@ soon reached over "100,000 copies a week; a remarkable success" (Geraldine Brooks, "Hot New Satirical Magazine Reflects a New Glasnost: Judge Blood Not Amused," The Wall Street Journal October 1, 1991, p. A1). The name "Gol-a@qa@" was first used as a pen name by Sáa@beri in his highly popular regular satirical column for the daily newspaper EtÂtÂela@¿a@t (q. ... Heinz Halm (lit.: exaggerators,sing. g@a@li), an Arabic term originally used by Twelver Shi¿ite (et¯na@ ¿aæariya) heresiographers to designate those dissidents who "exaggerate" the status of the Imams in an undue manner by attributing to them divine qualities. This kind of heresy is generally, though inaccurately, called háolul (incarnation) of a divine essence into a human body. In fact, the g@ola@t considered Imam ¿Ali b. Abi T®a@leb and the other Imams as manifestations of God, whose "bodies" were not corporeal but mere illusion. ... Munibur Rahman (b. ca. 929/1522-23, d. 6 Ramazµa@n 1011/17 Feb. 1603), daughter of Z®ahir-al-Din Moháammad Ba@bor (d. 937/1530, q.v.), founder of the Mughal dynasty in India, half sister of Ba@bor's successor, Homa@yun (d. 963/1556), and author of Homa@yun-na@ma, the account of the reign of Homa@yun. According to her own statement she was eight years old when Ba@bor died, which places her date of birth around 929/1522 (Homa@yun-na@ma, tr., p. 63). Her mother was Delda@r Be@gom, whose real name was apparently S®a@leháa SoltÂa@n, and who was the daughter of Sultan Mahámud Mirza@, the ruler of Samarqand (Beveridge). ... Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak and Homa Katouzian , pen name of the poet MAJD-AL-DIN MIR-FAK¨RAÚ÷I (b. Raæt, 11 Dey 1288 ˆ./1 January 1910; d. London, 29 AÚdòar 1351 ˆ./20 December 1972). His father, Sayyed Mahdi Mir-fakòra@÷i, was a state official originally from Tafreæ in central Persia. He was the deputy head of the Department of Finance in Raæt when Gol±in was born. Gol±in received his elementary education in Raæt and then moved to Tehran at age fifteen, at least in part as a result of an unwanted early marriage arranged for him by his family (¿AÚbedi, ed. ... Iraj Afshar (b. Tehran, 1916; d. Maæhad, 2000) literary scholar, bibliographer , and poet. He held various administrative and judicial posts in the Ministry of Justice (1934-59). His considerable knowledge of literary manuscripts was later put to good use when he was transferred to the Majles Library, where he catalogued the Persian and Arabic manuscripts. From 1330 ˆ./1951, he also worked in the manuscript department of the Malek Library (Keta@b-kòa@na-ye melli-e Malek) in Tehran. In 1342 ˆ. ... James W. Allan . i.In pre-Islamic Persia. ii. In Islamic Persia. I. IN PRE-ISLAMIC PERSIA The principal periods of gold production in pre-Islamic Persia occur in the late second and early first millennia B.C.E., during the Achaemenid period (6th-4th cent. B.C.E.), and in the early first millennium C.E. While the archaeological record can be uneven, cuneiform and Classical documents provide additional information on certain periods. Peter Jackson , name given to the Mongol Khanate ruled by the descendants of Jo±i (Juji; d. 624/1226-27), the eldest son of Ùengiz (Genghis) Khan (q.v.). Its core was the steppelands north of the Black Sea and the Caspian conquered in 1236-40 by an army under Jo±i's son Batu (Ba@tu), who ranks as its first khan and whose descendants reigned until about 1360; Batu's older brother Orda (Urda) reigned over the territories of the so-called White Horde to the north-east. Possession of the wealthy and cosmopolitan region of K¨úa@razm brought the Golden Horde khans and their nomadic subjects, who were mainly Qep±aqs (Qep±a@q), increasingly under Muslim cultural influences. ... Denis Wright ,Major-General Sir Fredrick John, British scholar, negotiator and arbitrator of Perso-Afghan boundary dispute (b. Milan, 1818; d. Hammersmith, England, 1909). Goldsmid was the son of a British cavalry officer and grandson of a well-known Jewish financier. He was educated in Paris and King's College, London, and commissioned in 1839 in the 37th Madras Native Infantry Regiment, with which he served in China and India. In 1851 he went as a political officer to Sind, where, in 1861, he began his long connection with the laying of the telegraph line from London to India, exploring Baluchistan and Makra@n and negotiating with local chieftains for the extension of the line. ... Nassereddin Parvin ,the title of two Persian newspapers. 1. A news and political journal that began publication in Shiraz in 1297 ˆ./1918 and was continued with long intervals until 1342 ˆ./1963; the last issue is numbered 5,276. The first few issues could not be found in any major libraries. Golesta@n started as a weekly journal, but it turned into a daily paper in 1307 ˆ./1928, eventually being published twice a week in the years following World War II. The publisher was Sayyed Moháammad-Taqi Golesta@n, also known as Malek-al-Moháaqqeqin (b. ... Kambiz Eslami , a 16th-century treatise on the art of calligraphy, with brief biographical notices on a selection of past and contemporary calligraphers and artists, by the Safavid author and historian Qa@zµi Ahámad b. ˆaraf-al-Din H®osayn Monæi Qomi Ebra@himi. It is an important primary source for the history of the art of bookmaking in Persia in the late Timurid to early Safavid period, containing first-hand information on some of the artists and patrons with whom the author and members of his family came into contact. ... , see KAÚK¨-E GOLESTAÚN. . See BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES; ROYAL LIBRARY. . See GORGAÚN. Franklin Lewis , probably the single most influential work of prose in the Persian tradition, completed in 656/1258 by Moæarref-al-Din Mosálehá, known as Shaikh Sa¿di of Shiraz (for the confusion about his name, see S®afa@, III/1, pp. 584-614). It was dedicated to the Salghurid Atabeg in Fa@rs, Mozáaffar-al-Din Abu Bakr b. Sa¿d b. Zangi (G51), and his son, Sa¿d (G54), as well as the vizier Fakòr-al-Din Abu Bakr b. Abi Nasár (G55; concerning these dedicatees see Qazvini, pp. ... Elton L. Daniel (Treaty of Gulistan), agreement arranged under British auspices to end the Russo-Persian War of 1218-28/1804-13. The First Russo-Persian War. The origins of the first Russo-Persian War can be traced back to the decision of Tsar Paul to annex Georgia (December 1800) and, after Paul's assassination (11 March 1801), the activist policy followed by his successor, Alexander I, aimed at establishing Russian control over the khanates of the eastern Caucasus (Atkin, pp. 59-65). In 1803, the newly appointed commander of Russian forces in the Caucasus, Paul Tsitsianov, attacked Ganja and captured its citadel on 15 January 1804; the governor, Jawa@d Khan Qa@ja@r Zia@dlu, was killed, and a large number of the inhabitants slaughtered. ... . See ABU'L-H®ASAN GOLESTAÚNA. Hamid Algar (d. 1110/1698-99), prominent religious scholar of the Safavid period, a scion of the Golesta@na family of H®osayni sayyeds in Isfahan. Proficient in both the rational and the transmitted sciences, he was particularly renowned for his mastery of Hadith and for a pious and single-minded erudition that is said to have dissuaded him from accepting the post of sáadr (head of the state-affiliated religious hierarchy) on the two occasions it was offered to him. Maryam Ekhtiar (b. 1274/1857-58; d. 1319/1901), a renowned calligrapher, scholar, and mystic of late 19th century Persia. He was born into the prominent Sa@da@t-Golesta@na family in 1274/1857-58 and received his early training in Isfahan. A religious man, Golesta@na devoted the first half of his life to disseminating Sufi teachings and writing treatises on mysticism and ethics. As a youthful calligrapher, he demonstrated a distinguished talent in the nasta¿liq script H. Ettehad Baboli , botanist, musician, poet, scholar, and member of the Farhangesta@n (q.v.; born Tehran, 1274/1895; d. Tehran, 22 Esfand 1363 ˆ./13 March 1985). Born in a family of music connoisseurs, Gol-gola@b received his first education in music at an early age from his father, Abu Tora@b Khan Mahdi Mosáawwer-al-Molk, who associated with the musicians of the time. Later he joined the classes of the distinguished masters of Persian music AÚqa@ H®osaynqoli and Darviæ Khan (q.v.), where he learned to play the ta@r and seta@r. ... ParvIz AD¨KAÚ÷I (1256-1316 ˆ./1877-1937), constitutionalist and journalist. His father was Mirza@ Esma@¿il Mostaæa@r, the brother of H®a@jj Sayyed Esháa@q, the influential religious leader of Hamada@n. After the overthrow of the constitutional government by Moháammad-¿Ali Shah in June 1908 (see CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION ii), Farid-al-Dawla joined the branch of Ejtema@¿iyun-¿AÚmmiyun party (q.v.) in Hamada@n and apparently became one of its leaders. ... Daryush Pirnia with Erik Nakjavani (lit. "Flowers Program"), a series of radio programs which was on the air for almost twenty-three years (Farvardin 1335-Esfand 1357 ˆ./March 1956 to February 1979) and which aimed at illustrating the perennial thematic and aesthetic relationships between poetry and traditional music (musiqi-e sonnati or asáil) in Persian culture and enhancing their appreciation by the general public. ... Sebastian Brock ,female Christian martyr (d. 13 July 591). Golinduch (perhaps originally Gola@n-dokòt, "daughter of roses") was a Zoroastrian woman of noble birth who was converted to Christianity by some Christian prisoners of war in her husband's service (see CHRISTIANITY i). After her husband's death in battle, she was baptized with the name Maria. On failing in his attempt to convert her back to Zoroastrianism, K¨osrow I (r. 531-79) imprisoned her in the Castle of Oblivion, where she was condemned to death. ... J. T. P. de Bruijn (latinized form of the Dutch name Jacob Gool), Dutch Orientalist (b. The Hague, 1596; d. Leiden, 28 September 1667), who descended from a family of patricians in the city of Leiden. From 1612 onwards he read medicine, mathematics, and astronomy at Leiden University. His interest in the scientific legacy of the ancient Greeks brought him to the study of Arabic. Very soon he extended his studies to other Oriental languages, which eventually included Persian, Turkish, Armenian, and Chinese. When, from 1622-24, he visited Morocco with a Dutch diplomatic mission, he used the occasion to meet with Muslim scholars and collect Arabic manuscripts. ... .See hyderabad. Huæang A¿lam ,any of several perennial aromatic herbaceous plants of the genus Heracleum L. (fam. Umbelliferae) growing wild in humid alpine regions in Persia and some adjacent areas, particularly the following five species, the first four being restricted to Persia (see Mandenova, pp. 492-502, 505; Mozaffarian, 1996, no. 3857). Because the distinctive morphological characters of these species are ignored by the common people, the plants involved are usually designated by a single, generic name; for instance, besides Persian golpar, the most common name, we find Gilaki kolpar (Mar¿aæi, s. ... Minu Yusofnezhad ,a æahresta@n (county) and town located in Isfahan province, bordered on the east by the county of Barkòúa@r and Meyma, on the south by K¨úa@nsa@r county, on the north by the counties of Mah®alla@t and K¨omeyn (Central province), and on the west by Aligudarz county (province of Loresta@n). It comprises three rural districts and two towns, namely, Guged and Golpa@yaga@n (Weza@rat-e keævar, p. 7; Markaz-e a@ma@r-e Ira@n, 1370a). ... . See ABU'L-FAZ˜L GOLPAÚYEGAÚNÈ. Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi (b. 8 D¨u'l-qa¿da 1316/20 March 1899; d. 24 Joma@da@ II 1414/8 December 1993), a chief figure in the contemporary Shi¿ite clerical hierarchy (marja¿iyat-e taqlid), who took a moderate stand in the opposition to what was considered the state's disregard for Islamic principles in the name of modernization as well as to the views advocated by the extremist faction of the post-revolutionary period. He was born in Goged, a village near Golpa@yaga@n (q.v.), where received his elementary education from his father. ... .See CENTRAL DIALECTS. Tahsin Yazécé , Turkish scholar noted in particular for his studies of the Turkish Sufi orders (b. Istanbul, 10 Ramazµa@n 1317/12 January 1900; d. Istanbul, 25 August 1982). Golpénarlé's father, Ahmed Ãgâh Efendi, had migrated to Bursa from the region of Ganja in Azerbaijan and eventually became a noted journalist working for the newspaper Tercüman-é Hakikat. His mother, Aliye, was of Circassian origin. When Gölpénarlé was born, his father, remembering that his previous children had died in infancy, thought it wise to name him Abdülbaki (¿Abd-al-Ba@qi), in the hope that the quality of baki (Ar. ... EIr. ,Ottoman Sufi and poet who wrote in Persian and Turkish. He was from the city of Golæahri, the name of which appears on his works in Persian, and which is known today as Kér¶ehir. Next to nothing is known about his life; it, however, can be deduced from the dates of his works that he flourished during the second half of the 13th century and was alive until 717/1317, the year when he completed his Manték't-tayr (MantÂeq al-tÂayr). Even his name is not known for certain, although it can be surmised that the name Solayma@n, which is mentioned on two occasions in his Manték't-tayr (pp. ... Abbas Milani Nassereddin Parvin ,cultural magazine published in the early days of 1296 ˆ./1917 in Tehran by Sayyed Rezµa@ Yazdi "Amir Rezµwa@ni" (d. 25 Esfand 1314 ˆ./16 March 1936), first twice a week and from its sixth year three times a week. None of its early issues is available in major libraries. After some issues as a magazine, it appeared as a social-cultural newspaper, its oldest available issue being the one bearing the joint-numbers 24 and 25 (of 21 S®afar 1337/26 November 1918) kept at the Central Library of Tehran University. ... Kambiz Eslami , asumptuous 11th/16th-century album of paintings, drawings, calligraphy, and engravings by Mughal, Persian, Deccani, Turkish, and European artists in the Golesta@n Palace Library (the former Keta@b-kòa@na-ye saltÂanati), Tehran (no. 1663). It was in Na@sáer-al-Din Shah Qa@ja@r's possession when he was still the crown prince in Tabriz (see his notations on piece 113 and page 91, the latter dated 1 Joma@da@ II 1263/17 May 1847). Its provenance before reaching the royal library is unknown, although it has been suggested, without any hard evidence, that it was brought to Persia by Na@der Shah Afæa@r when he returned from his Indian campaign in 1153/1741 (AÚta@ba@y, 1974, pp. ... Moinuddin Aqeel (b. 1075/1664, d. 21 Joma@da@ I 1140/3 January 1728), Naqæbandi Sufi and prolific poet in Persian with the pen name (takòallosá) Golæan. His ancestors came to India from an Arab country in the Middle East and settled in Gujarat (S®aba@, p. 690), where one of them, Esla@m Khan, became the court minister. After the conquest of Gujarat by the Mughal emperor Akbar (q.v.) in 991/1583, some of them moved to Burhanpur (q.v.), where Golæan was born and educated. He also studied with H®a@j^ Ekra@m-¿Ali for a few years in Delhi before leaving on a pilgrimage to Mecca with his father in the company of his spiritual master, Shah ¿Abd-al-Aháad Gol-Moháammad Serhendi (Ha@æemi, p. ... John R. Perry , a history of the Zand Dynasty (1164-1209/1751-94) by Mirza@ Moháammad Abu'l-H®asan GÚaffa@ri. GÚaffa@ri's father, Mirza@ Mo¿ezz-al-Din Moháammad, was the governor of Ka@æa@n and Qom under Karim Khan Zand. He had his son trained as a painter, but later let him follow in his footsteps as a secretary and administrator (several of Abu'l-H®asan's paintings, signed "al-Mostawfi" survive; the same family produced the Qajar court painters, S®ani¿-al-Molk Abu'l-H®asan Khan GÚaffa@ri and Kama@l-al-Molk Moháammad GÚaffa@ri, qq. ... Hamid Algar (The Rose Garden of Mysteries), a concise didactic matnawi in a little over a thousand distichs on the key terms and concepts of Sufism, which has for long served as a principal text of theoretical mysticism in the Persian-speaking and Persian-influenced world. It was written in ˆawwa@l 717/December 1317 by Shaikh Mahámud b. ¿Abd-al-Karim ˆabestari (d. ca. 740/1339-40; see Mowaháháed's intro. to his edition of Majmu¿a-ye a@ta@r-e ˆaykò Mahámud ˆabestari, p. ... Tahsin Yazici (d. 9 ˆawwa@l 940/23 April 1534), Sufi poet and the founder of the Golæaniya branch of the K¨alwati Sufi order. He was probably born in Dia@rbakr (Moháyi Golæani, p.13; the tomb of his father, Sheikh Moháammad AÚmedi, is in the Mardin Kapésé cemetery there), but his exact birthdate is not known. If the report that he died at the age of 105 years is to be believed, then he must have been born in 835/1431 (the age 114, mentioned by Moháyi Golæani, is untenable). ... Tahsin Yazici , scholar and author in Persian and Turkish and inventor of an artificial language (b. 935/1528-29, d. after 1015/1606-07). Born in Edirne of a family originally from Shiraz, he went in 953/1546 to Istanbul and in 959/1552 to Cairo to join his brother who was in government service. Tahsin Yazici , A 15th century Turkish poet who also wrote in Persian. His original name is unknown, and virtually no information is available on his life. His nesba of S®a@rukòa@ni suggests that he originated in the area of present-day Manisa, and the fact that he went to ˆarva@n, a destination chosen at the time by those who wished to become the disciples of Yaháya@ ˆarva@ni, the "second elder" of the Kòalwati Sufi order, may imply that he was a dervish (this possibility is mentioned in LatÂifi, p. ... , Sufi and poet in Turkish and Persian. See GÜLˆEHRI. H®osayn Mir¿a@bedini and EIr. , (b. Isfahan, March 16, 1938; d. Tehran June 5, 2000), one of the most significant Persian writers of the second half of 20th century. He came from a working class background in Isfahan; his family lived in AÚba@da@n for several years (1943-1955) while his father worked in construction for the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (q.v.). In two short autobiographical sketches Golæiri contrasts his early formative years in the somewhat drab oil company housing units in AÚba@da@n with his experiences on his return home in his late teens to Isfahan and its surroundings, with their rich historical legacy and deep-rooted traditions (Golæiri, 1976, p. ... Maziar Behrooz (b.Raæt 1322 ˆ./1943; d. Tehran, 1953 ˆ./1974), poet and revolutionary figure whose defiant stand during his televised show trial, and subsequent execution by firing squad in 1974, enshrined his place in the cultural and political history of modern Persia. Shah Mahmoud Hanifi ,designation of four geographical entities: A sub-province (woloswa@li) and village in the Paktia@ province of eastern Afghanistan; a river originating in the GÚazni (q.v.) province and flowing southeast through the Waziresta@n tribal agency and the Dera Esma@¿il Khan district in the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan; and of a passage linking the eastern foothills of the Solayma@n mountain range with the Indus plains. ,another name for Bandar ¿Abba@s. See BANDAR ¿ABBAÚS. . See CERAMICS; ÙÈNÈ. Mary Boyce ,a Pahlavi term which renders Av. gaomae@za- and g™@uæ mae@sman- (AirWb., cols. 483, 1108). Urine, with its ammonia content, has been used by many peoples as a disinfectant, and Vide@vda@d 8.13 enjoins that for this purpose it should be that "of small cattle or large cattle" (pasva…m va@ staora…m va@), that is, any domesticated livestock. A medieval Persian text specifies cow, sheep, buffalo, horse, or camel (Persian Rivayats, tr. Dhabhar, p. 295 n. 3). ,a district in the Golesta@n Province. See GORGAÚÚÚN. Minu Yusuf-Ne‘a@d ,a town and a sub-province (æahresta@n) in the province of Khorasan. The sub-province, situated to the northeast of the mountains Kamarzard (peak, 2,578 m), Kala@t (peak, 2,446 m), and Sia@hkuh (peak, 2,857), is bounded on the north by the sub-provinces of Torbat-e H®aydariya and Ka@æmar, on the west by Ferdows Sub-province, on the east by Kòúa@f Sub-province, and on the south by the sub-provinces of Ferdows and Qa@÷ena@t; it comprises the towns of Bajesta@n, Gona@ba@d, Bidokòt, and Ka@kòk, as well as several rural districts (Weza@rat-e keævar, p. ... , Poet, see QAÚSEMI Gona@ba@di, Mirza@ Abu'l-Qa@sem. , Persian scholar and translator. See PARVIN GONAÚBAÚDI. Shiro Ando (b. 19 ˆawwa@l 817/2 January 1415), Timurid financial officer and vizier. He belonged to a sayyed family from Gona@ba@d, a village in the Qohesta@n region (Fasáihá, III, pp. 97, 149, 214; MatÂla¿-e sa¿dayn, ed. ˆafi¿, II/1, p. 288). According to Kòúa@ndamir (p. 362), he entered the service of ˆa@hrokò (r. 807-50/1405-47) after the death of his father (after 829/1425-26), who had served for some time as the vizier of Timur. In 847/1443, he was appointed by Jala@l-al-Din Firuzæa@h, ˆa@hrokò's most powerful amir, to control the financial affairs of Balk. ... Hamid Algar , an offshoot of the Ne¿mat-Alla@hi Sufi order, still active in Persia. The designation Gona@ba@di refers to the Gona@ba@d (q.v.) region of Khorasan, where Bidokòt, the place of residence of the founding figure, Molla@ SoltÂa@n Moháammad SoltÂa@n-¿Aliæa@h, and subsequently center of the order, is located. The order is sometimes known also as the Molla@-SoltÂa@niya or SoltÂa@n-¿Aliæa@hiya with reference to him, or as the T®a@÷usiya, by way of allusion to the sobriquet of his master, Sa¿a@dat-¿Aliæa@h T®a@÷us-al-¿Orafa@÷. ... . See HAMADAÚN MONUMENTS . See GONBAD-EQAÚBUS E. Ehlers, M. Momeni, and EIr., Habib-Alla@h Zanja@ni, Sheila S. Blair , city and sub-province in the Golesta@n Province. Marcus Milwright , the "Red Tomb" (also known as Gonbad-e Qermez) is the earliest of five medieval mausolea located in Mara@g@a in Azerbaijan, the others being an unnamed circular tomb (563/1168-69), Gonbad-e Kabud (593/1196), Gonbad-e GÚaffa@riya (ca. 728/1328), and Joi Borj (ca. 730/1330). An inscription on the north side around the tympanum records that the tomb (referred to as both qobba and maæhad) was ordered by Abu'l-¿Ezz ¿Abd-al-¿Aziz b. Mahámud b. Sa¿d, known by the title of Qawa@m-e AÚdòarba@yja@n, and possibly a member of the Ahámadili dynasty. ... Lutz Richter-Bernburg i.The city. ii. History and medical school. i. THE CITY It has been argued by Daniel T. Potts (pp. 327-34) that Gonde@æa@pur might have had a Parthian antecedent. This argument is based on the mention in two Greek inscriptions from Susa of the term Gondeisos as the name of a waterway (Potts, pp. 328-29). The name would seems to represent an Iranian *gund-de@z "military fortress," which led Potts to pose the hypothesis that *Gond-dez was the original Iranian name of the place, from which the name of the river AÚb-e Dez (q. ... A. D. H. Bivar (OPers. Vindafarnah- "May he find glory"), Indo-Parthian king (20-46 C.E.) in Drangiana, Arachosia (qq.v.), and especially in the Punjab. He is known from the apocryphal Acts of Thomas, the Takht-i Bahi inscription, and coin-issues in silver and copper. Thomas, the Christian "apostle to India," a carpenter, was after the crucifixion (probably 29 C.E.) sold into slavery to India, where his purchaser was the king Gondophares (Gudnaphar), mentioned together with his brother Gad. The apostle was entrusted with funds for building a palace, but spent them on relief of the poor. ... A historical name for present-day Firuza@ba@d in Fa@rs. See Ardaæir Kòorra; Firuza@ba@d. A tribe in Kurdistan. See GURAÚN. Keith Hitchins (1904-62), the leading Kurdish poet of the twentieth century. Born in H®alabja, in northeastern Iraq, Gora@n received his formal education at local schools and the state pedagogical institute in Kerkuk. As a school teacher in his native city he continued his self-education by studying foreign languages and reading extensively in modern Turkish and Western European literatures. In the 1930s he became active in radical political and social causes, a militancy that led to frequent arrests and imprisonments until the overthrow of the monarchy in Iraq in 1958. ... See BOAR. See CAT. M. Jamil Hanifi ,a major valley of Ko@he-sta@n/Kuhesta@n and a sub-province (woloswa@li) of Parva@n province in the southern foothills of the Hindu Kush massif, located approximately 50 miles north of Kabul. The term GÚo@rband probably derives from GÚo@r/GÚur (q.v.), the name of the mountainous region northwest of GÚo@rband, and the Persian word band (barrier, dam), i.e., the mountainous barrier to GÚur (see Ba@bor-na@ma, tr. Beveridge, p. 214). This picturesque valley contains some dazzling vistas near the subsidiary valleys and villages of Ba@g@-e Awg@a@n, Dara-e Aæa@wa, Deh Rangar, Ùa@rdeh, Dara-e Ju-ye Dokòtar, Dara-ye Sayyeda@n, and Sia@hgerd. ... .See GYPSY. Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh ,daughter of Ga‘daham (q.v.), the castellan of De‘-e Sapid (q.v.), the Iranian fortress on the frontier with Tura@n. She plays a daringly martial role in the tragic episode of Rostam and Sohra@b (ˆa@h-na@ma, ed. Khaleghi, II, pp. 130-37). Upon Sohra@b's attack on De‘-e Sapid and the defeat and capture of the Iranian hero, Hojir, Gorda@farid puts on her armor and challenges the Turanian heroes to single combat. She is, however, defeated by Sohra@b, who only realizes that his adversary belongs to the opposite sex when he succeeds in removing her helmet. ... . Roman Emperor. See ˆAÚPUR I. Rose L. Greaves ,General Sir THOMAS EDWARD (1832–1914), British intelligence officer, director of the Imperial Bank of Persia (Ba@nk-e æa@hi-e Ira@n; see banking) from 1893 to 1914, author, and apparently the first person to use the term Middle East, which meant particularly Persia and Afghanistan. Entering the army at age seventeen, Gordon campaigned on the British/Indian northwest frontier, served during the Mutiny, was second in command of the mission to Ka@æg@ar in Chinese Turkestan (1873-74), and fought in the Second Afghan War (q. ... .See BAHRAÚM ÙOÚBÈN. .See KORDUK. H®abib-Alla@h Zanja@ni ÚN,the ancient Hyrcania, an important Persian province at the southeast corner of the Caspian sea. Eckart Ehlers ii.DAˆT-E GORGAÚN Daæt-e Gorga@n is the designation of a steppe-region of approximately 10,000 km2 near the southeastern edge of the Caspian Sea, stretching for almost 200 km east-west between Mora@va Tappa and the coast of the Caspian Sea near Gomiæa@n. Its north-south extension is about 50 km and reaches from the Perso-Turkmenistan border along the Atrak River to the foothills of the Alborz range. Another traditional name for this region is Torkaman S®ahára@, characterizing at the same time the specific and dominant composition of its population. ... H®abib-Alla@h Zanja@ni iii.POPULATION Population of Gorga@n will be described in two sections: (1) Population of the province, which has been formed recently under the name of Golesta@n Province with Gorga@n City as its capital; and (2) population of Gorga@n City and Gorga@n Sub-province. Muhammad Yusof Kiani iv.ARCHEOLOGY The plain of Gorgan, situated on the southeast shore of the Caspian Sea, has always been regarded as an important region for its archeological deposits dating from the pre-historic to the Islamic period. A. D. H. Bivar v.PRE-ISLAMIC HISTORY Gorga@n (Latin Hyrcania), the district of "the wolves" (still seen thereabouts), north of the Alborz (q.v.) watershed, and adjoining the southeastern quarter of the Caspian Sea, is mentioned already as Varka@na- in the Behistun inscription (2.92; see BÈSOTUÚN iii). The area comprises two distinct climatic zones: the rainforest of the Alborz northern slopes and the Gorga@n plain, well-watered and fertile close to the mountains but passing into increasingly desert steppe as the distance from the foothills increases. ... C. Edmund Bosworth vi.FROM THE RISE OF ISLAM TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SAFAVID PERIOD Gorga@n, OP Varka@na-, classical Hyrcania, Arabized form Jorja@n (see Markwart, Era@næahr, p. 72), formed in Sasanian and pre-modern Islamic times a transitional zone, a corridor, between the subtropical habitat and climate of Ma@zandara@n to its west, and the arid steppes of Dehesta@n (q.v.) and, beyond them, the Qara Qum Desert to its northwest. Watered by the Gorga@n and the Atrak rivers (q.v.), Gorga@n was, on the evidence of the Islamic geographers, a fertile agricultural region in early Islamic times. ... Jawa@d Neyesta@ni and EIr. vii.FROM THE SAFAVIDS TO THE END OF THE PAHLAVI ERA Two characteristics dominated the history of Gorga@n in the period between the 16th and early 19th centuries: incessant tribal unrest and power politics. These features reflected the rather particular tribal structure and the geopolitical situation of this region and its neighboring areas in the north and east. Coveted by the Uzbeks and claimed by the Turkmans, this fertile region was the scene of agitation and struggle for dominance. The Uzbeks were driven out by the Safavids, but the Turkmans showed little willingness to submit to the authority of the central government. ... .See WOLF. Julie Scott Meisami (fl. ca. 441/1050), poet, best known for his verse romance Vis o Ra@min, completed in 447/1055 or shortly thereafter and dedicated to the Saljuq governor of Isfahan, the ¿Amid Abu'l-Fathá Mozáaffar b. Moháammad. Virtually all that is known about this poet is derived from his own statements in his poem; three lyric fragments attributed to him have been preserved in anthologies (see Moháammad-Ja¿far Mahájub, ed., Vis o Ra@min ba moqaddama-e mabsut wa háawa@æi wa ta¿liqa@t …, Tehran, 1959, p. ... . See ASTARAÚBAÚD BAY. .See CHORASMIA. . See MAÚZANDARAÚNI. . See ABU'L-HAYT¯AM GORGAÚNI. Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh ,son of Mila@d, one of the heroes of the reigns of Kay Ka@vus and Kay Kòosrow (ˆa@h-na@ma, ed. Khaleghi, III, p. 11,) and the head of the Mila@d family. T®abari's mention of Gorgin (I, pp. 608, 614) as the name of both the son and father of Mila@d is possible, since it was not unusual to name the first grandson after his grandfather (cf. Go@darz, q.v., which is the name of Ge@v's son in the Bisotun inscription and that of his father in the ˆa@h-na@ma). ... Rudi Matthee (also known as Giorgio XI and ˆa@hnava@z Khan II), Georgian prince (d. 1709), who was alternately ruler of Georgia and holder of high positions in the Safavid administration and military. .See GEORGIA. . See HADAF SCHOOLS. . See KòúAÚRAZMI Schools. Jalil Doostkhah (or gorza; Av. vazra-, Mid. Pers. warz, Kurd. gurz "club, mace"), also referred to as gorz-e ga@vsa@r/sar (ox-headed club/mace), a weapon often mentioned and variously described in Iranian myths and epic. The name gorz and its descriptions can be found in most texts dealing with mythical, religious, and epic topics. Gorz, besides its function as an instrument of war, is referred to in ancient Iranian literature as an implement used by both divine entities and terrestrial figures as a symbol of the victory of justice over oppression and order over chaos. ... C. Edmund Bosworth (thus in the H®odud al-¿a@lam; Ya¿qubi, Qorzoma@n; Ebn H®awqal and Ya@qut, Jorzova@n; Moqaddasi, Jorzova@n and Korzova@n), a town in the medieval Islamic region of Guzga@n (q.v.) in northern Afghanistan. It lay in the district of the headwaters of the Fa@rya@b and Andkòuy rivers, still in modern Afghanistan called Darza@b wa Gorzeva@n (H®odud al-¿a@lam, tr, Minorsky, comm. p. 335). It was the summer residence (qasáaba) of the local princes of the Farighunid family (see au‚l-e fareàgu‚uu‚n), whose winter residence was at Anba@r or Anb^r (q. ... W. W. Malandra , the title of the ninth Yaæt of the Avesta, also known as Drwa@sp Yaæt, after the goddess Druua@spa@ (see DRVAÚSPAÚ) to whom, in fact, it is dedicated. This Yaæt corresponds to the fourteenth day of the Zoroastrian calendar, which also bears the name Go@æ and on which G™@uæ taæan, G™@uæ uruuan and Druua@spa@ are invoked (Siro@za 1.14, 2.14). However, nowhere in the Yaæt itself are G™@uæ taæan and G™@uæ uruuan mentioned, while Druua@spa@ appears in the first two stanzas only, the remaining thirty-one consisting of borrowings from the AÚba@n Yaæt and Ard Yaæt. ... Mary Boyce ,a Parthian word of unknown derivation for "poet-musician, minstrel." It was evidently much used, since it was borrowed into several neighboring tongues; but because the Parthian language almost disappeared and was not recovered to any extent until the 20th century, the term first came to notice through its use in an 11th-century classical Persian text, Fakòr-al-Din As¿ad Gorga@ni's Vis o Ra@min. There it occurs twice in one passage (ed. Todua and Gwakharia, pp. 300, l. 12 to 301, l. 24, episode 69 ll. ... Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh , (or Ba@nu Goæasb) entitled sava@r (knight), Rostam's daughter and the wife of Ge@v (qq.v.). She is the heroine of a short epic of some 900 verses, called Ba@nu Goæasb-na@ma, by an unknown poet probably from the 5th/11th or 6th/12th century. There is a manuscript of the poem at the Bibliotheàque Nationale in Paris (Cat. Bibliotheàque Nationale, p. 18, no. 1194). It was once printed with Fara@marz-na@ma (ed. R. Tafti, Bombay, 1324/1906, pp. 32-78). It describes the exploits of Goæasb Ba@nu alongside her brother Fara@marz (q. ... .See GUSFAND .See CLEANSING. , Sasanian military commander. See K¨OSROW II. .See BIBLE. Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh (< OI.*Vistaxma, "wielder of far-reaching power"; New. Pers. Gostaham, BestÂa@m; see Justi, Na@menbuch, pp. 371-72), name of two heroes in the ˆa@h-na@ma. A. Shapur Shabazi ,Kayanian king of Iranian traditional history and patron of Zoroaster. William W. Malandra ,the Pahlavi name for the soul of the Sole-created Bull (Ga@w i e@wda@d, q.v.). The name itself derives from g™uæ uruuan- (the soul of the Cow) and refers to the figure of the archetypal Cow who is at the center of a religio-literary theme that has reflexes in both Iranian and Old Indian literature; it is generally referred to as the "Cow's lament." The variants all have as their core the theme of the Cow who laments her mistreatment at the hands of violent men and her lack of an adequate protector, her protector being often a priest. ... .See GOÚDARZ. Rudi Matthee (b. Beja, Portugal, 1575; d. Manzanares, Spain, 1628), Augustinian missionary and Portuguese envoy who visited Persia three times between 1602 and 1613 and who wrote on Persia. ,a district in the medieval province of Qohesta@n in Khorasan. See BAÚKARZ. . See HAÚMUN LAKE. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. , an archeological site in western Persia. See GODIN TEPE. Nasereddin Parvin ,a cultural journal published monthly from Bahman 1351/January 1973 to Day 1357/December 1978 (issue no. 72). It was a publication of the philanthropic organization of Mortazµa@ Nuria@ni, whose board of trustees was headed by Manu±her Eqba@l (q.v.) and whose secretary-general was Nosárat-Alla@h Ka@semi, a friend of Eqba@l. Mortazµa@ Ka@mra@n was named as the manager-in-charge (modir-e mas÷ul) of the journal, but it was in fact run by Ka@semi, a physician, poet, politician, and regular contributor to the journal. ... C. Edmund Bosworth , aSaljuq princess who became the second wife of the Ghaznavid Sultan Mas¿ud III (r. 492-508/1099-1115). Because the Saljuq Sultan Malekæa@h (q.v.) sent her from Ray to GÚazna with a lavish wedding corteàge, on which his vizier Nezáa@m-al-Molk had expended 100,000 dinars, she is known in the sources for Ghaznavid history as the Mahd-e ¿Era@q "bride from ¿Er@aq[-e ¿Ajami or Western Persia"] (H®o-sayni, pp. 16, 58; Ebn al-At¯ir, ed. Tornberg, X, p. 111, ed. ... , philosopher and poet. See LAÚHIJI, ¿ABD-AL-RAZZAÚQ. , pen name of the 20th-century author GÚola@m-H®osayn Sa@¿edi. See SAÚ¿EDI, GÚOLAM-H®OSAYN. C. Edmund Bosworth , Turkish eunuch slave commander of the Great Saljuqs (d. 493/1100). In his early life he had been a slave (mamluk) of the Buyid ruler of Iraq, Abu Ka@lija@r b. SoltÂa@n-al-Dawla, but passed into the service of the Saljuqs (Ebn al-Jawzi, MontazÂam IX, p. 115; Ebn al-At¯ir, Beirut, X, p. 295; S®adr-al-Din H®osayni, p. 51). In 464/1071-72, Sultan Alp Arsla@n (q.v.) appointed him the Saljuq military governor (æehána) in Baghdad, an office which he was to hold, on and off, for the rest of his long life (Ra@vandi, pp. ... Peter Avery (b. Tehran, 1914; d. Tehran, December 1995), scholar of Sufism and professor at the University of Tehran. He attended primary schools in Tehran and completed his secondary education at Alborz College (q.v.). In 1924 he enrolled at the Da@neæ-sara@-ye ¿AÚli (see EDUCATION xix) and took his first degree in Persian literature and philosophy. He later studied for a doctorate at the Faculty of Literature and Humanities (q.v.) under the supervision of the eminent scholar Foruza@nfar (q. ... Beatrice Forbes Manz , wife of Sultan ˆa@hrokò b. Timur (r. 811-50/1409-47) and daughter of GÚia@t¯-al-Din Tarkòa@n, a ranking amir under Timur. GÚia@t¯-al-Din, who traced his honorary title, Tarkòa@n, from a grant received by his ancestor, Qeæleq, from Ùengiz Khan (q.v.), had married two more daughters into Timur's family (Manz, p. 186, n. 31). Gowhar-æa@d bore ˆa@hrokò three daughters (Maryam SoltÂa@n, Sa¿a@dat SoltÂa@n, and Qutlug@ Torka@n AÚg@a@; Mo¿ezz al-ansa@b, fol. ... Lisa Golombek . Since its construction in the early 15th century, the Gowhar-æa@d Mosque has served as the Friday mosque for pilgrims to the tomb of Imam ¿Ali al-Rezµa@ (q.v.) in Maæhad, so named after this famous shrine. Over the centuries many new buildings were added to the shrine complex, but the Timurid mosque remained the dominant monument and the only place for congregational prayer. . See Supplement. . See TOMATO. Pierre Oberling ,a Kurdish tribe in northwestern Persia. It is an offshoot of the Mokri tribe (Ta@ba@ni, p. 74) and is divided into three branches: (1) The Gowrak-e Maha@-ba@d, or Gowrak-e Mokri, who dwell in twenty-four villages near the sources of the Tatavu river, in the dehesta@n of Gowrak, south of Maha@ba@d (Minorsky, p. 188). Their number was estimated at 2,000 families in 1933 (Kayha@n, Jog@ra@fia@ II, p. 109) and at 3,100 families in 1342 ˆ./1963-64 (Komisiun-e melli, I, p. ... .See WALNUT. ,Bazarangid ruler in Fa@rs. See ARDAˆÈR I. D. N. Mackenzie ,the Middle Persian development of an old Iranian compound adjective *gau-±iƒra-, recorded in the Younger Avesta (Yaæt 7, passim; Y. 1.11; 16.4; Vd. 21.9), in the form gao±iƒra-, as an epithet of the moon, "bearing the seed, having the origin of cattle" (or, "the ox"). This is translated in the Pahlavi Zand as go@spand-to@xmag or go@spand-±ihrag, indicating that go@zihr had already been specialized as an astronomical and astrological term. As such it became the name of the imaginary Dragon, spanning the sky between the two nodes of the moon. ... Peter B. Golden, C. Edmund Bosworth ,a significant Turkic tribe in western Eurasia in the 5th century. . See FREEMASONRY iii-iv. Ernst Badian ,river (mod. Kocaba¶ Çay) flowing into the Sea of Marmara. The Granicus was the site of the first battle between Alexander the Great and a Persian army. In late May 334 B.C.E. Alexander was moving east towards the river from the Troad, when he heard that the Persian commanders in Anatolia had concentrated their forces at Zelea (Sari Köy) and were intending to defend the river crossing. He reached the river late in the afternoon and found the Persian cavalry arrayed on the low heights (3-4 m) east of the river, with the infantry behind them. ... Denis Wright ,Captain NATHANIEL PHILIP, a military officer of the East India Company (b. New York 1774, k. near Kòorrama@ba@d, April 1810). He arrived in India as a cadet in December 1800, eventually serving as a captain in the Bengal fifteenth native infantry regiment. Denis Wright (b. 1863, d. Bath, 1926), British diplomat serving successively in Rome, Tehran (1892-94 when he passed a Persian language exam), St. Petersburg, Stockholm, Berlin, then London. In London he was in attendance on Mozáaffar-al-Din Shah during his state visit in 1902, and in January 1903 accompanied Viscount Downe's Garter Mission to Tehran. Later that same year Grant Duff was appointed secretary to the British Legation, Tehran, and was charge‚ d'affaires from September 1905 to September 1906, a difficult time that coincided with the Constitutional Revolution (q. ... Mohammad Dandamayev Peter Chelkowski . Broadly speaking, graphic art and design have a long history in Persia. Their antecedents can be seen in graphic motifs and patterns on ancient clay and metal vessels, stone reliefs, seals, brickwork, glazed tiles, plaster and wood carvings, cloths, carpets, marquetry, miniature paintings, calligraphy, illumination of manuscripts, etc. (see calligraphy; carpets). .See ANGUÚR John Michael Rogers William W. Malandra , orientalist and philologist (b. Newark, New Jersey, 10 April, 1875; d. New York, New York, 18 August, 1955), who was associated with Columbia University throughout most of his academic life. Gray received his Bachelor of Arts degree in Classics from Princeton University in 1896 and then went on to Columbia University to study Indo-Iranian philology with A. V. Williams Jackson, graduating with the Ph.D. in 1900. He taught briefly at Princeton (1901-2), then continued informal study at Columbia, which included Hebrew and Old Irish, while working in various editorial capacities for the New International Encyclopœdia (etymology and the modern history of India), the Jewish Encyclopœdia (reviser of translations), Hastings' Encyclopœdia of Religion and Ethics (assistant editor and contributor), and Mythology of All Races (editor). ... i. Introduction. ii. An Overview of Relations: Safavid to the Present. iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th Century. iv. British influence in Persia, 1900–21. v. British influence in Persia, 1921–41. vi. British influence in Persia, 1941–79. vii. British Travelers to Persia. viii. British Archeological Excavations. ix. Iranian Studies in Britain, Pre-Islamic. x. Iranian Studies in Britain, the Islamic Period. xi. Persian Art Collections in Britain. xii. The Persian Community in Britain. ... Denis Wright ii.AN OVERVIEW OF RELATIONS: SAFAVID TO THE PRESENT Abbas Amanat iii.BRITISH INFLUENCE IN PERSIA IN THE 19TH CENTURY British imperial interests in Persia in the Qajar period were primarily determined by the concern for the security of colonial India and, secondarily, by trade, telegraphic communication, and financial or other conces-sionary agreements. By the early 20th century, two new decisive factors came into the fore: Oil exploration in the southwest and, after 1917, the threat of an imminent Bolshevik penetration from the north. The strategic position of Qajar Persia, perhaps second only to Egypt, turned it into a significant buffer state both for Britain and Russia, and an arena for influence through diplomacy, trade, and concessions. ... iv.BRITISH INFLUENCE IN PERSIA, 1900-21 Mansour Bonakdarian Stephanie Cronin v.BRITISH INFLUENCE DURING THE REZ˜AÚ SHµAH PERIOD, 1921-41 Fakhreddin Azimi vi.BRITISH INFLUENCE IN PERSIA: 1941-79 Denis Wright vii.BRITISH TRAVELERS TO PERSIA The British, more than any others, have been prolific authors of travelogues, and memoirs about Persia. Anthony Jenkinson of the Muscovy Co. led the way with his account of his travels there in 1562; journeys by other Muscovy Co. merchants followed a few years later. Their reports were published at the end of the century by R. Hakluyt. Next, Samuel Purchas, making use of manuscripts left by Hakluyt and other sources, published in 1625 his own collection of Englishmen's travels, among them those of Anthony Sherley, the preacher John Cartwright, and the merchant John Newberry, although both Sherley's and Cartwright's stories had already been published. ... St. J. Simpson viii.British archeological excavations Excavations began in Persia before the so-called "French monopoly" on archeological excavations (1895-1927; see DE´LE´GATIONS ARCHE´OLOGIQUE FRANÇAISES). They were small-scale and focused on clearing sculptures and retrieving plans at the major sites of Persepolis and Susa. These investigations were primarily British and represented a developmental stage beyond the 17th and 18th-century antiquarian tradition of observation and recording of standing remains championed by early European travelers to Persia. ... A. D. H. Bivar ix.IRANIAN STUDIES IN BRITAIN, PRE-ISLAMIC Several fields of pre-Islamic Iranian Studies have seen great expansion during recent centuries, and to these, scholars and travelers from Great Britain have made substantial contributions. Charles Melville x.IRANIAN STUDIES IN BRITAIN: ISLAMIC PERIOD British interest in, and scholarship on, Persia and Persian culture in the Islamic period goes back to the first formal contacts between the two countries, that is, at least to the 16th century and the growth of Britain's involvement in the Levant and East Indian trades. Since then, numerous individuals have contributed in different and fundamental ways to the development of Iranian studies in all its fields (T®®a@heri, passim). This survey, while trying to avoid being a catalogue of names and publications, will attempt to see how the institutional support for Iranian studies has built upon this legacy. ... J. Michael Rogers Plate III - Noah's Ark xi. PERSIAN ART COLLECTIONS IN BRITAIN The collecting of Persian art in Great Britain goes back at least to the missions despatched by the Safavid Shah ¿Abba@s I (996-1038/1588-1629; q.v.) and the activities of the Sherley brothers at his court in Isfahan. The early 17th century also saw the growth of trade with Persia through the East India Company (q.v.) which exported Persian textiles and pottery to Europe and to the Mughals in India. However, what remains from this traffic is better evidence for contemporary taste in furnishing materials, notably carpets and silks, than for the collecting of art as such, though even for the later centuries little of it now survives. ... Kathryn Spellman xii.PERSIAN COMMUNITY IN GREAT BRITAIN This entry will be treated in two separate articles: Namdar Baghaei-Yazdi 2.THE LIBRARY FOR IRANIAN STUDIES The Library for Iranian Studies in London was opened to members on 16 November 1991 with Ma@æa@÷-Alla@h AÚjuda@ni as its director. At that time the library consisted of a collection of 2,500 books and other publications, and was housed in rented premises in Acton, London. This collection was partly from the private collection of AÚjudani and partly from the collection of the periodical Fasál-e keta@b, which at the time was being published in London by AÚjuda@ni and Manu±ehr Mahájubi. ... F. Safiri & H. Shahidi xiii.THE BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION (BBC) The World Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which now broadcasts in English as well as more than 40 other languages, has its roots in the English language Empire Service established in 1932 to keep Britons in the colonies and dependencies informed of the events at home. As tensions rose in Europe in the late 1930s, the British Government began to fund BBC broadcasts in languages other than English designed to counter anti-British broadcasts from Germany and Italy. ... D. Stronach xiv. BRITISHINSTITUTE OF PERSIAN STUDIES The Institute was founded in the spring of 1961, thanks to the vision and commitment of a small group of scholars in Britain, each of whom had a special interest in the arts and letters of Persia. Three individuals were especially active in this regard: Sir Maurice Bowra, the President of the British Academy and Warden of Wadham College, Oxford, Sir Mortimer Wheeler, the Secretary of the British Academy, and Professor (later Sir) Max Mallowan, a noted authority on ancient Iran and Mesopotamia. ... Gulnar E. Francis-Dehqani xv.BRITISH SCHOOLS IN PERSIA This article will outline the major educational efforts of the British missionaries in Persia from 1871. The British schools in Persia were primarily founded by missionary organizations, most notably the Church Missionary Society (CMS). In 1869, the missionary Robert Bruce and his wife, on their way to India, stayed in Persia to improve their Persian. They based themselves in Jolfa@, on the outskirts of Isfahan, where foreigners were permitted to reside. During their stay, Persia experienced a severe famine between 1871-72. ... Rüdiger Schmitt i.GRECO-PERSIAN POLITICAL RELATIONS First contacts. Immediately after subjugating the Medes, and thus taking the initial step in creating an immense empire that stretched from Eastern Iran and Central Asia to the Aegean Sea, the founder of this empire, Cyrus II (q.v.; called "the Great" by the Greeks), started his first expedition westwards, as the Medes had done with the conquest of Eastern Anatolia up to the River Halys some forty years before. In 547 B.C.E. Cyrus II turned against Lydia and its king Croesus (q. ... Margaret C. Miller ii.GRECO-PERSIAN CULTURAL RELATIONS 1. INTRODUCTION The cultural impact of contact with Greece on Persia is discussed below (sec. vii). Here the evidence for receptivity to Persian culture in Greece, the North Aegean, and West Anatolia are addressed, including receptivity on the part of the non-Greek peoples of these regions. Literary evidence generally presents a picture of hostility between the Persian and Greek worlds, with Macedonia, Thrace, and west Anatolia comprising much of the battle ground; the focus in the historical record on the military conflicts and diplomatic relations implies little cultural exchange. ... Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin iii.PERSIAN INFLUENCE ON GREEK THOUGHT IRAN AND GREEK PHILOSOPHY The idea of oriental, and especially Iranian, origins of Greek philosophy was endowed by antiquity with a legendary aura, either by declaring that Pythagoras had been Zoroaster's pupil in Babylon (a city where neither of them had probably ever been), or by writing, as did Clement of Alexandria (Clement of Alexandria, 5.9.4), that Heraclitus had drawn on "the barbarian philosophy," an expression by which, in view of the proximity of Ephesus to the Persian empire, he must have meant primarily the Iranian doctrines. ... Mansour Shaki iv.GREEK INFLUENCE ON PERSIAN THOUGHT After the conquest of Ionia (OPers. yauna-, Mid. Pers. and NPers. yu@na@n "Greece"), Lydia, and other regions of Asia Minor by Cyrus II (558-29 B.C.E., q.v.), the Persians came into close contact with the Hellenes, their skilled artisans, renowned physicians, artists, statements, men-of-arms, and the like. In the following course of history the Persians benefited from their knowledge in various fields. ... Reinhold Bichler and Robert Rollinger v.INFLUENCE ON GREEK PHILOSOPHY. SEE PHILOSOPHY AND INDIVIDUAL PHILOSOPHERS vi. THE IMAGE OF PERSIA AND PERSIAN IN GREEK LITERATURE The image of Persia in Greek literature is highly stylized and may not be considered as a reflection of actually experienced cultural contacts (for a comprehensive treatment see Miller). Greece's perception of the Persians was initially influenced by her impression of the Median Empire, which was situated in "upper" Asia as a counterpart to the Lydian Empire (Bichler, 2000, pp. ... Re‚my Boucharlat vii.GREEK ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN IRAN The influx of elements of Greek art into Persia during the Achaemenid period was primarily the result of the importation of artists and artisans from Hellenized Asia Minor and rarely due to a direct supply of objects. After Alexander, more or less faithful local imitations of Greek forms and subjects were also produced, responding to the demands of Greco-Macedonians settled in Persia and their descendants, and especially the more or less Hellenized local elites. viii.GREEK ART IN CENTRAL ASIA, AFGHANISTAN, AND NORTHWEST INDIA The emergence of Greek art as a phenomenon following the expedition of Alexander the Great was a major cultural event in Central Asia and India. Its effects were felt for almost a thousand years, down to the early Islamic period. This phenomenon is interesting not only because of the brevity of the actual Macedonian political presence in Asia, but also because of the mechanism of all kinds of influences impregnating one another during this period. ... ,Relations with Persian Empire. i. Greco-Persian Political Relations ii. Greco-Persian Cultural Relations iii. Persian Influence on Greek Thought iv. Greek Influence on Persian Thought v. Greek Influence on Philosophy, See PHILOSOPHY and individual philosophers vi. The Image of Persia and Persians in Greek Literature Claude Rapin PlateIX Bopearachchi, pl. 7, series 9–10 and pl. 9, series 6). The image of Buddha, however, does not appear until the 1st century C.E. (PLATE X), the reason lying in the doctrine of Buddhism as such and the fidelity to the rules set by Aæoka (q.v.), who had made the cult a state religion. The Greek and Graeco-Aramaic inscriptions discovered at Qandaha@r (bibliography in Rapin, 1992a, p. 391) shows that, starting with the mid-3rd century B.C.E., Buddhism appealed to a largely Hellenized society that tradition-ally remained attached to its religion. ... Richard Davis ix.GREEK AND PERSIAN ROMANCES Three Persian verse romances of the 11th century (Fakòr-al-Din Gorga@ni's Vis o Ra@min, Ayyuqi's Varqa o Golæa@h, and the fragmentary Wa@meq o ¿Adòra@ of ¿Onsáori) stand out as significantly unlike other Persian verse romances (see below), and they share enough features with the Greek Hellenistic Romances (written between about 100 B.C.E. and about 300 C.E.) to suggest the existence of links between the two sets of tales. The nature of the relationship is not, however, the simple one of the earlier (Greek) material influencing the later (Persian) material, as the Greek novels contain a number of motifs and topoi which are identified within the narratives themselves as Persian in origin. ... Gül Russell x.GREEK MEDICINE IN PERSIA INTRODUCTION The question of Greek medicine in Iran is closely bound up with the history of Greco-Arabic medicine, which developed with the impetus of the "translation movement" between the 8th and the 10th centuries when all of the Greek knowledge in medicine, science, and philosophy available in late antiquity was transmitted into Arabic. Rüdiger Schmitt xi.GREEK INSCRIPTIONS IN IRAN, See EPIGRAPHY xii. PERSIAN LOANWORDS AND NAMES IN GREEK The Greeks came into direct contact with speakers of Iranian languages when Cyrus II conquered the Lydian empire in 547 B.C.E., thus becoming the ruler of most of Asia Minor and its Greek population. However, the possibility of linguistic borrowings in prehistoric times cannot be ruled out: e.g., Gk. to‚xon "bow" has been regarded as possibly borrowed from proto-Iranian by Émile Benveniste (1966, pp. 480-81). ... Philip Huyse xiii.GREEK LOANWORDS IN MIDDLE IRANIAN LANGUAGES Notwithstanding many centuries of at times intensive contact and confrontation between the Greco-Roman/Byzantine and Iranian worlds from Achaemenid through Sasanian times and even beyond, the number of loanwords borrowed from Greek into the pre-Islamic Iranian languages is far less impressive than the number of borrowings in the other direction. Thus, no Greek loanwords seem to have been preserved in any of the Old Iranian languages known to us, while only a limited number—sometimes borrowed themselves from Latin—have found their way into more than one Middle Iranian language, such as: Pahl. ... Lutz Richter Bernburg and EIr. xiv.GREEK LOANWORDS IN MEDIEVAL NEW PERSIAN It stands to reason that the number of borrowings from Greek into Persian should vary according to genres of texts and to disciplines of learning. Thus in contrast to Islamic religious scholarship (exempting the Koran's Greek loanwords, which naturally passed into Persian) the secular or, by the Arabic term, "ancient sciences"—the syllabus of Aristotelian philosophy, medicine and its ancillary fields, and the occult disciplines—would seem to be primary loci of Greek terminology. ... George Bournoutian Werner Sundermann ,a Middle Iranian word (in Manichean Mid. Pers. script gryw, rarely gryyw; in Sogd. script kryw; in Pahl. script rendered by the ideogram, q.v., CWLE) meaning "neck, throat" and "self, soul." David Neil MacKenzie also mentions a homonym gr^w, defined as "a grain measure, modius, peck" (MacKenzie, 1971, p. 37; Boyce, 1977, p. 42). Rüdiger Schmitt (b. 9 June 1775 in Hannoversch-Münden, d. 15 December 1853 in Hannover), German philologist and scholar of oriental studies. His father, Johann Christian Grotefend, was the head of the shoemakers guild in Hannoversch-Münden. In 1795 Grotefend enrolled at the University of Göttingen to study theology and philology. Having already worked at a grammar school in his student days, he chose teaching as a career and remained a teacher all his life, first in Göttingen, then in Frankfurt on the Main, and from 1821 as the director of the Lyceum in Hannover. ... Jacqueline Calmard-Compas (b. Aubais, Gard, France, 5 September 1885; d. Paris, 12 September 1952), French historian who based his wide-ranging research on the studies of the leading French orientalists of his time, and wrote works of synthesis on various aspects of Oriental history and culture. He was forced by ill health to abandon his formal university education after graduating from the University of Montpellier in history and geography (1903), but continued studying oriental art and history on his own. In 1912 he joined the administrative staff of the Beaux-Arts in Paris and embarked on the research for his first major publication, Histoire de l'Asie. ... ,See CHIONITES. Rüdiger Schmitt (Encyclopaedia of Iranian Philology; Strassburg, 1895-1904, reprinted Berlin and New York, 1974), the fi;rst attempt to summarize the knowledge of all subjects concerning Iran — the languages and literatures, history and culture of Iran and the Iranian peoples — that had been achieved by the end of the 19th century. By summing up clearly and carefully the results of previous research, and by presenting new fi;ndings in current research and outlining the tasks to be dealt with in the future, the Grundriss became the summa of 19th-century Iranian studies. ... Werner Sundermann , prominent German Indologist, Tibetologist, art scholar, and archeologist (b. Munich, 31 July 1856; d., Lenggries, 28 October 1935). An outstanding scholar, Grünwedel's importance for Iranian studies lies in his organization and administration of two of the four German expeditions to Turfan (see EXCAVATIONS iv.). Vladmir Kushev (b. St. Petersburg, 1 March 1930; d. St. Petersburg, 3 March 1995), Russian linguist who specialized in Iranian languages. Gryunberg worked primarily on Tati, Baluchi, Pamiri, Nuristani, Dardic, and Sistani languages, collecting and publishing a large number of their folklore and ethnographic texts. His father was a man of letters and a literary critic, and his mother was a philologist and translator from Turkish and Serbo-Croatian. Gryunberg studied at the Oriental Faculty of the St. Petersburg State University, where he received his doctorate in 1963, was habilitated in 1974, and became full professor in 1983. ... A. Schirazi , a powerful 12-member council with vast legislative and executive jurisdictions that forms a cornerstone of the Islamic Republic's Constitution (q.v.). According to Art. 91 of the Constitution, it consists of twelve members, six of whom are theologians (foqaha@) and six are jurists (háoquqda@n) versed in different legal branches. The former are appointed by the "supreme leader," the latter are elected by parliament (Majles) from among the "Muslim jurists" introduced by the head of the judicial system; the head of the judicial system is also appointed by the leader. ... R. Schmitt ,Babylonian rendering of the Iranian name Gaub(a)ruva (q.v.), which is best known in the Greek form Go@bryas. ,see GOÚDARZ Mina Marefat (b. in Istanbul, 1900, d. 1970), Armenian avant-garde architect, an influential figure in the development of modern architecture in Persia, linking Persian architects with Europe's pioneers of the modern movement. Guevrekian was raised in Tehran and retained his Iranian citizenship most of his life (he was naturalized as an American citizen in 1955). He studied architecture in Austria's Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, received his diploma in 1919, and worked with Oskar Strand and Josef Hoffman until 1922, when he settled in Paris. ... Sebastian P. Brock , an anonymous, 7th-century chronicle of Nestorian Christians, known also as "the Khuzistan Chronicle," written in Syriac and covering the period from the reign of the Sasanian Hormizd/Hormoz IV (579-89) to the middle of the 7th century and the time of the early Arab conquests. It was discovered by Ignazio Guidi, who presented it at the Eighth International Congress of Orientalists in 1889 and published it with Latin translation in 1903. In view of the paucity of other sources for this period of late Sasanian history, the chronicle takes on a particular importance. ... Erich Kettenhofen , prominent Italian Orientalist (b. Rome, 31 July 1844; d. Rome, 18 March 1935). Guidi can be counted among the greatest of the Orientalist scholars (cf. Baumstark, p. 239), a fact that is emphasized by his membership in numer-ous societies and academies. He mastered a large number of Oriental (and modern) languages and pursued his academic activities up to an advanced age. After beginning his scholarly career as curator of the Numismatic Cabinet of the Biblioteca Vaticana (1873-76), Guidi became an associate professor at the University of Rome in 1878; he was subsequently promoted to full professor there (1885-1919). ... ,See ASáNAÚF, FOTWWAT, CHAMBER OF GUILDS, CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, BAÚZAÚR iii. Anne Draffkorn Kilmer , a well known scholar of ancient Near Eastern organology and ancient music theory (b. Lie‚ge, Belgium, 5 July 1907; d. Lie‚ge, 3 December 1997). She studied musicology under the supervision of Charles Van den Borren and ancient Mesopotamian civilization with Georges Dossin at the University of Lie‚ge. Her doctoral dissertation, completed in 1931, bore the title "Les instruments de musique en Asie Occidentale ancienne." After her marriage to the Iranologist Jacques Duchesne in 1935, Guillemin published under the name Marcelle Duchesne-Guillemin. ... ,See GOJAR Gavin R. G. Hambly ,a province of India on its northwestern coastline. Gujarat derives its name from the Indo-Iranian Gujar tribes, which entered north India around 550 C.E. with the White Huns and established their presence in southern Rajasthan, with their headquarters at Bhilmal, to the northwest of Mount Abu. Among these Gujars, a sub-clan, the Pratiha@ras, later to claim Rajput status, assumed a primacy around 725 C.E., subsequently shifting their power-base to Kanauj on the Ganges, where they ruled until its fall to the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahámud in 409/1018. ... K. M. Jamaspasa ,the mother tongue of Gujaratis, which has been for centuries a vehicle of thought and expression for Hindus, Parsis, and Muslims of Gu-jarat in western India. It belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-Iranian group of the Indo-European family of languages. Gujarat is geographically separated from Kathiawar and Cutch, although linguistically the three might be taken as one. Gujarat is derived from Gurjar/Gujar, the name of the people who are believed to have settled there in the middle of the 5th century C. ... , See ABAÚLIˆ Pierre Oberling ,a Turkmen tribal confederacy of the Gorga@n region in northeastern Persia, the district of Qara Qal¿a in Turkmenistan, and the K¨iva region in Uzbekistan. In the Gorga@n region, the Gukla@n occupy a small tract of land extending from Ya@s Tapa on the south bank of the Gorga@n river to Yel Ùaæma and Tang-e Ra@h, on the AÚb-e Dahana, in the rural district (dehesta@n) of Gukla@n. In Turkmenistan, they occupy a small area between Qezel Arva@t and the Atrak river. ... Mahmoud and Teresa P. Omidsalar ,designation of a fantastic, frightening creature in the Perso-Arabic lore. It is a hideous monster with a feline head, forked tongue, hairy skin, and deformed legs that resemble the limp and skinny legs of a prematurely born infant (Nöldeke, p. 670). To the Arabs, g@uls (Ar. pl. g@ila@n, ag@wa@l) were the most dangerous and harm-ful variety of jinns who inhabited deserts and thickets and misled and destroyed men. Gavin R. G. Hambly ,city and district in the central Deccan, India. The city, located at 17° 21 ´ N and 76° 51 ´ E, belonged, prior to 1947, to the territory of the Nezáa@m of Hyderabad. It became the first capital of the Bahmanid dynasty (748-934/1347-1527; q.v.) when, in 748/1347, a rebel Tughluqid commander, perhaps a descendant of the Kakuyids of Isfahan (398-443/1008-51), was proclaimed sultan of the Deccan as ¿Ala@÷-al-Din H®asan Bahman Shah. Lawrence G. Potter . Iran/Persia maintained a policy of neutrality during the war between Iraq, whose forces occupied Kuwait on 2 August 1990, and the coalition led by the United States. The Foreign Ministry of Iran immediately condemned the attack on Kuwait and called for the withdrawal of Iraqi forces, and at the same time it expressed concern that the aggression would provide a pretext for outside forces to enter the region (Tehran Television Service in Persian, 2 August 1990, in FBIS-NES-90-150, 3 August 1990, p. 47; excerpts quoted in Iran Times, 10 August 1990, p. ... EIr. , Sufi poet in Persian and Turkish. He was from the city of Golæehri, the name of which appears on his works in Persian, and which is known today as Kér¶ehir. Next to nothing is known about his life; it, however, can be concluded from the dates of his works that he flourished during the second half of the 13th century and was alive until 717/1317, the year when he completed his Mantéku't-tayr (MantÂeq al-tÂayr). Even his name is not known for certain, although it can be surmised that the name Solayma@n, which is mentioned on two occasions in his Mantéku't-tayr (pp. ... D. N. Mackenzie ,a Middle Persian noun, spelled gwmycæn in Pahlavi and gwmyzyæn in Manichean script, meaning "mixing, mingling, mixture." It is derived from the verb gume@xtan, gume@z- "to mix," like the close synonym gume@zag^h, with which it alternates in use. It is used, for example, for the gume@ziæn ^ a@b andar zam^g "the mingling of water within the earth" (which, the Me@no@g ^ xrad 9.6 relates, is "like that of blood in the bodies of men"), and for sexual congress (the state of desire for which, ka@mago@mand^h ^ abar gume@ziæn, is called "lust"; Za@dspram 34. ... ,See TURKIC TRIBES ,See BAÚRUT , See BAÚRUT; FIREARMS. ,See ARDAˆIR K¨ORRA, FIRUZAÚBAÚD. C. Edmund Bosworth ,a region of central Afghanistan, essentially the modern administrative province (wela@yat) of GÚo@ra@t. Pre-modern GÚur comprised the basins of the upper Harirud, the Farahrud, the Rud-e GÚo@r, and the K¨aærud, together with the intervening mountain chains. The moun-tains rise to over 10,000 feet, increasing as they merge in the east into the Hindu Kush and Pamirs; they made the region difficult to access in medieval times, explaining why it remained for long a pagan enclave and why the modern GÚo@ra@t province remains one of the least developed of the country. ... , See SAMARQAND. , See QARA K¨ETAÚY; CENTRAL ASIA; TITLE OF RULERS. Pierre Oberling ,a tribe dwelling in the dehesta@n of Gura@n, between QasÂr-e ˆirin and Kerma@næa@h (Ba@kòtara@n), in Kurdistan. ˆaraf-al-Din Bedlisi mentioned the Gura@n as one of the four divisions of the Kurds, but Vladmir Minorsky has convincingly shown that the Gura@n belong to a Persian-speaking people inhabiting a sizable area on the southeastern and southern fringes of Kurdish territory (pp. 75-76, 86). According to Minorsky (pp. 86-87), they originated in the Caspian provinces, but they had been residing in Kurdistan already for a very long time. ... D. N. Mackenzie .Gura@ni, taking its name from the dialect now restricted to the region northwest of the village of Gahva@ra (35 miles west of Kerma@næa@h), comprises a group of similar North-west Iranian dialects which includes that of Kandula, 25 miles north-north-west of Kerma@næa@h, and Ba@èala@n^, in the region around Zoha@b and Qasár-e ˆ^r^n, with an offshoot among the ˆabak, S®a@rl^, and Ba@èala@n (Be@èwa@n) villages east of the city of Mosul in Iraq. ... Rudi Matthee (known in Persia as Bohtam Beg), Polish envoy of Georgian-Armenian origin and first permanent Polish resident in Safavid Persia (d. Moscow, 12 April 1700). ,See FUˆANG. ,See BEÚTò GARMEÚ. Jean During (lit.,corner or part), a term in Persian music designating a unit of melody of variable importance, which occupies a special place in the development of one of the twelve modal systems (dastga@h or a@va@z, qq.v.). This term came into use during the Safavid era, when the modal system was organized in six a@va@zes, twelve maqa@ms, twenty-four æo¿bas, and forty-eight guæas, such that each element generated two other elements. It has no equivalence in other traditions of maqa@m, except in the Azeri maqa@m, where it has the same sense and the same function as in Persian music, and in the old maqa@m of Kashmir based on the Persian theory. ... ,See BEÚTò GARMEÚ. ,See EPIC Jean-Pierre Digard (Mid. Pers. go@spand, sheep, ovine). In Persian a clear distinction is made between ewe (miæ), ram (qu±), and lamb (barra). In certain dialects tens of words are used to describe sheep according to age, sex, and physical characteristics, such as color, pattern of its fleece, shape of its ear, and so on (Digard, 1981, pp. 37, 65-66; Digard, Planhol, and Bazin, 1982; Rayfield, 1986; Rouholamini, 1967). David Pingree , an astronomer and mathematician from Gila@n, whence his nesba Jili/Gila@ni (fl. late 4th/late 10th-early 11th cent.). Next to nothing is known of his life; even his dates can only be determined approximately. Though it has been stated (Sezgin, GAS V, p. 343) that he wrote his al-Zij al-ja@me¿ in 353/964, the catalogue of stars in it is for 1293 of the Era of Alexander/982 (Kennedy, 1956, p. 157), and the manuscript of the Zij at Alexandria was copied from a manuscript that Guæya@r himself transcribed in 393/1002-3 (see Mazahe‚ri, p. ... Marc Van De Mieroop ,name used in ancient Mesopotamian texts to refer to a variety of people, mostly from the Zagros mountain area. Ronald E. Emmerick (b. Loschwitz near Dresden, 1 July 1831; d. Tübingen, 1 March 1887), classical scholar and ancient historian with a special interest in the Ancient Near East. Gutschmid began his studies in 1848 in Leipzig, where he obtained his doctorate in absentia in 1854, having in 1851 gone to Bonn to study. Among his teachers were many renowned German classical scholars and historians such as Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903), Rudolph Fridrich Moriz Haupt (1808-74), Otto Jahn (1813-69), Chritian Lassen (1800-76), Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl (1806-76), and Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860). ... , See POLO. (r. 644-46/1246-48), Mongol great khan (qag@an), given posthumously the regnal title Ting-tsung. He was the eldest son of Ögödei (Ukada@y) by his chief wife Töregene (Tura@kina/a@ K¨a@tun), and was born in 1206 (Abramowski, p. 151). When his father ascended the imperial throne in 1229, he gave Güyük his own appanage in the Emil-Qobuq region (Jovayni, I, pp. 31, 191-92). He saw service in China (Jovayni, I, p. 151; Abramowski, p. 151), and from about 1236 participated in the campaign against the Qip±a@q and other peoples of the western steppe, during which he quarreled with his cousin Batu (Ba@tu), the effective founder of the Golden Horde (q. ... , See ABAÚLIˆ. ,See JOZJAÚN. ,See BALUCHISTAN. , See Supplement. Dietrich Huff (Pers. Ga±; CaSo4.1/2H2O), produced from natural gypsum rock (pure CaSO4.2H2O) by firing in kilns or piles and subsequent pulverization by pounding and grinding. The addition of water during the building process returns the material to its solid consistency. Various processing qualities can be achieved by different firing temperatures, normally between 120°C and 400°C, mostly below 200°C; only plaster for floors (CaSO4) needs 800°-1100°C. Unlike lime (See AÚHAK), which is tempered with high percentages of sand, gypsum is mainly used pure, not regarding natural impurities (e. ... Jean-Pierre Digard i.GYPSIES OF PERSIA Gypsies are generally referred to by the term kowli in Persian, seemingly a distortion of ka@boli, i.e., coming from Kabol, the capital of Afghanistan. It is not at all certain, however, that all the groups referred to as kowli are authentic gypsies; nor that only the groups referred to as kowli should be considered as gypsies. The fact is that almost everywhere in Persia there are groups with characteristics similar to those of the Gypsies, but they are called by different names, sometimes designating their geographic or ethnic origin, sometimes their social status, and sometimes their profession: abdal (K¨uzesta@n), a@hangar (several places), ±egini or ±inga@na (Azerbaijan, the Caspian provinces), fiuj (K¨uzesta@n), g@arba@lband (Tehran), gowdari (Baluchestan), jat (Khorasan, Afghanistan), jugi (Central Asia), Kara±i or Kara@±i (Azerbaijan), ka@vol (Loresta@n), kowli (Tehran, central province, Loresta@n, Bakòtia@ri, Fa@rs), g@orbati (Loresta@n, Bakòtia@ri), lom (Tajikestan), luli (several places), luri (Baluchestan, center, not to be confused with the inhabitants of Loresta@n), lutÂi (Kerma@n, Loresta@n, not to be confused with the 19th-century urban thugs, see Migeod, 1959), mazang, mul- ta@ni (Central Asia), motÂreb (Loresta@n), qereæma@l (Khorasan), æira@zi (Bakòtia@ri), suda@ni (Persian Gulf), suzma@ni (Kerma@næa@h), tuæma@l (Bakòtia@ri), ‘ott (Baluchestan, K¨u-zesta@n) (Sykes, 1902, pp. ... Gernot L. Windfuhr ii.GYPSY DIALECTS The languages and dialects popularly called "Gypsy" (< Egipcien < qebtÂi "Coptic, Egyptian") constitute three major groups: Asiatic or Middle Eastern Domari, Armenian Lomavren, and European Romani, technical terms now used to reflect the speakers' self-designations: Dom, Lom, and Roma, respectively. For Gypsy in Iranian-speaking areas the most common terms are Kowli (presumably < Ka@boli, lit. from Kabul) and GÚorbati (stranger); mostly western groups such as the Kara±i of Azerbaijan have retained the term dom "man" (see listing of names and groups below). ... .This entry will be treated in two sections: i. Gypsies of Persia ii. Gypsy Dialects |