S. Soroudi , the tomb of. According to local traditions, the tomb of the prophet H®abaquq Tahsin Yazécé , Iranian poet, grammarian and translator, who spent much of his life in exile in Ottoman Turkey (1835-93). Born in Ben, in the Bakò-tia@ri region of Iran, in 1251/1835, he began his studies in Sa@ma@n before leaving for Tehran. He later spent four years in Baghdad, studying Arabic literature and Islamic jurisprudence. He returned to Tehran in 1866, but was soon obliged to flee Persia apparently on account of a poem in which he satirized Moháammad-K¨a@n Sepahsa@la@r and which earned him accusations of heresy (Sanjabi, p. ... Nasser-al-Din Parvin Persian-language weekly newspaper published in Kabul. It replaced Ama@n-e afg@a@n, following the advent of (H®abib-Alla@h) Ba±±a-ye Saqqa@ (q.v.). A total of thirty-one issues of H®abib-al-esla@m appeared between 9 H®ut 1307 ˆ./ 28 February 1929 and 10 Miza@n 1308 ˆ./ 1 December 1929. The editors were GÚola@m Moháey-al-Din, Sayyed Moháammad H®osayn (beginning no. 6) and Borha@n-al-Din Koækaki (no. 21 onward). A major periodical of the period, it included government declarations, official agreements with tribal leaders, and political and religious issues in general. ... , See MO¿ALLEM H®ABIBAÚBAÚDI. Ludwig W. Adamec amir, monarch who initiated modernization in Afghanistan (b. 1872, d. 1919). For a historical account of his reign (1901-19), see AFGHANISTAN x. Jalal Matini , an enlightened religious scholar of Maæhad and a poet (b. Maæhad, 1266/1850; d. Maæhad, 27 ˆa¿ba@n 1327/12 September 1909). After studying preliminary religious sciences in his birthplace he traveled to Iraq to pursue his studies. He learned French there and in Baghdad met a number of scholars and Sufis. After his return to Maæhad he became the target of some criticism on account of his association with Mirza@ Mahdi Gila@ni, known as K¨adiv, a dervish-like individual whose unconventional behavior did not sit well with Maæhad's clerics. ... Barbara Schmitz , one of the more conservative artists active during the reign of Shah ¿Abba@s I (995-1039/1587-1628). He signed his art and drawings as H®abib, H®abib-Alla@h, or Maæhadi H®abib-Alla@h. All we know about him, besides his paintings, is the brief note by his contemporary Qa@zµi Ahámad, who, writing in 1005/1596, referred to him as a masterful artist distinguished among his peers (tr., p. 191). "Maula@na@ Habibulla of Sava lived in Qom. For the skill of his hands he was one at whom men point their fingers and with regard to art he became a ravisher of the souls of his contemporaries. ... Ludwig W. Adamec , an elite high school for boys established in 1321/1903 in Kabul and named after its founder, Amir H®abib-Alla@h (q.v.; r. 1901-19). Originally established as a madrasa (q.v. EDUCATION), after World War II it became known as "the H®abibiya Lyce‚e" (Lisa-ye H®abibiya). Its curriculum was modeled on that of Aligarh College (Dupree, p. 447), and thus it followed the Anglo-Indian system. Sarda@r Nasár-Alla@h Khan, the amir's brother, served for ten years as its director and was succeeded by the amir's eldest son Sarda@r ¿Ena@yat-Alla@h. ... Nassereddin Parvin (lit. strong cord), name of three newspapers published in Calcutta, Tehran, and Raæt. 1. One of the most illustrious and influential newspapers in the Persian language, the weekly H®abl al-matin was published in Calcutta, with occasional long interruptions, from 10 Joma@da@ II 1311/19 December 1893 until 18 AÚdòar 1309 ˆ./9 December 1930, by Sayyed Jala@l-al--Din Mo÷ayyed-al-Esla@m Ka@æa@ni (b. Ka@æa@n, 13 Rajab 1280/24 December 1863; d. ... M. H. Ganji ,river in Dama@vand and Garmsa@r districts (qq.v) of Semna@n province in northern Persia. It originates from the peaks of the mountains Sa@÷o, ˆa@h-Moháammad and Homa@, which are located approximately 30 km to the North East of Firuzkuh (q.v.). It flows in a southwestern direction overall, covering a total length of 240 km (at an average gradient of 0.9%) during its course towards the river Golu. N. Y. Chalisova , shortened title of the famous treatise H®ada@÷eq al-sehár fi daqa@÷eq al-æe¿r ("Gardens of Magic in the Subtleties of Poetry"), written by Amir Raæid-al-Din Moháammad ¿Omari, widely known as Raæid(-e) Watáwa@t (d. 578/1182-83). Being the second Persian treatise on ¿elm al-badi¿ (rhetorical embellishments, see BADeà¿), it has among its predecessors the Tarjoma@n al-bala@g@a by Ra@duya@ni (late 11th century) on the Persian side, and the Keta@b al-maháa@sen fi'l-nazám wa'l-nat¯r by Marg@ina@ni (early 11th century) on the Arabic side. ... Ah®mad Biraæk (Goruh-e Farhangi-e Hadaf). A pioneering private educational complex founded in Tehran in 1949-50 by Ahámad Biraæk and a number of well-known high school teachers of mathematics and natural sciences, including Ahámad Anwa@ri, Taqi Hurfar, ¿Ali Motemadden, and Ahámad Rezµa@qoli-za@da. Hadaf (lit. goal) was also an acronym for honar (art), da@neæ (science), and farhang (culture). The main objective of the Group was to offer high quality education from elementary to high school, comparable to that of American preparatory schools. ... K. A. Jaisi (b. Hyderabad, 3 September 1894; d. Aligarh, 23 May 1963), Indian scholar of Persian literature. His father was a distinguished member of the Hyderabad State Administrative Service. His mother was Persian by birth, and hence he spoke Persian fluently from childhood. After receiving his early education in Hyderabad, he graduated in science from Ferguson College, Poona and won a state scholarship from Hyderabad to study abroad. He enrolled at the University of Cambridge and passed the science tripos in geology, botany and chemistry. ... Seyyed Hossein Nasr (b. Sabzava@r, 1212/1797, d. Sabzava@r, 28 D¨u'l-háejja 1289/26 February 1873), the most famous Islamic philosopher of the Qajar period, as well as an outstanding theologian and a notable poet. J.T.P. De Bruijn a Persian didactical matònawi by H®akim Majdud b. AÚdam Sana@÷i. The poem, written in the meter kòafif-e mosaddas-e makòbun-e mahádòuf, was dedicated to the Ghaznavid sultan Bahra@mæa@h (q.v.) shortly before the death of the poet, which probably occurred in 525/1131. Apparently, Sana@÷i did not complete a single final text. In a prose introduction, handed down in many copies of the H®adiqa, a certain Moháammad b. ¿Ali Raffa@¿ reports that he had prepared, on the order of Sultan Bahra@mæa@h, an edition of the text containing five thousand distichs from the materials left behind by the poet. ... ,See PALACE i. ACHAEMENID Mary Boyce ,the Avestan name of a minor Zoroastrian divinity, glossed in Pahlavi (tr. of Visprad 1:9) by Me@no@g ^ xa@nag "Spirit of the house." The Old Iranian common noun hadiæ, from the verb had- "seat oneself, sit; abide, dwell" (Air Wb., cols. 1753-54; Mayrhofer, Dictionary III, p. 473), is used in Old Persian for "palace" (Kent, Old Persian, p. 213 s.v.). The two brief Avestan passages in which Hadiæ is invoked (Visprad 1:9 = 2:1; Visprad 9:5) suggest that he was worshipped as protector and cherisher of the homestead and those dwelling in it, for his epithets there are va@stravant "possessing pastures", xva@ƒravant "possessing well-being," and mar‘-dikavant "possessing compassion. ... Shahab Ahmed i.A GENERAL INTRODUCTION Hadith literature (often called in Western scholarship "Muslim tradition") is understood to be the repository of the sonna (normative conduct; pl. sonan) of the Prophet, which is regarded as second in authority only to the Koran as a source of Divine truth. The Hadith, in other words, is an authoritative and prescriptive body of material relating to the Prophet Moháammad: it records what the Prophet did and said in order that Moslems may – whether through direct mimesis of the actions of the Prophet, acceptance of specific Prophetic pronouncements on points of law and doctrine, or the extrapolation of law from both Prophetic actions and utterances – live in accordance with Divine truth. ... ii.HADITH IN SHI¿ISM The Twelver Shi¿ite conception of Hadith is generally in line with that of the Sunnites as discussed in Section i above. In Shi¿ism, however, in addition to Hadith about the Prophet those about the Imams are authoritative as well. To a certain extent this is comparable with the fact that Companion Hadith have been considered authoritative in Sunnism, since the Imams, as members of the Prophet's house, are considered as representing the Prophet's knowledge. However, most Shi¿ite sources assert unambiguously that the Imams could also speak directly for God: "The Imam speaks for God concerning the Book" (yantÂequ 'l-ema@mu ¿an Alla@hi fi'l-keta@b; Kolayni, I, p. ... (an Arabic word meaning "conversation," "communication" or "narrative") is the term denoting reports that convey the normative words and deeds of the Prophet Moháammad (al-háadit¯ al-nabawi); it is understood to refer generically to the entire corpus of this literature, as the Hadith, and also to the thousands of individual reports that comprise it, each of which is called a háadit¯ (plural, aháa@dit¯). This entry will be treated under the following five rubrics: A. Kazemi-Moussavi typeof popular Shi¿ism based on mourning rites and pilgrimage, which has prevailed for the last two centuries. Although the later Osáuli revival put an end to the Akòba@ri domination since the late 12th/18th century, more recent Hadith collections, especially the Wasa@÷el al-ˆi¿a, have continued to emphasize the importance of Shi¿ite traditions. The Osáuli authors of the 19th and 20th centuries generally used Hadiths from these collections to support their juridical opinions based on their rational interpretation, but reorientation of the tradition-reports nevertheless continued through different means. ... Ismail K. Poonawala iii.HADITH IN ISMA¿ILISM Isma¿ilis had neither a Hadith collection of their own nor a distinct Isma¿ili law before the establishment of the Fatimid dynasty in North Africa in 297/909. As Isma¿ili law began taking definite shape under the patronage of the Fatimid caliphs, the need for a separate collection of clearly defined legal traditions became urgent; espe-cially since by this time Hadith had come to be recognized, both by Sunnis and Shi¿ites alike, as second only to the Koran in authority. ... Hamid Algar iv.HADITH IN SUFISM In keeping with all other categories of Islamic literature, the writings of the Sufis are replete with not only Koranic citations but also quotations of Hadith. This holds true not only for prose texts but also for poetry, to such an extent that the correct understanding of much of Sufi verse depends on recognizing allusions made to well-known traditions of the Prophet or paraphrases of them. This permeation of Sufi literature by Hadith is comprehensible, given that the prophetic model recorded in the Hadith is regarded by the Sufis as a principal source for their discipline, second only to the Koran, for the comprehension of which the Hadith are in any event indispensable. ... Shaul Shaked v.HADITH AS INFLUENCED BY IRANIAN IDEAS AND PRACTICES The contact of Arabia with ancient Iran started even before Islam, and there are definite traces of the presence of Iranian religious notions in the Koran. Several points demonstrating this presence were listed by Alessandro Bausani (pp. 138 ff.), and the entire field of early Arabic literature has been surveyed by Ehsan Yarshater. Jean Kellens (Book of scriptures), the sixth of the seven Gaƒic nasks (Ga@sa@n^g) of the Sasanian Avesta, according to the De@nkard (8.45.1). The summary of it given in the De@nkard is, however, too brief, and also too vague and too abstract to provide a clear idea of its original content. It is said to have consisted of 3 divisions containing 133 sections, the first one containing 13 sections, the second 102, the third 19 (which actually makes 134 sections), and to have started with commentaries on the recitation of the prayer Ahura vairiia (see AHUNVAR). ... Ernst Badian (Publius Aelius Hadrianus), born 76 C.E. of an eminent family of Italian colonists at Italica (near Seville); Roman emperor 117-38. Trajan, a cousin of his father, became one of his guardians and looked after his education and career. He was military tribune and quaestor under Trajan, married a great-niece of his, and served with distinction in his Dacian Wars. After a provincial command and a consulship (108), he joined Trajan's staff in the Parthian War and was left at Antioch as governor of Syria when Trajan set out for Rome. ... Hamid Algar (b. 1276/1859, d. 17 D¨u÷l-qa¿da 1355/30 January 1937), an influential "source of emulation" (marja¿-e taqlid) as well as founder of the institution of religious teaching and guidance (Háawza-ye ¿elmiya) in Qom, an achievement qualifying him as a major figure in the 20th-century history of Iran. Despite his close, indeed defining, relationship with Qom, Shaikh ¿Abd-al-Karim chose always to designate himself as H®a@÷eri in order to reflect his devotion to Karbala@÷ and Imam H®osayn (al-háa@÷er, "the place of safety" or "the orchard," being an epithet of Karbala@÷). ... Ehsan Yarshater i.AN OVERVIEW Hafez is the most popular of Persian poets. If a book of poetry is to be found in a Persian home, it is likely to be the Diva@n (collected poems) of Hafez. Many of his lines have become proverbial sayings, and there are few who cannot recite some of his lyrics, partially or totally, by heart. His Diva@n is widely used in bibliomancy (fa@l; see FAÚL-NAÚMAHAÚ; DIVINATION); stories abound about his inspired predictions, justified by his popular sobriquet, lesa@n-al-g@ayb, the Tongue of the Unseen. ... Baha÷-al-Din Khorramshahi and EIr. ii.HAFEZ'S LIFE AND TIMES K¨úa@ja ˆams-al-Din Moháammad ˆira@zi (b. Shiraz ca. 715/1315; d. Shiraz ca. 792/1390) is one of the greatest poets of Persia with perhaps a more profound effect on Persian life and culture in general than any other, not excepting such great figures as Ferdowsi, Sa¿di, and Rumi. But in spite of this enormous popularity and influence on Persian culture, details of his life are extremely sketchy, and the brief references in tadòkeras (anthologies with biographical sketches of the poets cited) are often unreliable or even purely fictitious (Browne, Lit. ... J. T. P. De Bruijn iii.HAFEZ'S POETIC ART The text of the Diva@n. Perhaps the greatest progress in research on Hafez during the past century has been made in the domain of philology. Critical editions have been published which begin to provide a reliable basis for the study of Hafez's poetry. This is not to say, however, that a textus receptus of his diva@n, or collected poems, is available; on the contrary, intensive investigation of the manuscript sources has revealed many discrepancies among the oldest documents, dating from the first half of the 9th/15th century, which make it difficult, if not impossible, to posit the existence of a single, definitive original. ... D. Meneghini Correale iv.LEXICAL STRUCTURE OF HAFEZ'S GHAZALS In describing the lexical structure of Hafez's ghazals, we must consider three main problems. First, the quantitative valuation may vary, depending on the edition of the ghazals used or of the manuscript(s) chosen for the scrutiny. Second, the data resulting from lexical processing are strongly conditioned by the lexicological choices in singling out tokens, types and lemmas. (By "lemma" we mean the lexical item corresponding to the headword found in Dehkòoda@'s Log@at-na@ma; by "token" we mean any occurrence of a form of a lemma; by "type" we mean any different form a lemma may take according to infl;ectional or phono-morphological variants. ... Julie Scott Meisami v.MANUSCRIPTS OF HAFEZ A major concern of 20th-century Hafez scholarship has been the establishment of a reliable text of his poems. While the texts of other poets have also been the subject of critical inquiry and debate, the case of Hafez seems exceptional. This may be partly because his relatively small poetic output appears more susceptible to control than a large diva@n or a lengthy narrative mat¯nawi, partly because many manuscripts exist that were produced close to the poet's own time, and partly because the density of Hafez's poetic language inspires a demand for accurate readings; but it also refl;ects the poet's iconic status as a symbol of Persian cultural and literary identity. ... Baha÷-al-Din Khorramshahi and EIr. vi.PRINTED EDITIONS OF THE DIVAÚN OF HAFEZ Printed editions of Hafez's poems include partial and complete collections, non-critical and critical editions, in lithographic, calligraphic, facsimile, and typeset formats. Nikna@m's bibliography mentions over 300 printed editions (pp. 1-30), Ra@dfar's lists 225 printed editions (pp. 247-63). Since the publication of these two bibliographies, in 1988 and 1989 respectively, there have been many more editions. Only those editions of particular significance will be discussed here. ... Franklin Lewis vii.HAFEZ AND ¿ERFAÚN. See Supplement. Franklin Lewis ix.HAFEZ AND MUSIC Sound patterning and extra-prosodic sonority. The poetics of Hafez, perhaps more so than many Persian poets, depends on a sensuality of language and imagery. Smell, taste, texture, color and certainly sound imagery abound, often mixing synaesthetically. Enchanting music, bewitching beauty, intoxicating fragrance and delectable savor, even when not explicitly invoked, are often implied by the setting of the ghazals—the real or stylized wine symposium, with its locus classicus in Athens, its establishment in Persia during the Hellenistic period and its later development in the kòamriya@t of the Islamic tradition. ... (ca. 715-792/1315-1390), celebrated Persian lyric poet. i. An Overview. ii. Hafez's life and times. iii. Hafez's poetic art. iv. Lexical structure of Hafez's ghazals. v. Manuscripts of Hafez. vi. Printed editions of the diva@n of Hafez. vii. Hafez and ¿erfa@n. See Supplement. viii. Hafez and rendi. ix. Hafez and music. x. Translations of Hafez in English. xi. Translations of Hafez in German. xii. Hafez and the visual arts. xiii. Fa@l-e H®a@fezá. See FAÚL-NAÚMAHAÚ; DIVINATION. ... Parvin Loloi x.TRANSLATIONS OF HAFEZ IN ENGLISH The first poem by Hafez to appear in English was the work of Sir William Jones (q.v.; 1746-94). His translation of the "Tork-e æ^ra@z^" ghazal (q.v.), both in prose and verse, as a "Persian Song" (Jones 1771, pp. 135-40), set a precedent for later translators. The rest of the 18th century produced very little, though the translation by John Nott (1751-1825) is worthy of note. Since the beginning of the 19th century, however, Hafez has become the most translated of the Persian poets. ... Hamid Tafazoli xi.TRANSLATIONS OF HAFEZ IN GERMAN The name of Hafez is closely associated with that of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (q.v.) in German literature. This is directly attributable to the status Goethe accords Hafez in his West-östlicher Divan, first published in 1819 (Tafazoli, 2000, p. 88ff.). It is because of Goethe's work that since the early 19th century the Di-va@n of Hafez has been an important source within the framework of "international literature," and that there have been so many scholarly studies of the poetry of Hafez published in Europe. ... Priscilla Soucek xii.HAFEZ AND THE VISUAL ARTS The extensive scholarship devoted to the poetry of Hafez has not yet extended to a systematic consideration of the impact of his Diva@n on the visual arts. Manuscripts of his poetry have been considered primarily as sources for textual criticism but those same manuscripts could yield information about the ways his verses were understood and used in various places and periods. Even the manuscripts' chronological and geographical distribution could provide an index for the extent and growth of his popularity. ... Kuros Kamali Sarvestani xiii.FAÚL-E H®AÚFEZá. SEE FAÚL-NAÚMAHAÚ; DIVINATION. Maria Eva Subtelny and Charles Melville Timurid historian known by this laqab, whose full name was ¿Abd-Alla@h (or Nur-Alla@h) b. LotÂf-Alla@h b. ¿Abd-al-Raæid Behda@dini (also K¨úa@fi or Haravi; d. ˆawwa@l 833/June 1430). He was the author of many historical and historico-geographical works in Persian, which were commissioned by ˆa@hrokò, the Timurid ruler of Herat during the first decades of the 15th century, and he remains the earliest Timurid historian from eastern Persia whose works have survived. ... Tahsin Yazécé , scholar of religion and author (d. 957/1550). He was born at an unknown date at Barda¿a in the Caucasus to a father whose name is varyingly given as Ahámad and ¿AÚdel. After completing the major part of his education in his hometown, he came to Tabriz for further studies with a certain Mazid. He left Tabriz, however, for Istanbul after the Safavid Shah Esma@¿il I's conquest of the city, and there he entered the services of Mo÷ayyadza@da ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n Efendi, who was impressed by the breadth of his knowledge. ... Parviz Mohebbi , known as Mokòtare¿ (inventor), was a 9th-10th/15th-16th century engineer who left a treaty, Se resa@la dar ekòtera@¿a@t-e sáan¿ati. According to this treaty, he was the author of 14 inventions but unfortunately only three of his works are described in detail, while the others are mentioned only in passing. Among them is a house security lock designed in 888/1483, a paper-smoother device made in 912/1506, a hydraulic machine to card cotton, a mechanical device to produce an ink of a higher quality, a device that catches a thief and holds him until the arrival of the proprietor, two different time-keepers, a special water elevator wheel, and other non-mechanical inventions. ... A. Shapur Shahbazi ,the heptad and its cultural significance in Persian history. The number has been explained as the symbolic expression of a distinct culture and "the direct evidence" for its character (Leo Frobenius, apud Kirfel, p. 237). Among the Indo-European people, the number three seems to have been the most ancient of the sanctified numbers (Usener, Dume‚zil), followed by nine (Schroder and Nahring, II, pp. 678-79; Keith, pp. 409-13). For the Aryans of India and Iran, three, five, and seven had primary connotations (Keith, pp. ... Antonio Panaino , or simply Haf-t@an yaæt (Panaino, 1994, p. 168), the second hymn of the Avestan corpus. It is dedicated to the seven Zoroastrian entities (see AM‰ˆA SP‰NTA) and recited on the first seven days of the month (see CALENDARS i, pp. 660-63; Narten, pp. 9-10, 24). The text is a later compilation with respect to the so-called Great Yaæts, and in particular belongs to a special subgroup of hymns (2-4) that probably were not transmitted in the Bag@an yaæt nask (q.v.), from which derive many of the extant hymns; in fact a Persian Rev@ayat (West, p. ... . See HAFT KEˆVAR. Olga M. Davidson , the title of two famous episodes in Ferdowsi's ˆa@h-na@ma, the Haft K¨úa@n-e Rostam, and the Haft K¨úa@n-e Esfandia@r, describing seven exploits that each hero had to undertake before reaching his ultimate goal. The orthography of the word kòúa@n or kòa@n, and the structural parallels between the two episodes, have instigated debates among scholars in the past two centuries. These theories are of more than purely historical interest for they shed considerable light on the composition and function of both episodes within the framework of the Book of Kings as a whole. ... A. Shapur Shahbazi , the usual geographical division of the world in Iranian tradition. Ancient Iranians, who may have believed in a tripartite division of the earth (see IRAJ), developed an orderly picture of the world, envisioned as vast and round and encircled by a high mountain (hara@ b™r™zait^, see ALBORZ). According to this tradition, the world was divided into seven (circular) regions (karævar < karæ- 'to plough'; AirWb., cols. 458, 459, hence a tract of land bordered by a ploughed line, see Pur(-e) Da@wud, 1974, p. ... Ameneh Youssefzadeh , the seven musical systems or modes attributed by Abu Mansáur T¨a¿a@leb^ (GÚorar, p. 698) to Ba@rbad (q.v.), the famous court musician of the Sasanian king K¨osrow II Parve@z (r. 590-628). They were sung in royal banquets during the lifetime of T¯a¿a@lebi. Haft K¨osrava@ni seems to be what Abu'l-H®asan ¿Ali Mas¿u@d^ called the royal modes (al-táoruq al-molukiya) created by Persians. Mas¿udi, writing on the authority of Ebn K¨orda@dbeh, described seven of them, although he gave only the name of six (Moruj, ed. ... . See BAKòTIAÚRI TRIBE François de Blois , a famous romantic epic by Nezami of Ganja (Nez®a@mi Ganjavi) from the last decade of the 6th/12th century. The title can be translated literally as "seven portraits," but also with the figurative meaning of "seven beauties." Both translations are meaningful and the poet doubtless exploited intentionally the ambiguity of the words. A. Shapur Shahbazi , denoting 'seven items beginning with the letter sin (S)', is one of the components of the rituals of the New Year's Day festival (see NOWRUZ) observed by most Iranians. The items are traditionally displayed on the Sofra-ye haft sin (Masse‚, Croyances, pp. 156-57; Enjavi, I, pp. 87-105; Honari, pp. 30-33, 132-35; GÚaravi; Bolu@kba@æi, pp. 8-9; ˆakurza@da, pp. 62-64, 98-102; S®afi-ne‘a@d, pp. 404, 434-35). This is a dining cloth (sofra) that every household spreads out on the floor (or on a table) in a room normally reserved for entertaining guests, and places upon it the following items. ... Ezat O. Negahban , an archaeological site in K¨u@zesta@n province, in the southwestern alluvial plains of Persia, about 10 km southeast of Susa and 60 km south of And^meæk (PLATE I). This large Elamite site (see ELAM), composed of many individual mounds, forms an imposing mass rising about the surrounding plain. The ancient remains of Haft Tepe have long been a prominent feature of the flat K¨u@zesta@n plain. The number seven, haft in Haft Tepe, the "Seven Mounds," is used loosely to indicate the number of mounds in this large archaeological complex. ... EIr. The use of the seven-day week of Mesopotamian origin (Colson) did not fit in with the Zoroastrian calendar of Pre-Islamic Iran because this had twelve months of thirty days each, each day being dedicated to a specific divinity and named after it (see CALENDAR i.). However, there are indications that the notion of the week was known among Sasanian intellectuals. Thus, the seven "royal airs" (kòosrowa@ni) were each sung on a specific day of the week; and the playing of backgammon was devised using a scheme reflecting hours of the day and night, seven days of the week and twelve month of the year. ... Mansour Shaki ,traditional reading of the name of a legendary warlord in southern Persia, mentioned in the Ka@r-na@mag ^ Ardaæ^r ^ Pa@baga@n (The exploits of Ardaæ^r son of Pa@bag) and as Haftva@d (q.v.) in the ˆa@h-na@ma. In the Ka@r-na@mag, in a demoniacal romance derived from national traditions, he is involved in an ancient motive, the combat of a dragon with a national hero, in this case, Ardaæ^r I, son of Pa@bag, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty (Christensen, p. ... Charles Burney , one of the three largest settlement mounds in the Urmia basin, Azerbaijan, covering fifty acres and not far from the village of Haftava@n, itself barely two miles from the district town of Salma@s (known as ˆa@hpur under the Pahlavi dynasty) near Khoy. This mound was chosen for a first season of excava-tions in 1968, with subsequent seasons in 1969, 1971, 1973, 1975, and 1978; the University of Manchester was the principal sponsor, the director was Charles Allan Burney. Antonio Panaino ,the circumpolar constellation Ursa Major (UMa) was already known in Young Avestan literature under the appellative of hapt@oirinága- (only pl. with star-, m., "star"), a Bahuvr^hi compound (Duchesne-Guillemin, p. 177, 215) probably signifying "having seven signs", as assumed by Bartholomae (col. 1767; cf. Justi, p. 320; out of date Spiegel, p. 533) with reference to Skt. linµga- ("mark, spot, sign" etc.). Although Filliozat (p. 326) contested this comparison because linµga- is attested only in Classical Skt. ... .See JAÚMI A. Shapur Shahbazi , the hero of a legend associated with the rise of the Sasanian Ardaæir I (r. 224-39). The ˆa@h-na@ma (ed. Moscow, VII, pp. 139-54) gives his "strange story" (da@sta@n-e æegeft) as follows. In the city of Koja@ra@n on the coast of the Persian Gulf, there lived a man of meager means who "was called Haftva@d because he had seven (haft) sons" (p. 140 v. 510). He also had a daughter who went daily to the field with other women to gather cotton and spin it at home into yarn. ... Jürgen Paul in Persia and Central Asia. Hagiographic literature may be defined broadly as a biographical genre devoted to individuals enjoying an exclusive religious status as "saints" or "holy men" in the eyes of the authors. There is therefore a considerable overlap with other genres of biography. Since it is generally accepted that the biographies of the Prophet Moháammad and the Shi¿ite Imams represent dis-tinct genres, this article will focus instead on the hagiographic literature produced in the Sufi tradition about the Muslim equivalent of saints, the awlia@÷ (q. ... .See HAMADAÚN. Hossein Amanat ,a port city in northwestern Israel and the site of a number of significant Bahai holy plates, administrative buildings, and historical monuments. Bahais consider it their most sacred location after the shrine of Mirza@ H®osayn-¿Ali Nuri Baha@÷-Alla@h (d. 1892; q.v.), the prophet of the Bahai faith (q.v.), situated across the bay in nearby ¿Akka@ (Acre; Shoghi Effendi, 1945, p. 92). The history of the Iranian Bahai Community on Mount Carmel may be traced back to 1868, when the Ottoman Sultan ¿Abd-al-¿Aziz (r. ... Amnon Netzer , generally known as Monsieur H®aim or Mister H®aim, journalist and Majles deputy (b. Ker-ma@næa@h, 1891; executed Tehran, Dec. 15, 1931). He studied at the Protestant missionary school in Kerma@næa@h until 1904, when he moved to the Alliance school founded in that year (see ALLIANCE). He acquired a thorough command of English and French, although he apparently did not complete high school. Amnon Netzer , eminent Jewish scholar (b. Tehran, 1872; d. Tehran, 1942). Moreh and his younger sister Mandana were the children of Mordechai ben Eliyahu from Shiraz and Rachel (Ra@háel) the daughter of Ya@dega@r from Isfahan. Moreh lost the sight of both eyes at the age of two as the result of a serious illness. When he was just seven his father died, and he was raised mainly in the home of his maternal grandfather, Ya@dega@r ben Shlomo Esáfaha@ni, and studied at the Beit Midrash of Rabbi El'azar Melammed of Yazd. ... Amnon Netzer , outstanding twentieth-century lexicographer (b. Tehran, 1886; d. Tehran, 1970). His father, Háaim Esháa@q, was a quilt-maker by profession; both he and Solayma@n's mother, K¨a@nom, were born in Shiraz and had migrated to Tehran. Solayma@n Háaim received his elementary schooling at a traditional primary school (maktab) and then at the Christian missionary school Nur, which was run by the Mirza@ Nur-Alla@h family, Jews who had converted to Christianity. Solayma@n Háaim later attended the American College directed by Dr. ... .See BAHRAIN. .See ˆARAFKANDI, ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN. C. Edmund Bosworth i.IN THE MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC PERIOD The office of háa@jeb, implying military command, appears in the Iranian world with the Samanids, where it probably grew out of the amir's domestic household, in which the háa@jeb had had duties similar to those of the Umayyad and Abbasid háa@jebs or doorkeepers/chamberlains. The office of chief háa@jeb of the Samanids (al-háa@jeb al-kabir, háa@jeb al-háojja@b, háa@jeb-e bozorg) was in the 10th century held by the leader of the amir's Turkish g@ola@ms (q. ... Rudi Matthee ii.IN THE SAFAVID AND QAJAR PERIODS In the Safavid period the háa@jeb, the major domo or master of ceremony, was called the iæik-@a@qa@si-ba@æi, literally 'head of the masters of the threshold'. The name change is explicitly mentioned by Mirza@ Beg Jona@ba@di (p. 730), who for the year 1001/1592-93 claims that Mahdiqoli Khan ˆa@mlu was elevated to the position of "háeja@bat and sáa@háeb-diva@ni, which, according to Turkish usage, they call iæik-a@qa@si. ... ,an administrative and then military office in the pre-modern Iranian world. Pierre Oberling a Turkic tribe of Persian Azerbaijan. Its main branch lives north of Varzaqa@n and Ahar, in Qara@jada@g@ (Arasba@ra@n); another branch dwells in the vicinity of Mara@g@a. In 1960, both branches were still nomadic. The summer quarters of the Háa@ji ¿Alilu of Qara@jada@g@ were in the subdistricts (dehesta@n) of Dezma@r and Uzumdel; their winter quarters were in the subdistricts of Keyva@n and Garma@duz. The summer quarters of the Háa@ji ¿Alilu of Mara@g@a were in the Kuh-e Sahand; their winter quarters were on the eastern shores of Lake Urmia, from Goga@n (northwest of Azaræahr) to the delta of the Jag@atu/ Zarrinarud River. ... F. Farzaneh , a satirical novella by S®a@deq Heda@yat, published for the first time in the journal Sokòan in 1945 under the pen name "Ha@di S®ada@qat," followed by a second edition in 1952. One of Heda@yat's most popular works in Persia, H®a@ji AÚqa@ lacks a substantial plot, being instead a sardonic composite portrait of an ambitious, ill-educated, falsely pious, unscrupulous and self-important merchant, and is thus comparable with "Rajol-e sia@si" (a "Political figure") described by Moháammad-¿Ali Jama@l-za@da in his Yak-i bud o yak-i nabud. ... Nasseredin Parvin , a satirical and politically critical newspaper, published in Tehran between 12 Mehr 1328 ˆ./4 October 1949 and 28 Morda@d 1332 ˆ./19 August 1953, in 173 weekly issues. Owing to censorship, Issues 140 to 145 were published under the name AÚqa@ Ba@ba@. Anna Vanzan , son of an officer in the army of the Crown Prince ¿Abba@s Mirza@ (q.v.) and one of the first Persian students sent to study in Europe. H®a@ji Ba@ba@, together with Moháammad Ka@záem, the son of the same prince's court painter, left home in the company of the British envoy to Persia, Sir Harford Jones, and arrived in London in October 1811 (Wright, p. 70). . See HAJJI BABA OF ISPAHAN. Mahmoud Omidsalar , the most famous among the traditional folk entertainers, who appears in the Persian streets in the days preceding Nowruz. The H®a@ji Firuz entertains passers-by by singing traditional songs and dancing and playing his tambourine for a few coins. He rarely knocks on a door, but begins his performance as soon as the door is opened. See AÚQAÚSI, H®AÚJI MIRZAÚ. , mosque of. See ISFAHAN, MONUMENTS. Anna Vanzan , Persian traveler (b. between 1835 and 1840 in Na@÷in, d. March 1904). H®a@ji Pirza@da, who came from a Sufi family, moved to Tehran where he became a disciple of the Ne¿mat-Alla@hi (q.v.) Shaikh H®a@ji Mirza@ Sáafa@, with whom he traveled to Istanbul in 1858 (Fragner, p. 45). In the Ottoman capital, H®a@ji Pirza@da enjoyed the protection of the Iranian ambassador H®osayn Khan Moæir-al-Dowla, who introduced him to the major personalities in international diplomatic circles. ... Hossein Kamaly , epithet for H®osaynqoli Khan Mo¿tamed-al-Weza@ra (later Sáadr-al-SaltÂana; b. Tehran 1265/1849, d. Tehran 1316 ˆ./1937), Persia's first ambassador to the United States (1888–89). He was the seventh son of the ignominiously ousted Grand Vizier (S®adr-e a¿záam), Mirza@ AÚqa@ Khan Nuri, E¿tema@d-al–Dawla (q.v.), and consequently spent his adolescent years (1275–81/1858-64) exiled from Tehran. His family received permission to return to the capital only after his father had died in Qom (Eqba@l, p. ... Philippe Gignoux i.THE INSCRIPTIONS The Hajiabad Inscriptions were discovered by Robert Ker Porter at H®a@jia@ba@d in 1818 in a grotto a few kilometers north of Persepolis, at a place called ˆaykò ¿Ali or Tang-e ˆa@h Sarva@n, opposite the village of H®a@jia@ba@d that gave these texts their name. Following several attempts at deciphering them, it was not until a century later that Ernst Herzfeld (1924) provided a transcription of them in his edition of the Paikuli inscription, and not until 1945 that Henrik Samuel Nyberg for the first time provided a complete edition of both the Parthian and Middle Persian versions. ... EIr. ii.THE TEXTS "This (is) the bowshot of me, the Mazda-worshipping god Shapur, king of kings of Eran and Non-Eran, whose descent (is) from the gods, son of the Mazda-worshipping god Ardashir, king of kings of Eran, whose descent (is) from the gods, grandson of the god Papak, king. And when we shot this arrow, then we shot it before the kings and princes and magnates and nobles. And we put (our) foot in this cleft [on this rock] and we cast the arrow beyond that cairn. But that place [there] where the arrow was cast [fell], there the place was not such [was not that kind of place] that, if a cairn had been erected, it would have been visible outside. ... , bilingual inscription of ˆa@pur I on the wall of H®a@jia@ba@d cave near Persepolis. Bruno Nettl ,a guæa (q.v.), or subdivision of a mode in the canonic repertory (radif) of Persian classical music. Its principal home is the mode (dastg@ah) of Daæti (q.v.), one of the derivatives (nag@ma) of the mode of ˆur. H®a@jia@ni occupies an important role among the five or six guæas that comprise Daæti. The origin of the name is unclear, but as the mode of Daæti is often associated with rural folk tunes of Persia, H®a@jia@ni may conceivably be derived from the concept of pilgrimage, and thus from melodies sung (or thought to be sung) by pilgrims. ... .See PILGRIMAGE. (b. Maháalla@t, ca. 1252/1836, d. Tehran, 3 Mehr 1304 ˆ./25 September 1925), the first Iranian-American, a world traveler, constitutionalist and human rights activist. Ali Ferdowsi gozlu),Tehran, 1975. ¿Ali Ferdowsi, "Dur az to nist andiæa-am: Ba@zgaætegi wa a@ga@hi-e novin-e melli dar K¨a@tÂera@t-e H®a@jj Sayya@há," Barrasi-e keta@b 14, 1993, pp. 1467-86. Idem, "Eating Corpse: The Deplorable Asylum of Hajj Sayyah at the US Legation in Tehran," Annales of the Japan Association for Middle East Studies 11, 1996a, pp. 251-86. Idem, "Perpetual Return to a Vanishing Homeland," The Literary Review 40/1, Fall 1996b, pp. 14-41. ... . See Supplement. Abbas Amanat , hero of The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan by James Justinian Morier (3 vols., London, 1824), the most popular Oriental novel in the English language and a highly influential stereotype of the so-called "Persian national character" in modern times. Morier (1782-1849), a former diplomat who had resided in Persia for nearly six years (1808-1809 and 1810-1814) at a critical juncture during diplomatic entanglements with European powers, fashioned his novel on his personal observations and direct knowledge about Persia, but with a decidedly hostile and satirical overtone. ... J. T. P. De Bruijn and its synonym heja@ are two of the many terms which denote types of humorous writing or light verse in Persian (cf. the list of more than two hundred items drawn up by Háalabi, pp. 97-180, and the article HUMOR). The wide range of meaning attached to the word "satire," which in English is the nearest equivalent of hajw, requires a further specification to assign hajw its proper place within the wider areas of Persian humorous literature. Its special meaning was determined to a large extent by its history. ... Mohammad-Mahdi Khalaji (b. Yazd, ca.1264/1848, d. Qom, 1344/1925-6), philosopher and theosopher, known in his lifetime as H®akim but later referred to as H®akami. He received his primary education in Yazd, then migrated to Isfahan, where he lived for the next forty years. It was here that he carried out his later studies and research. He studied philosophy and theosophy (¿erfa@n) under Jaha@ngir Khan Qaæqa@÷i and AÚqa@ Moháammad-Rezµa@ Qomeæa÷i (Kamara÷i in H®akami, Rasa@÷el, p. ... .See ADMINISTRATION. Farhad Daftary , ABU ¿ALI MANSáUR, the sixth Fatimid caliph and sixteenth Isma¿ili Imam (r. 386-411/996-1021). Born in 375/985, Abu ¿Ali Mansáur succeeded his father ¿Aziz (r. 365-86/975-96) at the age of eleven on 28 Ramazµa@n 386/14 October 996 with the caliphal title of al-H®a@kem be-Amr-Alla@h. The first Fatimid ruler to have been born in Egypt, H®a@kem had been proclaimed as heir-apparent (wali al-¿ahd) in 383/993, on the death of his elder (and sole) brother, Moháammad. ... Devin DeWeese , a Central Asian Sufi associated with the earliest phase of the Yasavi tradition, whose full identity is not known for certain; he is usually named as a direct disciple of Ahámad Yasavi, and would therefore have lived in the early 13th century (the date 582/1186-87 mentioned for his death, evidently for the first time in the 19th-century work K¨azinat al-asáfia@ [lith., p. 534], seems not to have been based on any reliable information). Early references to H®akim Ata@ are sparse; he seems to have been first mentioned in the earliest biography of Baha@÷-al-Din Naqæband, the Anis al-tÂa@lebin, which was composed at the very beginning of the fifteenth century, in connection with a dream of Baha@÷-al-Din that was interpreted as predicting his association with the "maæa@÷ekò-e tork" (Bokòa@ri, p. ... Bernd Radtke , a prolific mystic author, many of whose writings have survived (b. Termedò, ca. 205-215/820-830, d. Termedò, ca. 295-300/907-12). He is perhaps most accurately described as a theosophist, combining expertise in Islamic theology, jurisprudence and Hadith with a method of introspection (¿elm al-ba@táen) and diffuse gnostic speculations. A particular anthropology and cosmology emerges from his works. In addition to influences from earlier mystics, especially H®a@ret¯ Moháa@-sebi, he adopts certain Shi¿ite ideas without, however, necessarily becoming a Shi¿ite himself. ... Abbas Milani and EIr. (b. Tabriz, 1288/1871 [1286 in ¿AÚqeli, p. 589, is incorrect]; d. Tehran, 27 Mehr 1338 ˆ./19 October 1959, S®adiq, II, p. 210 [28 Oct. acc. to Hakimi, 2000]), Persian statesman. He was three times prime minister (nakòost wazir), four times minister of finance (wazir-e ma@lia/da@ra@÷i), eight times minister of education (wazir-e ¿olum wa awqa@f wa sáana@ye¿-e mostazárafa), twice minister of court (wazir-e darba@r), minister of justice (wazir-e da@d-gostari), minister of foreign affairs (wazir-e omur-e kòa@reja), minister without portfolio (wazir-e moæa@wer), court physician, and a member of the Banking High Council (ˆura@-ye ¿a@li-e ba@nk). ... Jean During (lit. condition, state). In its general sense, háa@l refers to a modality of the instant, and in its particular sense, to the physical, spiritual, or emotional state of a person. It is also an essential notion in Persian arts and especially Persian music, which is supposed to bring about a meditative state (háa@l) in the artist as well as in the audience. A minimal esthetical definition of háa@l may simply be "momentary modification of the state of consciousness," "getting out of the normal state" in the sense of valorization. ... Etan Kohlberg (b. Aleppo, 374/984-85, d. Moháarram 447/April 1055), Imami jurist and theologian. He traveled three times to Iraq and studied with ¿Alam-al-Hoda@ ˆarif Mortazµa@ (q.v.) and Abu Ja¿far Moháammad T®usi. He is referred to as Mortazµa@'s successor (kòalifa) in scholarship (ˆahid I, p. 198) and as his deputy (kòalifa) in Aleppo (ˆahid-e T¨a@ni, p. 158). While adopting many of Mortazµa@'s theological positions, he disagreed with him on some legal issues (cf. ... Mahmoud Sadri (b. Maæhad, 13 Rajab 1318/6 November 1900; d. Tehran, 26 Dey 1377/16 January 1998), a charismatic cleric and the founder of H®ojjatiya Association (Anjoman-e H®ojjatiya; q.v.). Shaikh Mah®mud H®alabi K¨ora@sa@ni was born in Maæhad to GÚola@m-Rezµa@, who descended from a clerical family but made his living as a maker of tin samovars, hence his reputation as "H®alabi-sa@z" (tinsmith). He was also a devotee of the Third Imam, H®osayn b. ... Dana al-Sajdi , a pair of Islamic legal terms: háala@l meaning permissible, and háara@m meaning prohibited. Both terms occur in the Koran numerous times (¿Abd-al-Ba@qi, pp. 197-99 and 215-16). In Islamic legal theory, there are two sets of rules that categorize human acts and transactions, known collectively as al-aháka@m al-æar¿iya. The first set, known as al-aháka@m al-wazµ¿iya, or declaratory rules, constitutes the scale of validity or nullity of an act or transaction. ... Huæang EtteháaÚd (b. Tehran, ca. 1298/1919 [1912/1913 in most sources, see H®a@lat, in Farajia@n and Najafza@da, p. 212]; d. Tehran, 3 AÚba@n 1371 ˆ./23 No-vember 1992), poet, writer, translator, songwriter, and scholar. He received all his formal education in Tehran and was a graduate of the University of Tehran with a B.A. in literature. He was initially interested in music and painting, but his father, Karbala@÷i Moháammad-Taqi, prevented him from pursuing the arts. His career as a poet began in 1935 and received encouragement when he joined the literary society, Anjoman-e adabi-e Ira@n. ... . See Supplement. Bruno Genito ,ancient town of Caria, near the present-day city of Bodrum, once seat of a kingdom which was a tributary of Persia. It was located on the Aegean Sea, in southwestern Turkey, in an inlet of the peninsula between the Sinus Iassicus and the Sinus Ceramicus. The famous historians Herodotus and Dionysius were born there. It was a colony of the Dorians of Trezenes and constituted the capital of the Dorian Esapolis, minting coins from the 6th century B.C.E. up to the time of the Emperor Gordianus (238-44 C.E.). Lost by Athens during the Peloponnesian War, the town was taken back by Trasibulus in 389 B. ... M. H. Ganji , river in the Jiroft and Kahnuj dis-tricts of Kerman Province in southeastern Iran, which stretches a total length of 390 km at an average gradi-ent of 0.8 percent. It originates at an elevation of about 3,300 m, from the Haza@r mountains in the borough of Sar-Maæk about 96 km northwest of Jiroft. At first it flows in a southwestern direction into the borough of Bahr-AÚsma@n, where it is joined by Ruda@r and Ra@bar, after which it runs south along the foothills of Bahr-AÚsma@n to the village of Bani-Sukòta, where its waters are mixed with those of ˆasát-Fi± and Gorda@n. ... Etrat Elahi ,a traditional Persian breakfast dish for the winter, now served at lunch and dinner as well, made with lamb and wheat. It is usually seasoned with salt, pepper and cinnamon, and sweetened with sugar or honey. Tahsin Yazici , an Ottoman poet and lexicographer of Persian origin (d. 922/1516). It is not clear when and where he was born and educated. Abu'l-Kòayr Ahámad T®a@æ-kupriza@da (p. 386) distinguishes him from another H®alimi of Kastamonu (Gibb, II, p. 267, n. 2). ¿AÚæeq Ùelebi, (fol. 89a) records that he came from Persia and through the efforts of Mahámud Pasha (Ottoman grand vizier in the years 1453-67), he became a judge and a leading figure. According to Mehmed Süreyya (II, p. ... Jawid Mojaddedi , popularly referred to in Persian literature as "Mansáur-e H®alla@j," controversial Arabic-speaking mystic from Fa@rs, whose execution has been considered a major turning-point in the history of Islamic mysticism (b. T®ur, Fa@rs Province, ca. 244/857, d. Baghdad, 309/922). H®alla@j has become one of the best known Sufis of his generation to western readers through the pioneering studies of Louis Massignon (1883-1962). Massignon devoted his academic career to pursuing his deep, personal interest in H®alla@j, completing the edition of manuscripts of his works (see below) as well as numerous studies based on a wide variety of primary sources. ... Charles E. Jones and Matthew W. Stolper (b. Passaic, New Jersey, 5 April 1906, d. Chicago, 20 November 1980), Elamitologist and Assyriologist, whose magnum opus, Persepolis Fortification Tablets, transformed the study of the languages and history of Achaemenid Persia. Etrat Elahi (Ar. háalwa@÷, Pers. háalwa@ Parviz Adòka@÷i and EIr. I.GEOGRAPHY Habibollah Zanjani II.POPULATION This article is divided into two sections: 1) population of Hamada@n province; and 2) population of Hamada@n city. Xavier de Planhol iii.HSTORICAL GEOGRAPHY The city of Hamada@n lies at the extreme northwest of the series of major urban sites stretching along the line of contact between the Zagros range and the central plateau. While travel is easy from the plateau northwards to Qazvin, Zanja@n, and Tabriz, the two routes that lead to Mesopotamia go across the mountains: one to the west toward Kerma@næa@h and Baghdad and another to the south by way of Borujerd and K¨orrama@ba@d toward K¨uzesta@n and the Persian Gulf. ... Abdolhamid Eshragh iv.HAMADAÚN ÚURBAN PLAN Hamada@n is the only city in Persia which has a star-shaped urban design, with six boulevards and a network of avenues autonomously branching out in various directions from the circular city center. This is not unlike the old cities of Firuza@ba@d and Baghdad (qq.v.), although the autonomous branching of the avenues and smaller alleys in Hamada@n does not conform to any pattern (see PLATE I Parviz Adòka@÷i v.HISTORY PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD. See ECBATANA vi. HISTORY ISLAMIC PERIOD Hamada@n was captured by the Arabs after their victory at the battle of Neha@vand, which took place in 19/640, or 21/642 (Táabari, I, p. 2647; T®abari, tr. XIV, p. 17), or 23/643 (Bala@dòori, Fotuhá, p. 309). The date varies according to different sources (see further Frye, p. 105; T®abari, tr. XIV, p. 17, note 90). A Persian general, Kòosrow-ˆonum, (T®abari, tr. XIII, p. 210, note 717) confronted the Arabs at Qasár-e ˆirin, and subsequently withdrew to his base and gave sanctuary to the Persian soldiers fleeing from the battlefield. ... Ali Mousavi and EIr. VII.MONUMENTS The city of Hamada@n, besides its pre-Islamic remains, comprises some important monuments belonging to the Islamic period. Pre-Islamic remains of Hamada@n are located at three different sites: Tappa-ye Hegmata@na, the ˆir-e Sangi area, and the Achaemenid inscriptions of Darius the Great and Xerxes, engraved on the rocks in one of the foothills of the mountain, Alvand Kuh (q.v.) and known as Ganj-na@ma (q.v.). Houman Sarshar VIII.JEWISH COMMUNITY The earliest reference to the Jews in Hamada@n is in The Old Testament, according to which a group of Israelites were brought to the Persian plateau by King Shalmaneser of Assyria in around 722 B.C.E. (2 Kings 18.11) and "settled there in the cities of the Medes." Based on Hamada@n's size and importance as the royal city or the capital of the Medes (Dandamaev and Lukonin, p. 48), it is reasonable to assume that many of these Jews settled there, making Hamada@n's Jewish community the oldest outside Israel. ... Donald Stilo IX.JEWISH DIALECT Introduction. The dialect spoken by the Jews of Hamada@n (henceforth HJ) and a close variant spoken by the Jews of Tuyserka@n (TJ; see Affiliations and Variants below) belong to the Central Plateau Dialect (CPD) group of Northwestern Iranian languages (NWI), as opposed to Southwestern Iranian (SWI; e.g., Persian). The sources used for this description are abbreviated as follows: Abrahamian (AB), and Yarshater (YS). ,Province, governorship, and city located in the Zagros region of western Persia. i. Geography. ii. Population. iii. Historical geography. iv. Urban plan. v. History, pre-Islamic period. See ECBATANA. vi. History, Islamic period. vii. Monuments. viii. Jewish community. ix. Jewish dialect. x. Leather making. See LEATHER MAKING. xi. Ceramics. See CERAMICS QAJAR PERIOD Parviz Adòka@÷i (b. Hamada@n, 12 Rajab 714/1314; d. D¨u'l-háejja 786/1384), Sufi author and preacher who undertook a celebrated mission to convert the people of Kashmir to Islam. He is referred to usually as "Mir Sayyed ¿Ali," but was also known by such honorifics as "Amir Kabir," "¿Ali-e T¨a@ni" and "ˆa@h-e Hamada@ni." His title "Sayyed" implies that he was a descendent of the Prophet, and this was apparently from both sides of his family. His father was one of the notables of Hamada@n, but Mir Sayyed ¿Ali himself acknowledges that the greatest influence on his education and early spiritual development was his maternal uncle, Sayyed ¿Ala@÷-al-Din (Karbala@÷i, pp. ... . See ABU YA¿QUB HAMADAÚNI , See BADI¿-AL-ZAMAÚN HAMADAÚNI Shaul Shaked ,the chief courtier of King Ahasuerus (Xerxes, Xæaya@ræa; q.v.), according to the story of the Book of Esther in the Hebrew Bible. He is portrayed as the villain of the narrative: He took a dislike to Mordecai, who was at the court of the king but did not pay his respects to Haman by bowing to him. In revenge he arranged to have all the Jews in the kingdom killed, and to hang Mordecai. His downfall came as a result of the intervention of Queen Esther, who had been raised by Mordecai, and who got King Ahasuerus to revoke Haman's designs. ... Muhammad A.Dandamayev (*hma@ra-kara-, lit. "account-maker"), "bookkeeper," an Old Iranian title attested in various sources of Achaemenid and later times. It occurs in Babylonian documents in the following spellings: ªammarakara, ammarkarra/ammari(/u)akal. Wolfram von Soden (p. 44) considered these forms as separate words, the latter having the meaning "Proviantmeister" (see, however, Greenfield, p. 181, n. 8). All the individuals who bore this title in cuneiform texts, to judge by their personal names, were Babylonian. It first appears in a document from Babylon drafted during the reign of Darius I (see Eilers, p. ... .See GAÚHAMBAÚR; FRAVARDIGAÚN. Pierre Oberling (from MOH®AMMADVAND), a Kurdish tribe of northeastern Iraq which has been described as "the most celebrated fighting tribe of southern Kurdistan" (Edmonds, pp. 39-40). The H®ama@vand reportedly moved from the Kerma@næa@h region in Persia to the Ba@z-ya@n district, between Kerkuk and Solayma@niya, early in the 18th century (Edmonds, p. 40). According to George Curzon (q.v.), some H®ama@vand remained in the vicinity of Kerma@næa@h (Curzon, I, p. 557), but Hyacinth Rabino does not mention them at all in her detailed list of the tribes of that province. ... Pierre Oberling an Arab tribe of K¨uzesta@n, which claims descent from the large Bani Rabi¿a tribe (Bani T®oraf, p. 47). In the early 1900s, it dwelled mostly in the boluk of H®amayd, on the left bank of the Ka@run river (just south of its juncture with the AÚb-e Dez), its territory stretching from Nadda@fiya on the Ka@run to Rag@eyva, 50 km northwest of Ra@mhormoz. It numbered some 6,000 individuals and comprised the following tiras: ¿Atta@b, ¿Awa@mer, H®awa@la@t, K¨ara@meza, Mayya@há, Nesayla@t, and Sa@¿ed (Lorimer, pp. ... Mary Boyce and F. M. Kotwal ,a Zoroastrian-Persian adjective meaning "of the same strength" (< OP/Av. hama-, AirWb, col. 1773, and OP *zavar-, AirWb, cols 1689-90; Hübschmann, Persische Studien, p. 273). The term occurs only in a formula of greeting: in Irani Zoroastrian usage hama@zo@r be@m "Be we one in strength" (Dastu@r Shehriya@r, p. 305; Boyce, Stronghold, p. 44), and in Parsi usage hama@zo@r hama@ aæo@ be@d "Be ye one in strength, wholly righteous" (Modi, p. 382). By a custom that has died out, this greeting was generally exchanged at Nowruz, accompanied by the giving of hands: two persons, meeting, each took a hand of the other between his own two hands, placed palm to palm (see details in Modi, pp. ... Charles Melville , historian and geographer of the Ilkhanid period (b. Qazvin, ca. 680/1281, d. ca. 744/1344). There is some disagreement over whether his name was H®amd or H®amd-Alla@h (Nava@÷i, intro. to Ta@rikò-e gozida, p. ya@; Homa@yun-Farrokò refers to him as H®omad). His mausoleum still exists in Qazvin. Milferd Madelung , Isma¿ili da@¿i and founder of the Isma¿ili movement in Iraq. He came from a village in the tÂassuj of Ba@daqla@, east of Kufa, and is described as working as a carter when he was converted by the Isma¿ili da@¿i H®osayn Ahva@zi sometime between the years 260/873-74 and 264/877-78. The name Qarmat is variously explained as having been derived from Nabataean "Karmita@" (red-eyed), or as meaning short in stature, short-legged. After the death or departure of Ahva@zi, he became the organizer of the Isma¿ili movement in the sawa@d and soon took up residence in the town of Kalwa@dòa@ south of Baghdad. ... Ansar Zahid Khan , English-language quarterly for Islamic Studies, founded in Pakistan in 1978. It is published by the Hamdard Foundation of Pakistan (est. 1954), patron and supporter of learned bodies, including the Pakistan Historical Society, whose journal it publishes. The Foundation has also published a large number of monographs and research studies, the most recent being a 16-volume commentary on the Koran (Ali, 1990-98) and a biography of the Prophet (Haq, 1997) which won the Government of Pakistan's prize for the best new book on sira in 1998. ... David Pingree , mathematician and astronomer of the late 4th/10th century who, according to Heinrich Suter (p. 74, no. 173), died in around 1000 C.E. His nesba suggests that he originated from K¨ojand (Qojand) in Ferg@a@na, on the Jaxartes (Syr Darya) river in present-day Tajikistan. He is the author of the Keta@b fi ¿amal al-a@la al-¿a@mma, also called Keta@b al-a@la al-æa@mela, in which he presents a description of a "universal" or "comprehensive" observational instrument; however, it could only be used at one latitude. ... Philippe Gignoux ,a word of uncertain etymology, used in Pahlavi literature to designate the intermediate stage between paradise and hell (see below). It is related to the Avestan h™@miiasaite, attested in Yasna 33.1, where, according to Helmut Humbach (I, p. 136, II, p. 93), it means "reckoned together," in a passage referring to the one "whose defects and virtues are counted together" (ham.ya@.saiti). Gert Klingenschmitt (1972) has shown that the expression misuuan- ga@tu- in the Young Avesta should not be confused with hame@staga@n, contrary to Mary Boyce (Zoroastrianism I, p. ... Dabihá-Alla@h Safa@ , known also as Ebn-e Hamgar (hamgar means "weaver"), an important poet of the 7th/13th century (b. Yazd, 607/1210, d. Isfahan, 686/1287). According to the Ta@rikò-e gozida, the Ja@me¿-e mofidi, the H®abib al-siar and other sources, his birthplace was Yazd, but he refers to himself in several places as "Majd-e Pa@rsi": this may be due to the fact that he lived for a long time in Shiraz. His father, Ahámad-e Hamgar of Yazd, was one of the prominent scholars of his time, and, according to Majd's repeated claims, their illustrious lineage could be traced back to the Sasanians. ... Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (d. Delhi, 768/1366), author of K¨ayr al-maja@les, the obiter dicta (malfuzáa@t) of the Ùeæti shaikh Nasáir-al-Din Mahámud Ùera@g@-e Dehli (q.v.). H®amid's father, Ta@j-al-Din of Kilugarhi, got him admitted at a young age into the circle of the disciples of Shaikh Nezáa@m-al-Din Awlia@÷, where he shaved his head and beard, put on saffron clothes, and adopted the antinomian life of a qalandar (carefree, wandering dervish). Farhad Daftary (d. after 411/1020-21), a prominent Isma¿ili da@¿i (q.v.) and one of the most accomplished Isma¿ili theologians and philosophers of the Fatimid period. As in the case of other prominent da@¿is, who observed strict secrecy in their activities while living in hostile milieus, few biographical details are available about him, although it is known that he flourished during the reign of the Fatimid Caliph-Imam al-H®a@kem be-Amr-Alla@h (q.v.; 386-411/996-1021). Kerma@ni is not mentioned in any contemporary Muslim historical sources, but highlights of his life and career can be gathered from his own numerous extant works as well as the writings of the later Mosta¿li-T®ayyebi Isma¿ili authors of Yemen. ... , See Supplement. Tahsin Yazici (or H®a@medi ¿Ajam), a poet of Persian origin (b. Isfahan, 843/1439; d. Bursa, ca. 890/1485) at the court of the Ottoman Sultan Moháammad Fa@tehá (Mehmed the Conquerer). There is no information on his family background. He completed his education in his hometown, and gained recognition as a poet at a young age. Deeming that there was no one in Isfahan worthy of panegyric, he left the city (Diva@n, p. 36). After passing through many cities and residing for a time at the court of the ˆarva@næa@hs (550-958/1155-55), he finally came to Kastamonu and entered the service of its ruler, Esma@¿il. ... Jafar Moayyad Shirazi , poet, man of letters, literary scholar and critic, translator, journalist, and university professor (b. Shiraz, 14 Ordibe-heæt 1293 ˆ./4 May 1914; d. Tehran, 23 Tir 1365 ˆ./14 July 1986). His father, Sayyed Moháammad-H®asan T¨eqat-al-Esla@m, was a member of the first Parliament (Majles) and his mother, Sakina AÚg@a@zi, was a pioneer in the struggle for the promotion of women's education; she was also the founder and principal of the ¿Effatiya School, the first modern school for girls in Shiraz. ... Mary Boyce and Firoze Kotwal ,a Zoroastrian-Persian adjective meaning "of the same word." It is a hybrid compound of Persian ham "together, of the same" (< Av./OP. hama-, see AirWb., col. 1773; Kent, Old Persian, p. 213) and Arabic kala@m "word, speech." It is a priestly technical term used of fully qualified priests who acquire identical ritual power through performing a prescribed act. After solemnizing a yasna (called in Parsi priestly idiom a Mino@ Na@var, see Avesta, tr. Darmesteter, I, p. lxvii; Modi, p. 195), each in his own ritual precinct (pa@vi) performs a dro@n service (q. ... Kara@mat-Alla@h Afsar (bathhouse of the Wakil), a historic monument in Shiraz built by Karim Khan Zand "the Wakil" (r. 1164-93/1751-79) after 1180/1776 (Na@mi, p. 158; GÚaffa@ri, p. 279). It is situated in Meyda@n-e ˆa@h to the west of the Wakil's Mosque (Masjed-e Wakil) and north of a water reservoir (a@b-anba@r, q.v.) known as AÚb-anba@r-e Wakil, from which it is separated by a wide alley. J. T. P. de Bruijn , prolific Austrian Orientalist, among whose many works is the first ever complete translation of the Diva@n of H®a@fezá into a western language (b. Graz, Austria, 9 June 1774, d. Vienna, 23 November 1856). When in 1791 his father Josef Hammer, a steward of crown domains and subsequently of private landed property, was knighted, "von" was added to the family name. His son Joseph became "Freiherr" in 1836, after his admirer Jane Anne Cranstoun, the widow of the last Count von Purgstall, had bequeathed to him her husband's title and arms as well as the estate of Hainfeld near Feldbach in the province of Styria. ... Eckart Ehlers I.GEOGRAPHY The Sista@n basin is the easternmost endorheic basin in Persia, draining a watershed 350,000 km2, of which 26 percent, comprising especially the areas of the western divide, is located in Persia. The depression itself is almost 500 km long from east to west and approximately 300 km from north to south. It consists of a series of desert plateaus surrounded by mountains on all sides. The plateaus are covered by extensive sand dunes in the Rigesta@n desert (see DESERT) in the southeast and elsewhere by vast pebble-strewn daæt (q. ... Gherardo Gnoli II.IN LITERATURE AND MYTHOLOGY In the literature and mythology of ancient Persia Lake Ha@mun occupied, along with the Helmand/Hirmand River, a position of particular importance (Bartholomae, p. 9), especially in Zoroastrian eschatology (Nyberg, pp. 304-5). The Ha@mun is mentioned frequently in the Avesta, where it appears with the name Ka . . . saoya-. In Yaæt 19 (66-69) the xúar™nah- (see FARR) of the Kavis is mentioned in connection with the "Helmandic" Ka . . . saoya (Ka . . . sae@m hae@tumat™m), where nine rivers flow together, and with the mountain Uæ^. ... (Lake Ha@mun, lit. "lake of the plain, lowland"), also called Ha@mun-e Helmand (Av. Hae@tumant- "provided with banks," AirWb., cols. 1728-29; Gk. Etymandros, Pauly Wissowa, VI/1, cols. 806-7), a lake in Sista@n covering the deepest part of the Sista@n depression and the Sista@n watershed. Bernfried Schlerath , Zoroastrian divinity "Victory." Luis H. Gray (Foundations, p. 148) wrote: "Normally the distinctive epithet of AÚxæti, Ha . . . m-vaint^ ('Conquering') is mentioned as a separate war-goddess in Yt. xi, 15; but the text here is doubtful, and the existence of the deity is highly questionable." But the grammatical analysis as abstract noun formed with -t^ and irregular full grade, suggests that it is a personification of the latest layer of the Avestan texts. Ha . . . m.vaint^ is only attested as a companion with AÚxæti "Peace" (AirWb, col. ... C. Edmund Bosworth or Atrak or ¿Abd-Alla@h Abu K¨ozayma, Kharijite rebel in Sista@n and Khorasan during early ¿Abbasid times. He was of dehqa@n (q.v.) stock from southern Afghanistan, to the east of Bost, where there was a long tradition of Kharijite, anti-government activity. His rebellion began in the countryside of Sista@n in 179/795-96 or possibly in the following two years, and was directed not only against the official representatives of the ¿Abbasids but also against rival Kharijite sects. ... Tahsin Yaziçi , Sufi and poet from Azerbaijan, who wrote in both Persian and Turkish (1220 or 1230-1304/1805 or 1815-1886). The sources differ concerning Nega@ri's date and place of birth. After completing his education in the towns of ˆaki and ˆama@kòi in ˆirva@n, Nega@ri set out for Harput in order to join the K¨a@ledi branch of the Naqæbandi Sufi order, which was then spreading rapidly in the Caucasus. From Harput he proceeded to Siva@s, then returned to Qara@ba@g@ with Esma@¿il ˆirva@ni, a successor of Mawla@na@ K¨a@led Bag@da@di, eponym of the Naqæbandiya-K¨a@lediya. ... William L. Hanaway, Jr. I.GENERAL The hero of H®amza-na@ma is H®amza b. ¿Abd-al-MotÂtÂaleb, whose adventures are thought to be a conflation of stories from eastern Persia about H®amza b. ¿Abd-Alla@h Frances W. Pritchett II.IN THE SUBCONTINENT The Indo-Persian romance tradition, extending from the medieval period to the early 20th century, produced prose works of considerable literary and cultural interest, chief among which were many versions of the H®amza romance, as well as an indigenous imitation called Bosta@n-e kòia@l. ,Also known as Qesásáa-ye H®amza, Da@sta@n-e Amir H®amza, and Romuz-e H®amza, a popular prose romance transmitted orally and written down at a time unknown. There also exists a version in verse called S®a@háeb-Qera@n-na@ma (S®afa@, p. 379; Cat. Bibliotheàque Nationale III, p. 394, no. 1905). Merlin Swartz , a school of Sunni jurisprudence named after Abu H®anifa No¿ma@n b. T¨a@bet (q.v.; 80-150/699-767), an early Kufan jurist and theologian of Persian descent. The Hanafite law-school (madòhab) grew out of the ancient "school" of Kufa in which Abu H®anifa was a leading influence. Although he did not leave behind any writings on feqh (q.v.), he did attract a number of disciples, among whom were the transmitters of his teachings, namely Abu Yusof Ya¿qub b. Ebra@him (d. 182/798) and Moháammad ˆayba@ni (d. ... Merlin Swartz , a school of Sunni law and theology named after Ahámad b. H®anbal (d. 241/855) which was founded largely under his influence in Baghdad in the 3rd/9th century. Due in part to the discovery and publication of new sources bearing on the history of the school and, in part, to advances in scholarship, our understanding of Hanbalism has undergone a virtual revolution since the early 1940s. In contrast to the older view of Hanbalism, which had been established by 19th-century scholarship and was based to a large extent on non-Hanbalite and frequently anti-Hanbalite sources, recent scholarship has appreciated the school's diversity and dynamism. ... A. Sh. Shahbazi , the name of the cave in which Afra@sia@b (q.v.), the fugitive king of Tura@n, spent his last days. According to the ˆa@h-na@ma (all reference are to the Khaleghi edition, IV, pp. 312-23), Afra@sia@b, having been repeatedly defeated by the armies of Kay K¨osrow in eastern Iran, wandered wretchedly and fearfully around, and eventually took refuge in a cave (g@a@r) on a mountaintop near Barda¿a (q.v.) in Azerbaijan. The cave "was far away from cities but near water; one calls it the Hang of Afra@sia@b. ... Ali Boloukbashi (b. Russia, 1891; d. 16 Esfand 1344 ˆ./7 March 1966), Russian-born Persian scholar and founder of the first journal of anthropology (majalla-ye mardom-æena@si) in Persia. He was born into a Christian family of Arab and Lithuanian ancestry. He came to Persia in the early 20th century, where he converted to Islam and adopted ¿Ali as his first name (his Christian name is not known). He married a Persian girl from T®abas, where he kept a traditional Persian house and garden. S. H. Qasemi (b. 580/1184-5, d. in Ha@nsi, 659/1260-61), mystic, poet, and author. He was a senior deputy (kòalifa) and close associate of Farid-al-Din (Ba@ba@ Farid) Ganj-e ˆakar (q.v.; Mir K¨ord, p. 177; Moháaddet¯, p. 73), the leader of the Ùeætiya (q.v.) Sufi order at the time. Jama@l-al-Din was a descendant of Abu H®anifa, the eponym of the Hanafite school of Islamic law. He lived in Ha@nsi, a town in the Punjab, where he was a preacher (kòatÂib) and owned extensive property, both of which he reportedly abandoned as a pre-requisite to enter the circle of Ba@ba@ Farid's close disciples (Mohá-addet¯, p. ... Ernest Tucker (1712-86), an English merchant who traveled to Persia and wrote an account of the trip which provides an eyewitness view of northern Iran during Na@der Shah's last years. The son of a naval provisioner, Hanway spent several years in Portugal before moving in 1743 to St. Petersburg to work for the British Russia Company. He was soon sent to Iran to assess the condition of the Company's trade there and to investigate its agent, John Elton. Elton, an English sailor, had been working to establish a British mercantile presence on the Caspian since 1740, when he had secured trading privileges from Na@der Shah. ... If dominion appears between the jaws of a lion, take a risk and seek it even in the jaws of a lion. Either grandeur and glory and wealth and rank, or else look death face to face like a man!, François de Blois , one of the earliest (possibly the earliest) Persian poets of whom we have any rec-ord. Nezáa@mi ¿Aruzµi (Ùaha@r maqa@la, ed. Qazvini, text, pp. 42-43) writes that someone once asked the adventurer Ahámad b. ... Dieter Taillieu I.BOTANY Haoma is the Avestan name for a plant and its divinity, Mid. Pers. ho@m, Sogd. xwm, Pers. and other living Iranian languages ho@m, hu@m and related forms, Skt. soma, living Indic languages som, soma (Flattery and Schwartz, p. 68 with Table 3; Steblin-Kamenskij, 1972, pp. 138 ff.; Idem, 1987, p. 377; Henning, "Mitteliranisch," p. 85). Mary Boyce II.THE RITUALS 9ASNA Haoma yields the essential ingredient for the parahaoma, Pahl. paraho@m, the consecrated liquid prepared during the main act of worship, the Yasna, and its extensions, the Visperad and Vendidad. Basic similarities between the Zoroastrian and Brahmanic haoma/soma rites (Haug, pp. 281-83; Henry; Thieme, pp. 71-77) establish their common origin, but marked differences developed between them. In Zoroastrian observance (except for the Vendidad service, probably not instituted until Sasanian times), the pressing may take place only between sunrise and noon, the "time of pressing" (Av. ... ,the Avestan name for a plant and its divinity, MPers. ho@m, Sogd. xwm, Pers. and other living Iranian languages ho@m, hu@m and related forms, Skt. soma, living Indic languages som, soma (Flattery and Schwartz, p. 68 with Table 3; Steblin-Kamenskij, 1972, p. 138 ff.; Idem, 1987, p. 377; Henning, "Mitteliranisch," p. 85). This entry will be treated in two separate articles: Botany; and associated Rituals. Nasseredin Parvin ,six different Persian-language newspapers or periodicals have been published under the title H®aqiqat (Truth), two of them in Tehran, and the remainder in Raæt, Isfahan, Kabul and Aarhus (Denmark) respectively. In fact, Rabino (no. 89), and a group following his lead, have incorrectly listed the Na@ma-ye H®aqiqat as another periodical called H®aqiqat. Habib Borjian ,title of several newspapers in Tajik Persian. The word háaqiqat "truth" is apparently a rendering of Russian Pravda, the title of the famous Russian newspaper. In Tajikistan, these periodicals belonged to local administrative units, including towns, regions (raion) and provinces (wela@yat). They were often renamed and, along with the administrative revisions of the republic, their geographic coverage altered. They were published in the Tajik Persian language in Roman script (ca. 1930-40), and afterwards in Cyrillic. ... . See ALBORZ. .See ARACHOSIA; ROK¨AJ. .See HERAT I. .See ZAV. .See HERAÚT. .See ARACHOSIA; ROK¨AJ. Denis Wright ,Sir ARTHUR HENRY, British diplomat (b. London, 12 October 1859, d. East Sheen, 27 December 1933). Arthur was the only son of General the Hon. Sir A. E. Hardinge and a cousin of Viscount Hardinge of Penshurst (q.v.). He was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, and was elected a Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, in 1881. He entered the Foreign Office in 1880 and served successively in Madrid, St. Petersburg, Constantinople, Bucharest, Cairo, and Zanzibar before being appointed Minister in Tehran, where he served nearly five years (1900-05). ... Denis Wright , First Baron Hardinge of Penshurst, (b. London, 1858, d. Penshurst, Kent, 1944.) Charles, the second son of Viscount Hardinge, entered the British Diplomatic Service in 1880 after attending Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge. Able, well-connected, and a friend of King Edward VII, he rose rapidly after a slow start to high office: he held the positions of Ambassador to Russia (1904-06), Permanent Under-Secretary at the Foreign Office (1906-10), Viceroy of India (1910-16), Permanent Under-Secretary at the Foreign Office again (1916-20) and Ambassador to France (1920-22). ... A. Shapur Shahbazi I.IN ANCIENT IRAN There is no evidence for the practice among the early Iranians of taking large numbers of wives or concubines and keeping them in secluded quarters. The Iranian national history ascribes to ancient heroes and kings few children and fewer wives (Geiger, pp. 240-44. On the many sons of Go@darz and Viæta@spa, see below). Among the "Avestan people" (q.v.), the wife enjoyed a relatively elevated social status: she participated in rituals, and was charged with the running of the house, so that the "man and wife" were designated, characteristically, as nma@no@-paiti "lord of the house" and nma@no@-/d™ma . ... Anna Vanzan (Ar. and Pers. lw. háaram "sanctuary," from háarim, lit. "something forbidden"), wives and other female associates in former aristocratic families and the secluded quarter of a house reserved for them. The most frequently used Persian synonyms are æabesta@n, moæko@y and andarun (q.v.). In Classical New Persian kòa@na-ye zana@n "house of the women" was also used (Kayka@vus b. Eskandar, p. 131), but this was replaced by the compound sara@-ye háaram "the harem quarter" (Nezáa@m-al-Molk, p. ... . See SHAIKH MOFID. Inna Medvedskaya ,a land and a city at the western border of Media. It was taken several times by the Assyrian kings Shalmanaser III (r. 860-825 B.C.E.) and Adad-nerari III (r. 812-782 B.C.E.). At the beginning of the reign of Sargon II (r. 721-705 B.C.E.), the people of Óarªar ceased to pay tribute to Assyria, expelled their governor, Ki-baba, and made a treaty with Dalta, the ruler of Ellipi, a land to the south of Óarªar in the area of Piæ-e Kuh (Medvedskaya, 1999, p. 63). In 716 B.C.E. Óarªar was finally reconquered by the Assyrians and turned into an Assyrian province, the city of Óarªar was renamed Ka@r-ˆarruke@n, and Óarªar was turned into a base for the conquest of Media. ... . See Supplement. ETRAT ELAHI ,a very light and diluted farinaceous Persian dish made of fine wheat flour or wheat starch, or with rice flour or rice powder; sugar, oil, saffron, ground pistachios, or almonds may also be added. Because of its lightness, most dictionaries consider háarira to be a suitable diet for sick people (Dehkòoda@, Log@at-na@ma, s.v.; S®afipuri, p. 235). Recipe books, however, sometimes consider it to be a kind of háalwa@ (q.v.; Richard Khan, p. 93) and sometimes a kind of light a@æ (q. ... ETRAT ELAHI ,a cooked dish made from a mixture of grains, usually half-ground wheat and barley, and meat, usually lamb and more recently sometimes beef, which is very similar to háalim (q.v.). Dehkòoda@ comments that "in our times, this dish is made of red meat and wheat and should be cooked until it has the smooth consistency of honey," but he also quotes H®akim Mo÷men as remarking, in his Toháfa, that his favorite Harisa is made of "chicken and wheat" (Dehkòoda@, s.v. Harisa). In the AÚæpazi-e dawra-ye S®afawi (p. ... S.H. Qasemi , the first Hindu author of a Persian work, namely Eræa@d al-tÂa@lebin, more commonly known as Enæa@÷-e Harkarn, a collection of documents and model letters written by him as a secretary. The details of his early career are not known. He was attached for a long time as a secretary (monæi) to Nawwa@b E¿teba@r Khan K¨úa@ja-sara@, later called Momta@z Khan (d. 1034/1625), most probably a Hindu convert to Islam (Bazmee Ansari, p. 225) and a confidant and retainer of the Mughal emperor Jaha@ngir (1014-37/1605–27). ... Pierre Oberling ,a Kurdish tribe of western Azerbaijan, eastern Anatolia, and northeastern Iraq. As of 1963, the Harki of Persia were still predominantly nomadic and dwelled near the borders of Turkey and Iraq, west and southwest of Urmia. Their summer quarters were on the highlands of the dehesta@ns of Targavar and Daætbil, and their winter quarters in the lowlands of the dehesta@ns of Targavar, Daætbil, and Margavar. They numbered some 1,350 families, and their principal clans were the Manda@n, the Sayyeda@n, and the Sarha@ti ("Ila@t," p. ... Bo Lawergren (±ang, q.v.),a string instrument which flourished in Persia in many forms from its introduction, about 3000 B.C.E., until the 17th century. The original type was the arched harp as seen at Ùog@a@ Miæ and on later third millennium seals (fig. 1a-c). Around 1900 B.C.E. they were replaced by angular harps with verti-cal (fig. 2) or horizontal (fig. 3) sound boxes. By the start of the Common Era, "robust, vertical, angular harps" (fig. 2), which had become predominant in the Hellenistic world, were cherished in the Sasanian court. ... Muhammad, A. Dandamayev ,a Median magnate and the trusted advisor of the last Median king Astyages (q.v.). In 550 B.C.E, during the war between the Medes and Persians, Harpagos, who had already made common cause with a number of Median nobles to support Cyrus II, defected to his side (q.v.; Herodotus 1.108-13, 117-20, 123, 127, 129). According to a legend recorded by Herodotus (1.119), the reason for Harpagos' defection was that Astyages, in order to punish him for an act of disobedience, had his son killed and his flesh served to him and other magnates at a feast. ... C. E. Bosworth ,an ancient town of Upper Mesopotamia, now located in the modern Turkish province of Diyarbakir approximately 40 km/25 miles south-southeast of Edessa (q.v.), or Urfa. It is the Greek "Hai Kharrai," and Roman "Carrhae," but has a more ancient history as the "Óarra@nu" of Assyrian texts; in the Old Testament it is known as the dwelling-place of Abraham before he relocated to Palestine (Gen. 12:4-5). Fakhreddin Azimi , the mission of American diplomat W. Averell Harriman, who was sent to Tehran in July 1951 to mediate between Persia and Great Britain in the wake of the Persian nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. American fears of the consequences of deadlock in negotiations and of the possibility of British military action against Persia, which could provoke Soviet intervention, resulted in President Truman's dispatch of Harriman, the veteran diplomat, to Tehran. Harriman had been ambassador to both London and Moscow. ... A. Panaino ,WILLY, Professor of the History of Sciences specializing in astronomy (b. Ennigerloh Westfalen (Germany), 22 January 1905, d. Bad Homburg, 16 May 1981). Hartner studied astronomy at Frankfurt University under Martin Brendel, who introduced him to classical and modern celestial mechanics. Already in 1928 he published an important contribution to his chosen field: "Die Störungen der Planeten in Gylde‚nschen Koordinaten als Funktionen der mittleren Länge," on the basis of which he was awarded the degree of Doctor Philosophiae Naturalis in the "Naturwissenschaft Fakultät" of Frankfurt University. ... C. E. Bosworth , son of a Turkish slave commander of Mahámud of Ghazna (q.v.) who served as governor in Kúa@razm from 423/1032 until 426/1035 (see CHORASMIA ii.), first of all for the Ghaznavids, and then as an independent ruler. David Pingree , astronomer, astrologer, and Hadith expert, born ca. 915 C.E., died 29 D¨u'l-háejja 376/1 May 987 in Baghdad. Ha@run's family traced its ancestry back to Abu Mansáur, whose Persian name was AÚba@n Goænasp, the son of Warid, the son of Ka@d, the son of Maha@nida@d Goænasp, the son of Farrukòda@d, the son of Asa@d, the son of Mehrgoænasp, the son of Yazdkart (see al-Nadim, pp. 160-61; Ebn K¨alleka@n, IV, pp. 84-85; corrected by Justi). ... C. Edmund Bosworth (d. T®us, 3 Joma@da@ II 193/24 March 809), the fifth caliph of the ¿Abbasid dynasty (r. 170-93/786-809), the third son of the caliph al-Mahdi and second son borne him by the slave concubine K¨ayzora@n. He was born in Ray, either on 26 D¨u'l-háejja 145/17 March 763 or 1 Moháarram 149/16 February 766. Since he is also said to have been 21 or 22 years old at his accession (T®abari, III, p. 599), the later date seems more likely. . See ISFAHAN MONUMENTS. A. Shapur Shahbazi , two fallen angels who taught mankind magic in Babylon. They are mentioned once in the Koran (2:96 [2:102]) in a passage admonishing (Jewish) disbelievers who follow the teaching of the Satans (ˆaya@tÂin) at the time of Solomon. "Solomon did not disbelieve, but the satans disbelieved, teaching the people magic [sihár] and what had been sent down to the two angels in Babel, Ha@rut and Ma@rut; they do not teach anyone without first saying: 'We are only a temptation, so do not disbelieve,' so they learn from them means by which they separate man and wife; but they do not injure any one thereby, except by the permission of Allah" (tr. ... .See Supplement. I. N. Medvedskaya ,a city and a district in Media, mentioned in the Assyrian texts of the time of Sargon II. In 716 B.C.E., when Sargon was in Media in the land of Saka, he received tribute from several Median city chieftains, including Zarduka of Óarzianu (Levine, p. 50, l. 62). The name Zardukku, Ir. *Zráduka, *Zarduka, is derived from Ir. z™r™d- (Ind. hrád-) "heart" (Grantovoski¥, p. 253). In 714 B.C.E., the same Zardukku of Óarzianu is mentioned in the list of the representatives of cities paying tribute to Sargon when he was in Parsua (Thureau-Dangin, 1912, p. ... Louise Marlow , a compound term adopted from Arabic, and used in both Arabic and New Persian literature to express complementary aspects of the concept of nobility. In Persian literature, the phrase gowhar o honar is also used to express the same concept. The second element, nasab, denotes genealogy or lineage, and is often used in Persian as a near-synonym for the Persian ne‘a@d (descent, stock). The first element, háasab, properly refers to the store of inherited merit to which an individual might lay claim on account of the illustrious deeds and fine qualities ascribed to his ancestors, a store which he was obliged to strive to maintain by brave and magnanimous behavior and excellence of character on his own part. ... Farhad Daftary , Neza@ri Isma¿ili Imam and the fourth ruler of Alamut (557-61/1162-66). Born in 520/1126, H®asan II, whom the Neza@ris call ¿ala@ D¨ekrehe 'l-sala@m (on his mention be peace), succeeded to the leadership of the Neza@ri Isma¿ili da¿wa and state on the death of the third ruler of Alamut, Moháammad b. Bozorg-Omid on 4 Rabi¿ I 557/21 February 1162. H®asan is said to have developed an early interest in learning Isma¿ili doctrines as well as studying philosophical and Sufi writings. ... Tahsin Yaziçi , scribe, poet and lexicographer from Azerbaijan of the 7th/13th century. Little is known about his life. References in some of his works indicate that he lived during the reigns of Ya@vla@q Arsla@n (r. 679-90/1280-91) and his son, Amir Mahámud (r. 692-?/1292-?), two of the Çobanog¡ullaré rulers of Kastamonu (Nozhat al-kotta@b wa toháfat al-ahába@b, fol. 33a; Qawa@¿ed al-rasa@÷el wa fara@÷ed al-fazµa@÷el, ms. Süleymaniye (Esad Efendi), 3369, fol. ... . See SIRAÚFI, H®®ASAN B. ¿ABD-ALLAÚH. Wilferd Madelung , eldest surviving grandson of the Prophet Moháammad through his daughter Fa@táema, and second Imam of the ˆi¿a after his father ¿Ali. According to traditional sources, he was born on 15 Ramazµa@n 3/2 March 625 and was brought up in the Prophet's household until the age of seven, when his grandfather died. Moháammad slaughtered a ram for the poor on the occasion of his birth, as he did later for his brother H®osayn. He chose the names of both grandsons, even though ¿Ali had intended other names, such as "H®arb. ... . See ¿ASKARI, H®ASAN B. ¿ALI. David Pingree , astrologer of the late 4th/10th century. Very little is known about this person. He was allegedly the author of an astrological treatise, titled Keta@b al-Ba@ri¿ or Keta@b al-madkòal ela@ ¿elm aháka@m al-nojum, dedicated to Abu ¿Amr Moháammad b. Sa¿id b. Marzuba@n Esáfaha@ni; according to H®a@jji K¨alifa (col. 1642) he composed it in 357/968. However, both its title and its contents seem to match the Keta@b al-madkòal ela@ ¿elm al-nojum wa-aháka@meha@ attributed to ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n S®ufi (d. ... See NIˆAÚBURI, H®ASAN B. MOHáAMMAD. . See NOWBAKòTI, H®ASAN B. MUSAÚ. Ismail K. Poonawala , a Mosta¿li T®ayyebi Isma¿ili savant and the author of Keta@b al-azha@r, a chrestomathy of Isma¿ili literature (d. in Yemen, 11 D¨u'l-qa¿da 939/4 June 1533). According to Bharu±i's own statement, he was born and brought up in Khambha@t (Cambay), a port city in western India, and received his early education there. Urged on by a thirst for more knowledge after having exhausted all the avenues available in India, he renounced his family and friends, left his native town, and sailed to Yemen. ... , See ÙUBAÚNIDS. Christopher Melchert , an important early Muslim preacher, theologian, jurist, Koran-reciter, and ascetic (21-110/642-728). His earliest substantial biography was compiled by Ebn Sa¿d (d. 230/845), who gives H®asan a place of honor among the Followers (ta@be¿un, those who met the Companions of the Prophet, but not the Prophet himself). He relates that H®a-san was born in Medina, the son of freed Persian slaves (Ebn Sa¿d, VII/1, p. 114). H®asan is said to have been unusually eloquent in Arabic, and was considered by Ja@háezá to be the greatest of all preachers (I, p. ... Sh. Quinn (b. Qom, 937/1530-31), author of Ahásan al-tawa@rikò (q.v.) and a cavalryman (qur±i) of the Rumlu Turkman tribe of qezelba@æ during the reign of Shah T®ahma@sb S®afawi. Eskandar Beg Torkama@n (I, p. 54, tr. Savory, I, p. 89) called him H®asan-SoltÂa@n Rumlu and mentioned him as one of the doyen amirs of qezelba@æ. , See JALAYERIDS. . See Supplement. M. Shokoohy (r. 748-59/1347-57), a Khorasani adventurer at the court of Delhi, who claimed descent from the Sasanian Bahra@m Go@r (Fereæta, I, p. 277) and founded the Bahmanid sultanate of the Decca. He was the son of a certain Keyka@vus, whose full name, according to ¿Ali T®aba@tÂaba@ (pp. 11-12), was Keyka@vus Moháammad b. ¿Ali b. H®asan. His uncle, Malek Ho‘abr-al-Din Záafar Khan, was a noble at the court of Sultan ¿Ala@÷-al-Din K¨alji and the governor of Multa@n and the Punjab (Fereæta, I, p. ... Julie Scott Meisami , known also as Sayyed Aæraf or Sayyed H®asan, poet chiefly associated with the court of the Ghaznavid ruler Bahra@mæa@h (q.v.). His date of birth is unknown; he died probably around 556/1161 (see Storey/de Blois, V/2, pp. 333-36). He traced his descent from the Prophet and his son-in-law ¿Ali; he boasts of his lineage frequently in his poems. He came to prominence at the beginning of Bahra@mæa@h's reign, and celebrated many of that reign's events, among them Bahra@mæa@h's triumph over his brother Arsala@næa@h (q. ... ; See SAÚRI ASÂLAÚN. Farhad Daftary , prominent Isma¿ili da@¿i (q.v.) and founder of the medieval Neza@ri Isma¿ili state (b. Qom, mid-440s/1050s, d. Alamut, 518/1124). Little information is available on the early life of H®asan S®abba@há, who was referred to as Sayyedna@ (our master) by his contemporary Neza@ri Isma¿ilis. The colorful story, accord-ing to which H®asan, Nezáa@m-al-Molk, and ¿Omar K¨ayya@m had made a pact when they were classmates in their youth under the same master at Niæa@bur, should be dismissed as a legend (see Raæid-al-Din, pp. ... Hamid Algar , often referred to as Mirza@-ye ˆira@zi, leading Shi¿ite cleric chiefly renowned for the role he played in the celebrated Tobacco Boycott of 1892 (b. Shiraz, 1230/1814, d. Sa@mar-ra@÷ 1312/1895). He is occasionally designated as the "renewer of the religion" (mojadded) of the 13th century of the Islamic era, with reference to the Hadith that promises the appearance once every hundred years of a scholar who will revivify Islam, even though this is generally rejected by Shi¿ites as inauthentic. ... Ernst Tucker , one of Na@der Shah's closest associates, held the title mo¿ayyer al-mama@lek or "chief assayer" and played an important advisory role throughout Na@der's reign. . See ˆOJAÚ¿-AL-S®ALTáANA, H®ASAN-¿ALI MIRZAÚ. Milferd Madelung , Zaydi scholar from AÚmol in T®abaresta@n, who flourished in the first half of the 3rd/9th century and taught three Caspian Zaydi imams. His full lineage is Ahámad b. Ebra@him b. H®asan b. Ebra@him b. H®asan b. Moháammad b. Solayma@n b. Da@wud b. H®asan b. H®asan b. ¿Ali b. Abi T®a@leb. His ancestor Moháammad b. Solayma@n had led a Zaydi revolt in Medina in concert with the rebellion of Abu'l-Sara@ya@ in Iraq in 199/814. ... Robert H. Dyson Provisional plan of the structures of Hasanlu IVB within the period IIIB fortification wall. Overview of Hasanlu. Used by permission of the University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia. ROBERT H. DYSON, JR Hasanlu Silver Beaker from period IV B. Electrum overlay. HT 17.0 cm. HAS 58-427. Iran Bastan Museum, Tehran. , the name of an archeological site located in western Azerbaijan Province in northwest Persia, a short distance southwest of Lake Urmia (former Rezµa@÷iya). This entry will be treated in two sections: the site and the 'gold bowl of H®asanlu' which was found at the site in 1958. Pierre Oberling , a Lor tribe of the Piækuh region in Loresta@n. In the 1870s it numbered some 2,500 families distributed among 16 tiras (Houtum-Schindler, p. 87). Its winter quarters were around J@@@a@ydar, southwest of Kòorrama@ba@d (Houtum-Schindler, p. 87). According to A. T. Wilson, by the beginning of the 20th century most of the H®asanvand had settled down in their summer quarters. They comprised some three thousand families as well as the following "dependent tribes": Kòamsa, Dawlatæa@h, D¨oha@bi, Gorja@÷i, Sa@la@r, Ba@ba@ Sanim, Moháammad Rezµa@, Bastáa@m, Ka@kolvand, Rahámanæa@h, Fawla@d, Java@nmard, Huz ¿Abd-al-¿Ali and Huz Kòoda@÷i (Wilson, p. ... Habib Borjian Bagher Agheli and EIr. . See ISFAHAN MONUMENTS. Michele Bernardini (lit: "the Eight Heavens, the Eight paradises"), a cosmological concept used on several occasions as the title of literary works, or as the name of a particular architectural form in Persian, Turkish, and Indian contexts. Antonio Panaino ,name of a game from the Sasanian era which has not been precisely identified. The haætp@ay [hætp'y] "eight feet" (more likely than aætap@ad) is mentioned together with other games in chapter 15 of the Xusraw ud R@edag (ud pad ±atrang ud n@ew-ardaxæ^r ud haætp@ay kardan az hamahl@an fr@aztar hom "and in playing chess, backgammon and the haætp@ay I am superior to my comrades" (Unvala, p. 16; Monchi-Zadeh, 1982, p. 65; Panaino, 1999, p. 51). Its name, as in the case of chess (Pahl. ... Z. Sadrolashrafi .A sub-province (æahresta@n) in the south of Azerbaijan, situated between 36° 45' and 37° 24' N. and 46° 25' and 47° 24' E, some 134 km from Tabriz and 101 km from Mia@na Sub-province. It covers 6,240 km2 with an average elevation of 1,150 m. The major river in Haætrud is Qara@nqu±a@y, a tributary of Safidrud (Qezel-uzan). Haætrd is a well-watered sub-province with a number of streams and between 300-500 mm annual rainfall. It also possesses a number of hot springs. ... A. Shadi Tahvildar-Zadeh and Fariborz Majidi , (1907-1976) contemporary Iranian mathematician and popular lecturer. He was born in Tabriz on 22 Dey 1286 ˆ./12 January 1907 and received his primary education in that city. He then moved to Tehran, where he finished his secondary education at the Da@r al-fonun school (q.v.) in 1925. He studied medicine in Tehran for a few years before being sent to France as a government-sponsored student to pursue his studies in mathematics. Jamsheed Akrami , eminent Iranian scriptwriter and film director (b. Tehran, 1944; d. Tehran, 1996). Born to a typesetter father and a homemaker mother, H®a@tami received an early exposure to music and film thanks to the patronage of his uncles. After attending scriptwriting workshops during his high school years, he enrolled in the Dramatic Arts Department of Tehran University and graduated in 1964 with a B.A. in Directing (Omid, p. 143; Sayyed Moháammadi, p. 233). H®a@tami started his professional career by writing stage plays based on Persian fables and copywriting for advertising agencies. ... .See ELAM. D¨ABIHá-ALLAÚH S®AFAÚ and EIr. (d. Qom 1198/1783), an influential poet of the 18th century. He belonged to the first generation of poets who rejected what they saw as the excesses of the so-called Indian style (sabk-e Hendi), and adopted a poetical idiom closer to the stylistic principles of early Persian poetry. Later this movement became known as the "literary return" (ba@zgaæt-e adabi, q.v.). Ha@tef's family, originally from Orduba@d in Azerbaijan, had moved in Safavid times to Isfahan, where he was born in the first half of the 18th century. ... Michele Bernardini , Persian poet (d. Kòargerd, 927/1521) and nephew of ¿Abd-al-Rahma@n Ja@mi. Ha@tefi was born in around 858/1454 at Kòargerd, a village on the outskirts of the Khorasanian town Ja@m, in present-day Afghanistan (Ka@boli, fol. 167a; other dates are less believable and contradictory, cf. Haft Manzáar, ed. and tr. Bernardini, p. 11; ˆirin o K¨osrow, ed. Asadulloev, pp. v-vi; Meykòa@na, pp. 115, 118). Ha@tefi spent his whole life in his native city, where he served as the custodian of the Qa@sem-e Anwa@r mausoleum built by Mir ¿Ali-ˆir Nava@÷i. ... Mahmoud Omidsalar , the epitome of generosity and munificence in Arabic and Persian anecdotal traditions. H®a@tem b. ¿Abd-Alla@h b. Sa¿d Abu Saffa@na (or Abu ¿Adiy) T®a@÷i (Ebn ¿Abd-Rabbeh, I, p. 197; WatÂwa@tÂ, p. 65) is the most renowned of the so-called "three most generous men of pre-Islamic Arabia" (Ebn ¿Abd-Rabbeh), I, p. 197). He is said to have inherited his generosity from his mother GÚonayya bent ¿Afif T®a@÷iya (Esábaha@ni, XVII, pp. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (H®atÂra@; Ar. H®azµr), a strongly fortified city in Upper Mesopotamia (today northern Iraq), situated at 35° 40 ´ N and 42° 45 ´ E in the midst of the desert steppe of the northern Jaz^ra (the area between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris), about 3 km to the west of the Wa@d^ T¨art¯a@r (running fairly parallel to the Tigris River from north to south) and some 50 km west-northwest of Assur, the capital of ancient Assyria (q.v.). In so far as can be judged by the archeological and epigraphical remains, the city seems to have flourished in the 2nd century C. ... Almut Hintze , Oriental scholar and one of the founders of Iranian studies (b. January 30, 1827 in Ostdorf near Balingen, Württemberg, Germany; d. June 5, 1876 in Bad Ragaz, Kanton St. Gallen, Switzerland). He married Sophia Speidel (1819-96) in 1859 and had one son. Rüdiger Schmitt ,a term distinguishing one of the three groups of Saka@ tribes, Saka@ haumavarga@ (like the Saka@ tigraxauda@ "with pointed caps" and the seemingly western Saka@ tayai paradraya "beyond the sea" placed between Greeks and Thracians), in some of the lists of the peoples in the Achaemenid royal inscriptions: OPers. plur. H-u-m-v-r-g-a in DNa 25, XPh 26, A3Pb 14 (ungrammatical, used as sing.), cf. Schmitt, pp. 25 ff., 89 ff., 119 ff.; it is only restored in DSe 24 f., cf. Steve, p. 59; the OPers. ... .See HORDAÚD, AMAHRASPAND Lutz Richter-Bernburg (i.e., al-Keta@b al-háa@wi fi'l-tÂebb "Comprehensive book on medicine"), the title of a major Arabic work on medicine in twenty-five volumes by Abu Bakr Moháammad b. Zakariya@÷ Ra@zi (b. Rey [classical Rhagai, on the southern outskirts of modern Tehran], 1 ˆa¿ba@n 251/28 August 865; d. 5 ˆa¿ba@n 313/26 October 925; these dates on Biruni's authority), physician, scientist, philosopher, and prolific author in medicine and ancillary subjects, alchemy, logic, and philosophy. ... .See AVROMAN. . See SHI¿ISM. .See ACHAEMENES. Pierre Oberling ,a sedentary Lor tribe dwelling in the dehesta@n of H®aya@t-da@wu@d, stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Ma@hur-e M^la@ti mountains, northwest of Buæehr. According to A. T. Wilson, their ancestors came from the Behbaha@n region, supplanting a Persian population which, until about 600 years ago, was Zoroastrian (p. 170). Their chiefs resided at Bandar Rig, 40 miles north of Buæehr, and bore the title of "Khan of Bandar Rig." The most distinguished of the early khans of Bandar Rig was Amir-¿Ali Khan H®aya@t-da@wudi, who, in spring 1204/1789, joined Lotáf-¿Ali Khan Zand when the Zand ruler journeyed to southern Fa@rs in the hope of raising an army with which to recapture Shiraz (Fasa@÷i, I, p. ... . See JAM¿IYATHA-ÚYE MO÷TALEFA. .See HEPHTHALITES. Tahsin Yazici , 9th/15th century poet who wrote a series of Turkish poems modeled on Nezáa@mi's K¨amsa. Nothing is known about his life other than that he lived during the reigns of Sultan Mo-háammad II and Ba@yazid II (855/1451-918/1512). It is only in his Eskandar-na@ma that his name is given as ¿Abd-al-H®ayy, but in view of the semantic correspondence between it and his penname "H®aya@ti" it seems likely that this was his actual name. While still young, he joined the entourage of Mahámud Pa@æa@ (d. ... Moojan Momen , Baha@÷i polemicist (b. Isfahan, ca. 1830; d. Haifa, 7 December 1920). H®aydar ¿Ali's father, a merchant who followed the ˆaykòi school, took him as a young boy to Kerman to become a personal attendant to the ˆaykòi leader Moháammad Karim-K¨a@n. H®aydar ¿Ali states that, after becoming disappointed by what he found there, he soon returned to Isfahan. After meeting some Ba@bis he became a follower of the new religion. In about 1866, he traveled to Edirne where he met Baha@÷-Alla@h and became his devoted follower. ... Alireza Sheikholeslami , revolutionary activist who used terror to radicalize Persian politics in the early 20th century (b. 1297/1880, d. 1300 ˆ./1921). He was born (his place of birth is uncertain) into the Tariverdiev family and was raised in Alexandropol in Armenia. He received training in Yerevan and Teblisi in electrical engineering, before he was invited to Persia in 1901 to set up an electrical plant in Maæhad (Rezµa@za@da Malek, pp. 17-18; Ba@mda@d, Reja@l, pp. 468-69). Michel M. Mazzaoui , Safavid prince who considered himself to be the chosen successor of his father, Shah T®ahma@sb, but was killed immediately after the latter's death on 15 S®afar 984/14 May 1576. When Shah T®ahma@sb died, there was confusion at the court regarding the question of succession. The Shah's eldest son, Moháammad K¨oda@-banda, was almost totally blind, and was therefore deemed unfit to rule, while his second son, Esma@¿il Mirza@, had been kept prisoner at the Qahqaha fortress (about 150 miles to the north of Tabriz), having displeased his father in his youth. ... ,Mir. See MANGHIT, DYNASTY OF BUKHARA. John R. Perry (also Amir-H®aydari; Ne¿mat-Alla@hi), mutually hostile urban moieties of Safavid and post-Safavid Iran. From the late ninth/fifteenth century up until recent decades, a number of cities and towns of Iran were perceived as being divided into two groupings of adjacent wards (maháalla), one known as the H®aydari-ka@na and the other as the Ne¿mati-ka@na, the respective (male) inhabitants of which would profess mutual contempt and antagonism, and would periodically clash in massive public fights. ... Erik Nakjavani ,the stage name of MA¿S®UMA DADEBAÚLAÚ (b. Tehran, 21 Farvardin 1321 ˆ./10 April 1942; d. San Jose, Calif., 30 Dey 1369 ˆ./20 January 1990), popular Persian singer. Her parents were Moháammad Dadaba@la@ and Zinat Bol-g@a@ri. Ha@yeda primarily distinguished herself by a naturally rich, operatic alto voice, which she further refined by acquired accuracy, lyricism, and versatility. Her vocal aesthetics bore comparison with another Persian alto singer, the vocalist Delkaæ, who had preceded her. ... Habib Borjian , Tajik poet from Bukhara (1878-1902). H®ayrat was born into poverty, as the son of a muezzin from the ¿Arusa@n quarter of Buk-hara, where he attended a local maktab (q.v. EDUCATION iii. and xxviii.). By the age of twelve he had lost both of his parents. His inheritance from them amounted to two chambers (háojras) in the madrasas (q.v.; EDUCATION iv., v., and xxviii.) of Moháammad-¿Ali H®a@ji and So@zangara@n. H®ayrat started to attend madrasa at the age of sixteen, which was the normal age of admission, and he lived there until the end of his short life. ... Meir M. Bar-Asher , a religious formula, meaning "Come to the best of actions," included in the call to prayer (adòa@n) by all three major branches of Shi¿ism, Twelvers, Zaydis and Isma¿ilis, since they believe it to have been an original part of the adòa@n throughout the lifetime of the Prophet and of his successor, Abu Bakr, being removed at the beginning of ¿Omar ebn al-K¨atÂtÂa@b's caliphate. The earliest source to mention this formula seems to have been the Sunnite Moháammad b. ... Keith Hitchins ,the pen name of ¿ABD-AL-RAH®MAÚN ˆARAFKANDI (b. Maha@ba@d, 1921; d. Tehran, 1 Esfand 1369 ˆ./21 February 1991), Kurdish poet, philologist, and translator. . See ALFLAYLA WALAYLA. "A Thousand Stories," Sasanian collection of tales of Indian origin, the frame narrative of which was the prototype for the later Arabic Alf layla wa layla (A Thousand and One Nights, also known as The Arabian Nights). See ALFLAYLA WALAYLA. Arash Khazeni Mapof Afghanistan i. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF HAZAÚRAJAÚT Haza@raja@t, the homeland of the Haza@ras, lies in the central highlands of Afghanistan, among the Kuh-e Ba@ba@ mountains and the western extremities of the Hindu Kush (q.v.). Its boundaries have historically been inexact and shifting, and in some respects Haza@raja@t denotes an ethnic and religious zone rather than a geographical one–that of Afghanistan's Turko-Mongol Shi¿ites. Its physical boundaries, however, are roughly marked by the Ba@-mia@n Basin (see BAÚMIAÚN ii. ... Alessandro Monsutti Figure 1: A procession of H®ezb-e Wahádat forces in Ba@mia@n during the celebration of the 7th anniversary of the formation of their party, 4 August 1996. Alessandro Monsutti Charles M. Kieffer ,the third largest ethnic group of Afghanistan, after the Pashtuns and the Ta@jiks, who represent nearly a fifth of the total population. Their name most probably derives from the Persian word haza@r, which means "thousand," and may be the translation of the Mongol word ming or minggan, a tribal-military unit of 1000 soldiers of the Mongol army at the time of Gen-ghis Khan (Bacon, 1958, p. 4; Schurmann, p. 115; Poladi, p. 22; Mousavi, pp. 23-25). The term haza@r(a) could have replaced ming in what is today Afghanistan, and has thus come to designate a specific group of people. ... C. Edmund Bosworth ,a local dynasty of Kurdish origin which ruled in the Zagros mountains region of southwestern Persia, essentially in Loresta@n and the adjacent parts of Fa@rs, and which flourished in the later Saljuq, Ilkhanid, Mozaffarid, and Timurid periods. It is often described as an "Atabeg" dynasty, although the line was not ethnically Turkish, as the true Atabeg dynasties were, nor was any of its members actually the Atabeg or tutor (see ATAÚBAK) to any young prince of the period. Rahim M. Shayegan , title of a high state official in Sasanian Iran, from OPers. *haza@rapati- "chiliarch" attested in Greek as azarapateîs [plur.] in a Hesychian gloss which defines it as eisaggeleîs "ushers, announcers" (Hinz, 1975, p. 120). The title occurs in the trilingual inscription of ˆa@pu@r (ˆa@buhr) I on the Ka¿be-ye Zardoæt, as well as in the bilingual inscription of Narseh at Paikuli, as Mid. Pers. hz'lwpt (ˆKZ, Mid. Pers., lines 29, 31; NPi, Mid. Pers., lines 7, 15), Parthian hzrwpt (ˆKZ, Parth. ... Gavin R. G. Hambly ,the palace-complex of Moháammad b. Tog@loq (725-752/1325-1551) at Jaha@npana@h (Delhi). The original palace was built by ¿Ala@÷-al-Din K¨alji (695-715/1296-1316) on the open ground between Qel¿a@ Ra@y Pet¯ora@ (the so-called first city of Muslim Delhi) and Seri (the second). Here, the last K¨aljis held court and it was on the roof of the Haza@rsotun that QotÂb-al-Din Moba@rak Shah held his transvestite orgies and from which his head was thrown down by the conspirators who assassinated him. ... H. A¿lam (fandoq), the hard-shelled fruit of the shrub (or small tree) Corylus avellana L. (fam. Corylaceae), containing an edible kernel of high nutritious value. Jean During ,a small guæa (melodic type) of the Persian classical model repertoire radif, placed at the end of a sequence of several guæas; in the nava@ mode, it is found after Baya@t-e ra@je¿; in ˆur, after Qajar, in Sega@h and Ùaha@rga@h at the end of the guæa maqlub, and in Ma@hur and Raæt panjga@h to conclude the non-measured part of ¿Ara@q. H®azin is a melodico-rhythmic structure which adapts itself to several modes; it is a motif which begins by rapidly repeating the same note several times, recurring a degree higher, descending again, then recurring a degree higher once more, and it continues like this until the final descent on the basic note of the mode (æa@hed). ... John R. Perry (1103-1180/1692-1766), Persian poet and scholar, who emigrated to India in 1734. H®azin came from a family of scholars and landowners in Gila@n and traced his descent back to Shaikh Za@hed Gila@ni (q.v.). His father came to Isfahan as a student in the reign of Shah Solayma@n I, and Moháammad grew up at the Safavid court as a precocious polymath and poet. He also traveled widely in Iran and to India and Arabia. In 1135/1722, when the rebellious Afghan army defeated the Safavid forces and blockaded Isfahan, H®azin tried in vain to persuade Shah SoltÂa@n H®osayn and his own remaining family and friends to flee the famine-stricken capital before it was too late; finally, having sold all but his books (he gave away two thousand volumes and left the rest to be plundered), he escaped in peasant attire only days before the Afghans under Mahámud entered in triumph (Belfour 1830; idem, 1831, chs. ... Fakhreddin Azimi ABD-AL-H®OSAYN, (1895-1949), Minister, Prime Minister, Court Minister. Ha‘ir was born in Tehran circa 1374 ˆ./1895 to Moháammad Khan Wotòuq-K¨alwat, a minor court official, civil servant, and constitutionalist (S®afa@÷i, pp. 3-7; PRO, FO 371/24582, Bullard to Halifax, 24 February 1940, Report on Personalities in Persia, 1940). From March 1922 until 1925, Ha‘ir and his father published the paper Payka@n in Tehran (Ba@m-da@d, Reja@l II, pp. 258-59; Mostawfi, p. ... .See HUMOR. . See CLOTHING. Philippe Gignoux Amir Arsalan Afkhami .See AÚSMAÚN; ESCHATOLOGY; PARADISE. Josefh Wiesehöfer , a Greek author from the city of Miletus in Asia Minor (fl. between 560 and 418 B.C.E.), who is the author a geographical survey of the regions and the peoples in the Achaemenid Empire. He is considered to be the most influential of the early Ionian prose writers (Herodotus 5.36, called him a logopoios "prose writer"). Hecataeus was the son of Hegesandros and probably belonged to the old nobility of Miletus. Because of his role as an adviser in the early days of the Ionian revolt (fall of 499 B.C.E.) against Persian domination, it is generally assumed that he was born before 545 B. ... .See ˆAHR-E QUMIS Jalal Matini , the complete title of the oldest extant treatise on medicine written in Persia, which is also commonly referred to simply as Keta@b-e Heda@yat. Although it is not known exactly when the author Abu Bakr Rabi¿ ebn Ah-ámad Akòawayni Bokòa@ri lived, he appears to have written . See Supplement. Manouchehr Kasheff i. LIFEAND WORK Hedayat belonged to a distinguished family, several members of which had served as ranking officials under the late Qajars and in early Pahlavi administration. His father, ¿Aliqoli Khan Mokòber-al-Dawla (q.v.), a son of the literary historian and courtier Rezµa@qoli Khan Heda@yat (q.v.), was director of the Telegraph and Post Office and held cabinet positions under Na@sÂer-al-Din Shah. Amemeh Yousefzadeh ii.AS MUSICIAN , statesman, author, and musicologist of the late Qajar and early Pahlavi periods (b. Tehran, 7 ˆa¿ba@n 1280/17 January 1864; d. Tehran, 22 ˆahrivar 1334/13 September 1955). Paul E. Losensky , Persian literary historian, administrator, and poet of the Qajar period (b. Tehran, 15 Moháarram 1215/8 June 1800; d. Tehran, 10 Rabi¿ II 1288/29 June 1871). He came from a prominent family which traced its lineage back to Kema@l-e K¨ojandi, the well-known lyric poet of the 8th/14th century. His father, Moháammad-Ha@di Khan, served in the retinue of Qajar tribal leaders in Ma@zandara@n, hence his son's full appellation as Heda@yat Ma@zan-dara@ni, T®abari, or T®abaresta@ni in his autobiographical notices (Storey, I/2, p. ... Homa Katouzian and EIr. i.LIFE AND WORK Sadeq Hedayat was the youngest child of Heda@-yatqoli Khan E¿tezµa@d-al-Molk, the notable literary historian, the dean of the Military Academy, and a descendant from Rezµa@-qoli Khan Heda@yat (q.v.). Many of his family members were ranking state and military officials, both in the 19th and 20th centuries (Kamshad, 1966, pp. 138-39). Michael Graig Hillmann ii.THEMES, PLOTS AND TECHNIQUE IN HEDAYAT'S FICTION iii.HEDAÚYAT AND FOLKLORE STUDIES See Supplement. Touraj Daryaee iv.TRANSLATIONS OF PAHLAVI TEXTS EIr. v.SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY , the eminent fiction writer (b. Tehran, 28 Bahman 1281 ˆ./17 February 1903; d. Paris, 19 Farvardin 1330 ˆ./9 April 1951), had a vast influence on the next generation of Persian writers. Steven C. Anderson , member of the Erinaceinae sub-family of the Erinaceidae family of insectivores; animals the size of a small rabbit, the hairs of the upper body of which are modified and clumped to form stiff, sharp spines. A sheet of muscle beneath the skin of the back keeps these spines erect and also allows the animal to roll into a defensive ball, thus protecting its head, limbs, tail, and belly from attack. Håkan Wahlquist , Swedish explorer of, and prolific writer on, Central Asia and Persia (b. Stockholm, 1865; d. 1952). He was the eldest son of the city architect Ludvig Hedin and his wife Anna. His paternal family is known from the 17th cenury, when it took its name from the rural parish of Hidingsta in Central Sweden. His great-grandfather was a pupil of the famous naturalist Carl von Linneaus and served in the late 18th century as the personal physician of the King Gustav IV Adolf, thereby starting the family's social ascent. ... Nasseredin Parvin , the first Iranian medical journal. This monthly journal was published between S®afar 1324/March 1906 and ˆawwa@l/November of the same year. Contrary to what E. G. Browne has written (Browne, no. 143), the journal had no links to the "Majles-e háefzá al-sáeháháa" (The Society for Maintaining Good Health), and there is no mention of this society in the journal. M. Azadpour , eminent German idealist philosopher (b. Stuttgart, 1770; d. Berlin, 1831). Hegel belongs to the tradition of the German Romantic thinkers who revolutionized German thought and literature, and he depicts his position as the dialectical climax of the intellectual endeavors of civilized humanity. The influence of Iranian civilization is apparent in two of Hegel's major works. In his Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte (Berlin, 1837; tr. J. Sibree, as The Philosophy of History, New York, 1956), there is an extensive treatment of the Zoroastrian Iranian civilization, with a focus on Achaemenid Iran, while his Vorlesungen über die Äesthetik (Berlin, 1835-38; tr. ... .See ÙAÚDOR VEIL Jean During ,an important modal type (æa@h-guæa) of the Persian radif, constituting the second half of the a@va@z Abu ¿Ata@ (q.v.; connected with with the mode ˆur). In the radif of Mirza@ ¿Abd-Alla@h, it comprises the sequences (guæa) H®eja@z, Basta-nega@r, Yaquluna (Bag@da@di), and Ùaha@r pa@ra, to which may be added Gabri, GÚamangiz, and Gilaki. M. Ghanoonparvar , novelist, short-story writer, playwright, essayist, translator, a government official and a member of the Senate (b. Tehran 24 D¨u'l-háejja 1318/14 April 1901; d. Tehran 10 Bahman 1352 ˆ./30 January 1974). Son of a high ranking Qajar official, Sayyed Nasár-Alla@h Mostawfi, Wazir Laægar, he received his elementary and high school education in Tehran at St. Louis, the French Catholic missionary school for boys. In 1919 he was employed by the ministry of post, telegraph, and telephone and in 1921 he was sent by the same ministry to continue his education in France. ... Jean Calmard ,a bridal chamber (háejla-ye ¿arusi) built generally in the shape of a curtained canopy by a háejla-sa@z (Dehkòoda@, Log@at-na@ma, s.v.). A small portable háejla is used to commemorate the death of a young bachelor and has been connected to the legend of the betrothal of Qa@sem b. H®asan to Imam Háosayn's daughter Zobayda (also called FatÂema Kobra@) at Karbala@, just before his martyrdom. Such háejlas could be carried on the head by a man, with a small child sitting upon it. ... Nasseredin Parvin ,the first Persian-language newspaper to be published in an Arab country. It was published in Cairo from 28 Sáafar 1310/20 September 1892 until 1 Joma@da II 1329/30 May 1911, as a weekly for the first eight years, three issues per month for the next five years, and fortnightly for the remaining six years. The publisher, Mirza@ Moháammad-Mehdi Tabrizi (b. Tabriz, 1253/1837-38, d. Cairo, 4 Moháarram 1333/22 November 1914), worked without any collaborators (H®ekmat, 7th Year, no. 246), so consequently the publication of Hekmat was interrupted several times: once from 1316 until 1320 (1898-1902) due to Mirza@ Moháammad-Mehdi's ill health (Mefta@há al-záafar, 14 Rabi¿ II 1316/1 September 1898), and on other occasions from ten days to three months, due to his travels as well as because of a change in printing house. ... Eir with an initial contribution by Abbas Milani , man of letters, university professor, cabinet minister, and the chief architect of the modernization of the educational system under Reza Shah, best remembered as a progressive and efficient minister of education (b. Shiraz 23 Ramazµa@n 1310/10 April 1893; d. Tehran 1 ˆahrivar 1359 ˆ./23 August 1980). Son of Ahámad-¿Ali H®eæmat-al-Mama@lek, he was born into a family of physicians and scholars of Shiraz. He began his education in Shiraz, where he studied traditional subjects, including Persian and Arabic (see education iv. ... Tahsin Yazici ¿AÚREF, Ottoman æaikò-al-esla@m (supreme authority in religious matters) from 1262/1845 to 1270/1854 and poet in Turkish, Arabic, and Persian, one of the last major exponents of classical Turkish poetry (b. Istanbul ?1201/1786; d. Istanbul, 1275/1859). He was the son of Ebra@him ¿Esámat Bey, who served as qa@zµi al-askar (chief military judge) and naqib al-aæra@f (representative at Istanbul of the Prophet's descendants) during the reign of Selim III. ¿AÚref Hekmat's date of birth is not known for certain, although sources (e. ... Abbas Milani , politician and the powerful speaker of the House of Representatives (Majles; b. Tehran, ca. 1308/1891; d. Tehran, 1356 ˆ./1978). He was born to H®a@jj H®esa@m-al-Din ˆira@zi of a wealthy family of Shiraz, where his paternal family had a reputation as physicians and scholars (H®ekmat, 2000, pp. 18-19). Houman Sarshar , educator and philanthropist (b. Tehran, 1917; d. Los Angeles 2 July, 1997). She graduated from American School and Sage College in Tehran. Founder, owner and principal of Hekmat International School (1950-79) in Tehran, Hekmat was one of the founders and the president of the Jewish Ladies' Organization of Iran (Sa@zma@n-e ba@nova@n-e Yahud-e Ira@n; 1947-79), which established five free daycare centers in low income Jewish quarters across the country providing education, clothing, food, and shelter to underprivileged children (Cohanim, p. ... Michele Bernardini , accomplished Persian poet of Turkish origin (b. Astara@ba@d, ca. 874/1470; d. Herat, 936/1529). Hela@li spent his early years in his native town, before moving, in around 895/1491, to Herat, where he became a member of the literary circle of Sultan H®osayn-e Ba@yqara@ (q.v.). In particular, he became a close associate of ¿Ali-ˆir Nava@÷i, who took him under his protection. He performed the Hajj with Ja@mi and also came to know Sa@m Mirza@ S®afawi well. ... Osmund Bopearachchi , the last Greek king to reign in Bactria (ca. 145-130 B.C.E.). He was one of the Greek successors of Alexander the Great, who reigned over the provinces north of the Hindu Kush mountain range, known to the ancient classical authors as Caucasus. His existence is known to us only through the monolingual coins issued by him in his own name. The bilingual (in Greek and Prakrit) coins in the name of Heliocles now are attributed with certainty to a second Heliocles, who reigned over the territories south of the Hindu Kush. ... Philippe Gignoux i.IN ZOROASTRIANISM ii.IN ISLAMIC PERSIA. See Supplement ,This entry will treat the concept of hell in the Iranian culture under two rubrics: J. Wiesehöfer , a polyhistorian, probably younger than Herodotus but older than Thucydides (ca. 480-395 B.C.?), who was much read in the ancient world. He wrote on mythology, ethnography, and universal chronology; and he was the first to compile a history of Athens. However, only about 200 fragments of his works have come down to us. Laurianne Martinez-Seàve ,a term created in Judea in the 2nd century B.C.E., signifying the adoption by some of the Jews of Greek language, customs, and manners. By extension it came to mean Greek culture and all the characteristics which made a Greek recognize himself as such. In the absence of any unified Greek political state, it was their cultural affiliation which made the Greeks recognize themselves as members of one and the same community (koineà). Among the strong points of Greek culture were the facility with which it spread among the nations who were in touch with the Greeks and the appeal it exercised on them. ... .See XERXES. Sabine Schmidtke generally referred to, using his title, as "¿Alla@ma H®elli," prominent Imami theologian and jurist (b. H®ella, 27 or 29 Ramazµa@n 648/23 or 25 December 1250; d. H®ella, 20 or 21 Moháarram 726/27 or 28 December 1325). Etan Kohlberg known as Moháaqqeq or Moháaqqeq-e awwal, a leading jurist of the Twelver Shi¿ite school of H®ella. He was born in about 602/1205-06 and spent most of his life in his home town. He studied with his father, with Fakòa@r b. Ma¿add Musawi, Ebn Nama@ H®elli and Sadid-al-Din Sa@lem b. Maháfuzá (¿Abba@s Qomi, p. 155). When Nasáir-al-Din T®usi arrived in H®ella on a mission from Hülegü, he addressed H®elli as the representative of the scholars of the town and attended one of his study sessions (Ebn MotÂahhar, pp. ... M. Jamil Hanifi and EIr. i.GEOGRAPHY At approximately 1,300 km (800 miles), the Helmand River is the longest river in Afghanistan. Originating from the Koh-e Ba@ba@ heights of the Hindu Kush (q.v.) mountain range (about 40 km west of Kabul), the Helmand receives five tributaries, Kajrud (Kudrud), Arg@an-da@b, Terin, Arg@asta@n, and Tarnak. Draining the entire southwestern portion of Afghanistan (approx.100,000 sq. miles), the river moves southwest towards the Persian border, passing through the provinces of Wardak, Oruz-ga@n, Helmand, and Nimruz. ... Gherardo Gnoli ii.IN ZOROASTRIAN TRADITION According to Avestan geography, the region of the Hae@tumant River extends in a southwest direction from the point of confluence of the Arg@anda@b with the Helmand (Gnoli, 1980, p. 66) and since relatively ancient times has had an important position within the Zoroastrian tradition. In particular, this is mentioned in the text of Yaæt 19.66-69, which contains some strophes dedicated to a celebration of the Hae@tumant and some of its affluent rivers, such as the Xúa@stra@, Hvaspa@, Fradaƒa@, Xúar™nahvait^, Uætavait^, Urva@, ‰r™z^, and Zar™numat^. ... C. Edmund Bosworth iii.IN THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD Arash Khazeni iv.IN THE LATE 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES (Av. Hae@tumant; modern usage, Hirmand, Halmand), the border river of Afghanistan and Persia. It originates in the mountains in the Haza@raja@t (q.v) and flows into the Sista@n in southeastern Persia and finally drains into the Ha@mun Lake (q.v.). B. A. Litvinsky i.IN PRE-ISLAMIC IRANHelmets came into use in the Middle East at a very early date. Among the oldest recovered specimens are Sumerian bronze helmets of the mid–3rd millennium B.C.E. from the royal cemetery of Ur. During the 9th–7th centuries B.C.E., bronze and iron helmets of different types became widespread in the Assyrian Empire. In the Caucasus region, local craftsmen influenced by Assyrian industry produced several types of Urartian helmets, mainly in bronze but some also in iron. ii. INISLAMIC PERIOD. See Supplement. .This subject will be treated in the following separate entries: Joyce Blau , Kurdish historian, poet, and political activist (b. Kirkuk, 1898; d. Baghdad, 4 August 1960). He was the son of S®a@lehá ¿Abd-Alla@h, an officer in the Ottoman army. H®elmi began school in Solayma@niya and Baghdad and then went to the Military Academy and the Technical School of Istanbul, where he received a solid education. He mastered Kurdish as well as Turkish, Arabic, Persian, and French. Hamid Algar ("The Adornment of the Godfearing"), a compendious work that has remained highly popular, by the Shi¿ite traditionist Molla@ Moháammad-Ba@qer Majlesi (d.1110/1699), on recommended customs, norms, and modes of behavior. It consists chiefly of traditions attributed to the Prophet and the Imams, grouped according to topic. The great majority of the Hadith that Majlesi cites are to be found either in his own massive compilation, the Beháa@r al-anwa@r, or in the Wasa@÷el al-æi¿a of Moháammad b. ... Joyce Blau , the pen name of Sayyed Moháammad Amini ˆaykò-al-Esla@m Mokri, Kurdish poet and journalist (b. La@±in, near Maha@ba@d, 1921, d. Urmia, 16 April 1986). After completing his studies at Shaikh Borha@n's kòa@naqa@h in ˆarafkand, Hemin joined the Kurdish Resurrection Party (Komala-ye Jia@nawa-ye Kordesta@n), founded in 1942. Together with his friend ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n ˆarafkandi Ha‘a@r (q.v.), he was nominated the "national poet of the Republic of Kurdistan" (January to December 1946), and became the secretary of H®a@ji Ba@ba@ Shaikh, the prime minister and head of the self-proclaimed Republic of Kurdistan. ... .See BANG. .See WATERMELON. C. Edmund Bosworth , the little-known author of a Persian history called the Taja@reb al-salaf (fl. first half of the 8th/14th century). Virtually nothing is known of his life or when he was born and died. Browne (1924, p. 246 n. 1) thought that the nesba S®a@háebi meant that he was in the entourage of some leading political figure of the time and that Kira@ni might be connected with a Qal¿a-ye Kira@n located near Nakò±eva@n (q.v.) in eastern Transcaucasia; the paternal name Sanjar points to Turkish ancestry. ... Huæang ¿Alam (Pers. háana@, Ar. háenna@÷), a russet or orange dye obtained from the pulverized leaves of the henna plant, Lawsonia alba Lam. (= L. inermis/spinosa L.; fam. Lythraceae), a shrub with fragrant, usually greenish white flowers (for an accurate morphology thereof see Dymock et al., II, p. 43; Polatschek and Rechinger, p. 2). H®ana@ is not to be confused in Persia with the ornamental gol-e háana@ "henna flower" (i.e., garden balsam, Impatiens balsamina L.), the leaves or flowers of which were/are used in China to dye red the fingernails and, occasionally, the manes and tails of horses (see Balfour, II, s. ... Werner Sundermann (b. Ragnit, East Prussia, 1908; d. Berkeley, Calif., 1967), celebrated Iranist and lin-guist. An appreciation of the work of Walter Bruno Henning (in his earlier publications W[alter], from 1937 W[alter] B[runo] Henning), would almost amount to writing a history of the study of Middle Iranian languages and cultures in the 20th century. There exists hardly any discovery in this realm of knowledge to which Henning has not made major and fundamental contributions, and the fact that it is precisely this area of Iranian studies which went through an unprecedented evolution in the 20th century underlines the importance of this scholar, who can be without exaggeration considered as one of the leading philologists of the past century. ... A. D. H. Bivar (Arabic HaytÂa@l, pl. Haya@tÂela), a people who formed apparently the second wave of "Hunnish" tribal invaders to impinge on the Iranian and Indian worlds from the mid-fourth century C.E. The first invaders, known simply as "Huns" (see CHIONITES), representing Gk. *CÇwn "Hun" plus tribal suffix -itai, were reported by the Latin historian Ammianus Marcellinus (16.9.3-4) as engaged in hostilities on the northeast frontier of Iran with the Sasanian ˆa@pu@r II in 356. Subsequently, around 380 C. ... J. Wiesehöfer (fl. ca. 350 B.C.E.), Greek author of a "Persian History" (Persika) in five books, which survives only in a few fragments. These fragments are collected by Jacoby (Fragmente IIIC, no. 689). In the first two books, bearing the particular title Paraskeuastika, the land and people of Persia were described in detail. The work is exploited by Plutarch in his "Life of Artaxerxes," but it is above all the verbatim citations preserved in Athenaeus that provide interesting glimpses into life at the Achaemenid royal court under Artaxerxes II. ... J. Wiesehöfer , Greek philosopher traditionally credited as the first to have written on the magi. Heracleitus, son of Bloson, may be regarded as Ephesus' most eminent native son during the early Persian period. He flourished ca. 500 B.C.E.. (Diogenes Laërtius 9.1), and came from a venerable aristocratic line with whom the sacerdotal office of basileus was hereditary; but he is said to have relinquished this rank in favor of his brother. Further biographical details are derived from traditions of questionable historicity. ... Albert de Jong , one of the most popular Greek gods in the Hellenistic East and by far the best-attested Greek god in the Iranian world. In the Greek pantheon, he occupied a special position, being the most prominent of the he@ro@es (and one of the few whose cult was not centered on a grave) as well as an important god. The son of Zeus and the mortal woman Alcmene, Heracles was the subject of extensive narrative cycles, which have left many traces in ancient art. These stories focus on his great physical strength and cunning, from earliest childhood onwards, and culminate in the tragic episode in which Heracles—driven mad by Hera—killed his own children. ... .See K¨OSROW II, and Supplement. Arash Khazeni and EIr. i.GEOGRAPHY W. J. Vogelsang ii.HISTORY, PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD The present town of Herat in western Afghanistan dates back to ancient times, but its exact age remains unknown. In Achaemenid times (ca. 550-330 B.C.E.), the surrounding district was known as Haraiva (in Old Persian), and in classical sources the region was correspondingly known as Areia. In the Zoroastrian Avesta (Yaæt 10.14; Vide@vda@t 1.9), the district is mentioned as Haro@iva. The name of the district and its main town is derived from that of the chief river of the region, the Hari Rud (Old Iranian *Harayu "with velocity"; compare Sanskrit Sara‚yu [Mayrhofer, Dictionary III, p. ... iii.HISTORY, MEDIEVAL PERIOD Herat at the time of the Arab conquest. When the Arab armies appeared in Khorasan in the 30s/650s, Herat was counted among the twelve capital towns of the Sasanian Empire (Markwart, pp. 8-13). The period from the 3rd to the 5th century was one of urban growth in the eastern Iranian world (Grenet). To that period belong the rare data witnessing the presence of Christians in Herat (Gignoux). Herat is described by EsátÂakòri and Ebn H®awqal in the 10th century as a prosperous town surrounded by strong walls with plenty of water sources, extensive suburbs, an inner citadel, a congregational mosque, and four gates, each gate opening to a thriving market place (see iv. ... Maria Szuppe iv.TOPOGRAPHY AND URBANISM Jürgen Paul v.LOCAL HISTORIESLocal histories of Hera@t belong to three distinct literary genres: the biographical dictionary, the dynastic history, and the guide for pilgrims. Chronologically, the biographical dictionaries belong to the pre-Mongol period, the dynastic histories to the centuries when Hera@t was the capital of a regional or imperial state (Kartid and Timurid periods); and the guides for pilgrims begin in the Timurid period and continue into the 20th century. The large compendium of Sufi biographies, T®abaqa@t al-S®ufiya, of the patron saint of the city, K¨úa@ja ¿Abd-Alla@h Ansáa@ri (q. ... Abbas Amanat vi.THE HERAT QUESTION From the middle of the 18th century, following Na@der Shah's assassination in 1747, Herat became the focus of a century-long power struggle and regional rivalry that came to an end only with Persia renouncing its sovereignty over the city in 1857. Early Qajar shahs were committed to the preservation of Herat as an inseparable part of "The Guarded Domains of Iran" (mama@lek-e mahárusa-ye Ira@n), treating it mostly as a frontier vassalage that had to be protected, if necessary, by military means. ... Arash Khazeni vii.THE HERAT FRONTIER IN THE LATTER HALF OF 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES In the latter half of 19th century, following the settlement of the Khorasan frontier with Persia in 1857, the rulers of Kabul, with British support, sought to make Herat a part viii.FROM THE SOVIET OCCUPATION TO POST-T®AÚLEBAÚN PERIOD. See Supplement. ,ancient city and province in northwestern Afghanistan. i. Geography. ii. History, Pre-Islamic Period. iii. History, Medieval Period. iv. Topography and urbanism. v. Local histories. vi. The Herat question. vii. The Herat frontier in the latter half of 19th and 20th centuries Philip G. Kreyenbroek , a Zoroastrian priestly title, at present used for a "priest in minor orders," that is, a man of priestly family who has undergone the initiatory Na@war ceremony and is qualified to officiate at lower rituals. Firoze M. Kotwal (school for priests, religious school), a Middle Persian term designating (1) Zoroastrian priestly studies and (2) an Avestan/Pahlavi text found together with the Ne@rangesta@n manuscripts. .See BOTANICAL STUDIES iii. Moti Gharib Shojania (1625-95), French orientalist whose monumental four-volume encyclopedia, the Bibliotheàque orientale (1697), was published posthumously by Antoine Galland (1646-1715), himself a noted orientalist and the first European translator of The Thousand and One Nights (see ALF LAYLA WA LAYLA). Writing at a time when Europeans regarded "the Orient" as an exotic but undifferentiated locale, d'Herbe‚lot was one of the first orientalists to produce a systematic survey and alphabetized account of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish literature with dictionaries for each language. ... R. W. Ferrier , author of the first English account of Persia. Herbert was born in York in 1606 of a minor aristocratic family connected with business interests. He made a name for himself in London in court circles and accompanied the royal embassy of Sir Dodmore Cotton from King Charles I to the court of the Safavid Shah ¿Abba@s I in 1626-29. His reputation rests on his account of this embassy, A Description of the Persian Monarchy [ADPM] (London, 1634), which George Nathaniel Curzon praised as "by far the most amusing work that has ever been published on Persia" (I, p. ... J.-P. Digard and M.-H. Papoli Yazdi . In the Iranian world, domestic herbivores have long been raised exclusively on natural grazing, as it is still true in many places, especially among the nomadic tribes. The herd or flock (galla) is the basis of all the techniques of this type of breeding (Bonte). It is the gregarious instinct that drives herbivorous animals to flock together under their leaders. The role of man consists of turning the natural rules of the gregarious instinct to his own profit by changing the size and composition of the flock and by imposing other leaders (shepherds or trained animals) on it. ... .See INDO-GREEK DYNASTY. I thank Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst and Christiane Reck for valuable help and advice. , title of an early Christian paraenetic apocalypse (Lat. title: Pastor [Hermae], Gk.: Poime@n "Shepherd"), composed in Greek by a certain Hermas, who presents himself as an emancipated slave and then a Roman businessman. According to the Canon Muratori he was the brother of the Roman bishop Pius (ca. 142-55, cf. Hilhorst, 1988, p. 683; Staats, 1993, p. 103). The most likely date for the Shepherd's origin is ca. 140 C.E. (Harnack, 1958, pp. 257-59). The text at first enjoyed great popularity and almost canonical authority in Alexandria and in the western parts of the Roman Empire. ... Bo Utas (b. Svanshals, June 22, 1860; d. Lund, November 8, 1944), Swedish author and prolific translator of Persian works of literature. He was born into an aristocratic family in Svanshals, south Sweden, and had a traditional education, at the end of which he spent a couple of years at the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Uppsala, which he left without taking a degree. Already at this stage he seems to have developed a taste for alcohol, which later became an addiction, with drastic life-long consequences. ... B. Todd Lawson of pre-modern Islamic and Shi¿ite exegesis, the principles and methods, or philosophy, of scriptural interpretation, as distinct from the act of interpretation (e.g., tafsir, ta÷wil, for which see exegesis ii., iii., vi., and vii.). While the term hermeneutics began to rise to its current prominence in literary criticism and cultural studies in the works of Friedrich Schleiermacher (d. 1834) in the early 19th century, when it pertained to Biblical scholarship (in the first instance), it is nonetheless a useful concept with which to consider the history and development of scriptural exegesis in Islam. ... Albert de Jong ,the Greek god of boundaries, the 'trickster' of the Greek pantheon, and the guide of souls (psychopompos). Hermes was the inventor of fire and sacrifice, the first player of the lyre, the divine thief who stole the cattle of Apollo, and the messenger of the gods. Because of this last function, he came to be represented as a young man with winged sandals, a hat with wings (the petasos), and his chief symbol, the caduceus (or kerykeion), a staff encircled by two coiling snakes (Burkert, 1985). The "herm," originally a heap of stones bearing his name, evolved into a pillar with a representation of male genitalia and crowned by a bearded head; it signaled the presence of Greek culture wherever Greeks settled. ... .See K¨OSROW I. J. Wiesehöfer , third-century B.C.E., Greek grammarian who wrote on "Zoroaster's writings." He lived in Alexandria and was a close associate of Callimachus (hence also referred to as Kallimacheios: Athenaeus 2.58 F; 5.213 F). He published extensive biographies (bioi) of eminent men and their disciples (e.g. Pythagoras, Aristotle, Gorgias), and also biographical accounts of the ancient lawgivers (peri nomotheto@n) and of the Seven Sages (peri to@n hepta sopho@n). In his work he based himself in part on the scholarly material in the Library of Alexandria, especially the "catalogs of books" (pinakes), but at the same time, he did not hesitate to fill the gaps in the record by resorting to the use of unscholarly sources, forced textual interpretations, and audacious improvisions. ... B. I. Marshak and A. B. Nikitin i.COLLECTION OF THE PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD Among the most ancient objects of Iranian art in the Hermitage collection are 55 Elamite painted vessels of the late 4th-3rd millennium B.C.E. donated by the French Archaeological Mission in Persia at the beginning of the 20th century. Antiquities from Luristan (13th-8th century B.C.E.), among them bracelets, pins, bronze figurines and pottery, make a comparatively small collection. The Iron Age is represented also by several earthenware vessels of the Hasanlu type (10th-9th century B. ... Anatol Ivanov ii.COLLECTION OF THE ISLAMIC PERIOD Persian art from the advent of Islam until the beginning of the 20th century is well represented in the State Hermitage Museum. The total number of artifacts is not known precisely, because the collection has never been fully documented; only two specialized catalogues have been published so far. , PERSIAN ART COLLECTIONS. The State Hermitage Museum of St. Petersburg, Russia, possesses some of the richest collections of Persian art. With a collection of over 3 million art works, put together throughout two centuries and a half, the Museum presents the development of world culture and art from the Stone Age to the 20th century. It is housed in a complex of six magnificent buildings, with the leading architectural edifice of the Winter Palace, the residence of the Russian tsars that was built to the design of Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli in 1754-62. ... Philip Huyse (fl. shortly before 250 C.E.), historian, probably a native of Syria (perhaps from Antiochia), who wrote a Greek history of the Roman emperors in eight volumes, from the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 C.E. to the accession of Gordian III in 238. i.INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORIESPhilologists of Hellenistic times divided Herodotus's opus magnuminto nine books and subdivided these into chapters. The Histories cannot be characterized perfectly according to modern principles of literary genre, because such genera did not yet exist in Herodotus's time. From a modern point of view it comprises historiographic, ethnographic, geographic, and topographic aspects, also including fairy tales, gossip, legends, anecdotes, and mythographic parts. The main theme of the work is the struggles between Greeks and Barbarians, as is explicitly stressed in the prooemium. ... ii.THE HISTORIES AS A SOURCE FOR PERSIA AND PERSIANSAn evaluation of Herodotus's treatment of Persia and the Persians is a difficult task. The subject is not limited to a specific logos but is ubiquitous in the Histories. One may define the passage 1.131-40 as a kind of "Persian Logos"; nevertheless the Persians, their customs (nomoi), and their history are the backbone of the whole work. To deal with Persia and the Persians means a consideration of the whole work, which is huge in its dimensions. Furthermore the scientific community is still far away from sharing a general consensus on fundamental questions concerning the Histories and their value as historical source (see in detail Bichler and Rollinger, 2000, pp. ... iii.DEFINING THE PERSIANSE´thnos "people."In the Histories the Persians are sometimes not exactly distinguishable from other peoples of their empire, especially when the Greeks' opponents are simply qualified as "Persians." The Persians generally are run together with the Medes, as can be recognized by Herodotus's use of the terms me@dízein and me@dismo‚s (Myres, 1936; Graf, 1984; Tuplin, 1994, 1997; Rollinger, 2003). He also states that the Persians have adopted Median attire (1.35; Armayor, 1978c, p. ... iv.CYRUS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS Time before kingship. The historical past takes on clearer outline beginning with the figure of Cyrus the Great. With him the Persians too are introduced into world history. Like the Mede Deioces, Cyrus appears as the founding king, "with whom their history really commences" (Bichler, 2000b, p. 256). At least two traditions are discernible, which conflict with one another. In Herodotus, knowledge of Cyrus's genealogy comes through only marginally, when his father Cambyses and his grandfather Cyrus [the First] are mentioned (1. ... v.CAMBYSES ACCORDING TO HERODOTUSGenealogy. Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, is first described by Herodotus at a time when his father's reign was already about to end. (For Herodotus's portayal of this king, cf. Hofmann and Vorbichler, 1980; Brown, 1982; Lloyd, 1988; Obsomer, 1998; Cruz-Uribe, 2003.) While he was preparing to cross the Araxes to seek a decision against Tomyris, his father sent him together with Croesus back to Persia from the army camp where he was staying (1.208). According to Herodotus, the change of rulers took place without causing problems. ... vi.DARIUS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS The false Smerdis. Herodotus connects the beginning of Darius's reign with a deep break in the history of Persian royalty. He describes the rule of the Magus and palace administrator Patizeithes, as well as that of his brother, the false Smerdis, as an attempt at usurpation, which he equates with the return of foreign rule by the Medes (cf. 3.63.4, 65.6). The classification of this reign as an illegitimate one, the central figure of the false Smerdis, as well as the conspiracy by the Seven, with Darius appearing as their central protagonist, are structural common grounds shared with the Behistun inscription. ... vii.XERXES ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS Bad advisors. The young king inherited a solid empire, which was greater than any before in history. Subsequent events come under the curse of the great war of the years 480 and 479, which Herodotus describes as an immense struggle and to which he devotes a third of his work. Xerxes' venture was indeed not only directed against the whole of Hellas, but against the entire part of the world which had so far remained ungoverned. Xerxes had already been prefigured in his essential features by Aeschylus's tragedy Persae (Gammie, 1986, p. ... viii.MARDONIUS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS Second offensive and retreat. After Xerxes' retreat, Mardonius prepared his offensive on land. He also wanted the higher powers to be on his side and asked his close friend, Mys of Europus, to consult the local oracles of Boeotia (8.133-35). At the same time, Alexander of Macedonia was to try to draw the Athenians onto the side of the Persians (8.136). Mardonius was also aiming at naval supremacy—on land he already considered himself as the most powerful—and wanted over and above his actual task to win mastery over both elements. ... (Gk.He@ro‚dotos), author of theHistories, the first monumental Greek work in prose which is still extant (5th cent. B.C.E.). Information on his life is very late, primarily derived from two articles in the Suda, a Byzantine lexicon. According to this source Herodotus was born in Halicarnassus and emigrated in 444 to Thurii in southern Italy, where he died. Whether he was in Athens during the 440s giving some lectures and whether he had a close relationship to this town and to the circle around Pericles has been debated in recent scholarship. ... ix.TIGRANES AND THE BATTLE OF MYCALE The fleets after Salamis. After Salamis, the escaped Persian fleet for a while ceased playing any further part. During the winter it was anchored in part at Cyme, and in part before Samos. The crew now appeared to consist mainly of Persians and Medes (8.130.1). The supreme command was divided between Mardontes, son of Bagaeus, Artayntes, son of Artachaees, and the latter's nephew, Ithamitres (8.130.2; cf. Bichler, 2000b, p. 348, n. 110). In the spring the fleet took up a position near Samos, so as to prevent the Ionians from breaking away. ... x.ARTAYCTES AND THE FINALE Sestus. After the battle of Mycale, the Greeks advanced as far as the Hellespont, where they found that Xerxes' bridge was already destroyed (9.114.1). While Leutychides and the Peloponnesians now ended the fight and sailed home, the Athenians did not stop the offensive they had started (9.114.2). Until late autumn they laid siege to Sestus, the major Persian base on the straits (9.115). The commander Artayctes held the fortress to the point when hunger forced the defenders to give up (9. ... Robert Rollinger xi.SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYSilvio Accame, "La leggenda di Ciro in Erodoto e in Carone di Lampsaco," Miscellanea Greca e Romana 12, 1982, pp. 2-43. Wolf Aly, Volksmärchen, Sage und Novelle bei Herodot und seinen Zeitgenossen. Eine Untersuchung über die volkstümlichen Elemente der altgriechischen Prosaerzählung, Göttingen, 1921; 2nd ed., 1969. Zofia H. Archibald, The Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace. Orpheus unmasked, Oxford, 1998. O. Kimball Armayor, "Did Herodotus ever go to the Black Sea?" Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 82, 1978a, pp. ... Almut Hintze , Sanskritist and Iranist (born 13 March 1872 in Zwickau, Saxony, Germany; died 27 October 1955 in Leipzig, where his tomb can be seen in the Südfriedhof). Hertel studied in the University of Leipzig and obtained his Ph.D. in 1897 with a thesis titled Text und Verfasser des Hitopades‚a. After teaching at Gymnasia in Zwickau and Doebeln, he succeeded Ernst Windisch to the chair of Indology at the University of Leipzig in 1919. He was married and the father of eight children. .See BOSNIA AND HERZEGO-VINA at: www.iranica.com before publication in the Supplement. Stefan R. Hauser i.LIFE AND WORK Herzfeld was born on 23 July 1879 in Celle, Germany. His father was a medical major in the Prussian army of Protestant Christian faith. Herzfeld attended the Domgymnasium at Verden and received his high school diploma at the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium at Berlin in 1897. After a year of military service he studied architecture at the Technische Hochschule (later renamed Technical University) in Berlin, but also Assyriology, art history, and philosophy at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Berlin. ... David Stronach ii.HERZFELD AND PASARGADAE While the writings of Ernst Herzfeld bear witness to an exceptionally wide interest in the art and archeology of the Near East, he probably devoted more attention to the study of Achaemenid Iran than to any other single topic during the course of his long career. Above all else, his name will always be associated with Pasargadae, the dynastic seat of Cyrus II (the Great), the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. This was a site that he was already deeply interested in from the time that he was a student, and it was still very much in his thoughts when his last comprehensive treatment of Iranian art and archeology appeared in 1941 (Herzfeld, 1941, pp. ... Hubertus von Gall iii.HERZFELD AND PERSEPOLIS Herzfeld first visited Persepolis in November 1905 during his return from the Assur excavation (see above, HERZFELD i.). Back in Berlin Eduard Meyer introduced him to Friedrich Sarre; their work together resulted in, among other projects, the outstanding publication Iranische Felsreliefs (Berlin, 1910). This book profited much from Herzfeld's work in Persepolis (see pls. 14-25 and a plan of the Apadana, p. 116, fig. 49). Here for the first time an identification of the thronebearers on the royal rock tombs was presented (pp. ... Prods Oktor Skjœrvø iv.HERZFELD AND THE PAIKULI INSCRIPTION The monument at Paikuli (Pa@iku@l^), locally called bot-kòa@na "idol house" (Rawlinson apud Thomas, p. 57), lies on the Iraqi side of the border with Iran on a north-south line drawn from Solaima@n^ya in Iraq to Qasár-e ˆ^r^n in Persia on the ancient road from Ctesiphon to Azerbaijan (see maps, e.g., in Herzfeld, 1914, fig. 1; Humbach and Skjœrvø, pt. 1, fig. 116). In the 19th century, when it was visited by several travelers, it consisted of the ruins of a large, square tower that had originally been covered on all sides by stone blocks, some of which contained inscriptions, but, at the time, lay scattered all around the monument. ... Josef Wiesehöfer v.HERZFELD AND THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT IRAN Herzfeld's classical education, giving him familiarity with Greek and Latin literature, and his training in Oriental philology as well as in archeology and architectural techniques proved of great benefit in his study of pre-Islamic Iranian history and culture. Almost all his works on these subjects are marked by the following characteristics: (1) an interest not only in questions of detail, but also in larger contexts; his writings often surmounted the limits of discipline and periods; (2) a distinctly less marked "orientalism" in his works in comparison with those of some predecessors and contemporaries (cf. ... Hessamaddin Arfaei and Fariborz Majidi , contemporary Persian physicist, Senator, and minister of education (b. Tehran, 1321/1903, d. Geneva, 12 ˆahrivar 1371 ˆ./3 September 1992). He was born to ¿Abba@s H®esa@bi, a Qajar government official from Tafreæ. H®esa@bi received his primary and secondary education in French and American Schools in Beirut, 1910-19. He completed his degree in road engineering in 1922 from the American University of Beirut and subsequently worked for the road ministry in Beirut. In 1923 he moved to Paris and obtained a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from the École Supe‚rieure d'Électricite‚ in 1925. ... Jean During in Persian Music, an important section (æa@h-guæa, see GUˆA) in the Persian and Azeri radifs, its name probably originating from the town in Tajikistan. It occupies a central position in the development of the modal systems (dastga@h, q.v.) of Ùaha@rga@h and Sega@h, transposing these modes to the higher fifth. In both cases its melodic content is identical, but its scale is adapted to the interval of the dastga@h: Ep Fa# G Yuri Bregel ,the name of a region in the eastern part of Transoxania, in the upper course of the Sorkòa@n Darya@ (medieval Ùag@a@nrud) and the Ka@ferneha@n (on most modern maps it is called Gissar, derived from a poor Russian transcription). It is a fertile valley stretching for about 110-120 km in a latitudinal direction to the south of the H®esáa@r range, which separates it from the upper Zarafæa@n basin; its maximum width is about 20 km. In the early Islamic period its eastern part was known as ˆuma@n, and its western part as Akòarun (see Barthold, Turkestan3, p. ... . See TEPE HISSAR at: www.iranica.com before publication in print. .See MOH®TASEB. Rüdiger Schmitt (Gk. He@síodos), Greek epic poet, who lived about 700 B.C.E. and is the author of several didactic poems such as the Theogony "Genealogy of the gods" or its continuation, in a sense, the Catalogue of [mortal] Women. At least by mentioning for the first time the Scythians, Hesiod belongs to the Greek authorities for Iranian matters. This mentioning of the Scythians (ideà Sky´thas hippe@molgou‚s "and the mare-milking Scythians") is found in frag. 150 M.-W., which belongs to the Catalogue, in a verse (v. ... Rüdiger Schmitt (Gk. He@sy´chios), Greek lexicographer from Alexandria, whose lexicon records a number of Iranian words (6th or possibly 5th century C.E.). Judging by his name, he was a Christian; more is not known about him and cannot be determined. In the history of Greek lexicography Hesychius is transitional between the Roman Imperial and the Byzantine periods. He is the author or, more exactly, the compiler of a voluminous, alphabetically arranged Greek lexicon. It is one of the most important and, with about 51,000 entries, the largest Greek lexicon preserved. ... Matthew W. Stolper (Akkadian Óidala, Óidali, Óidalu, Óajdalu; Neo-Elamite Hidali, Idali; Achaemenid Elamite Hidali), city and region in Elam (q.v.); a residence of Elamite kings in the early 7th century B.C.E., a regional administrative center connected with Susa in the early 6th century B.C.E., and a regional administrative center connected with Persepolis in the early 5th century B.C.E. According to Assyrian annals, Hidali was in a mountainous region, and, according to Achaemenid Elamite administrative texts, it was a little more than halfway along the road from Persepolis to Susa. ... .See SHI¿ISM. Carmen Arnold-Biucchi noted numismatist, epigraphist, and Director of the British Museum (b. 22 December 1867, d. 18 October 1948). He was a leading Greek numismatist of his time in England, as well as a foremost scholar of Italian Renaissance medals; and his long career at the British Museum in London culminated in its Directorship, 1931-36. He was one of the most productive scholars of his age, and his mastery of Greek, Latin, and Hebrew, coupled with ability to deal with difficult and only partly deciphered scripts, such as Lycian, Aramaic, Phoenician, and Cypriot, give his works such authenticity that they have stood the test of time well and are still used as essential references (Robinson, pp. ... J. T. P. de Bruijn , denotes in Persian an inhabitant of the Indian Subcontinent as well as a follower of Hinduism. During almost three millennia, the eastern Iranians have lived in close contact with the Indians. Their mutual experiences left traces in historical memory, but also created images and stereotypes of an ethnic type which are reflected in Persian poetry. An important event was the establishment of a satellite state of the Ghaznavid empire in the Punjab (first half of the 11th century) which was called Hindustan. Its capital Lahore was the first center of Persian culture on Indian soil. ... Ervin Grötzbach , the name given to the southwest range of the massive middle and south Asiatic mountain complex lying partly in Afghanistan and partly in Pakistan. The border with the Karakoram and the Hindu Raj is marked in the east by the deep saddle of the Baroghil (Ba@rug@il) Pass (3,804 m) and the valleys of the Yarkòun, Mastuj, and Chitral (q.v.), which run from there towards the southwest. In the north the Hindu Kush is separated from the mountains of northern Badakòæa@n by the valley of the Kok±a and from the Pamir by the valley of the Panj or AÚmu Darya@ (q. ... Rüdiger Schmitt German scholar of Persian and Elamite studies (b. 19 November 1906 in Stuttgart, d. 12 April 1992 in Göttingen). Hinz was born into a merchant's family. From 1926, he pursued studies in Journalism, Eastern European, Slavonic, and Oriental Studies at the universities of Leipzig, Munich, and Paris. In 1930, he was awarded his doctorate at the University of Leipzig for a thesis on the cultural history of Russia under Tsar Peter the Great (1933). It was while completing this thesis that Hinz's attention was drawn increasingly to Persia, motivating him to change his field of research to Persian studies (see Hinz, 1938b, p. ... Lutz Richter-Bernburg (var. Eboqra@tÂ, Eboqra@-tÂis, Boqra@tÂis) in Islamic tradition, where he is often referred to as "the first codifier of medicine." He is traditionally, but without factual basis, said to have been born on the Island of Cos (Dodecanese) in about 460 and to have died in Larissa (Thessaly) around 370 B.C.E. (for the attempts of Muslims at dating see below). In Persian, as well as in Arabic, his name, etymologized as zµa@bet al-kòayl (horse-tamer), was often corrupted (e. ... C. Edmund Bosworth ,a city on the desert fringes of southwestern Mesopotamia; known in pre-Islamic times as the capital of the Lakhmid Arab dynasty, clients of the Sasanians, it survived as an urban settlement into the early centuries of the Islamic period. . See TEPE HISSAR at: www.iranica.com before publication in print. Elton Daniel i.INTRODUCTION Historiography, literally, is the study not of history but of the writing of history. In modern usage, this term covers a wide range of related but distinct areas of inquiry. From a pedagogical point of view, it refers to basic training in the "nuts and bolts" of how history is written (such as the techniques of locating and evaluating sources, providing documentation, preparing a manuscript, and so on). It commonly applies to studies of significant historians or their writings, i.e., the identification and interpretation of major historical texts, especially with an eye to the cultural forces and other factors which shape the assumptions and methods of such works and their authors. ... A. SH. Shahbazi ii.PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD The idea of history as a science seeking the truth by investigating man's action in a dated past based on evidence was first conceived by Herodotus (q.v.) in the 5th century B.C.E. (Callingwood, pp. 17-30) and later developed by Western thinkers from Giambattista Vico (1668-1744) to Arnold Toynbee and others (Callingwood,pp. 63-71, 159-65). Iranian historiography remained unaffected by the Herodotean school (Klima, pp. 218-20) and developed from oral traditions and the Mesopotamian-style "quasi-history," which embellished historical narratives with theocentric conceptions, ideological preachings, and romantic lore (Klima, pp. ... Elton L. Daniel iii.EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD Introduction. It might well be questioned whether there is, strictly speaking, any "historiography of Persia in the early Islamic period" at all, since it is by no means clear that there was an Islamic "Persia" prior to the rise of the Safavids. As lamented in the Middle Persian apocalyptic literature (which could be regarded as an esoteric form of historiography that projects past events into the future; on this aspect of Islamic historiography, see now D. Cook; M. Cook), Persian history had effectively ended when "the nation of Iran" had fallen to its Arab enemies and "Ane@ra@n and EÚra@n will be [i. ... Charles Melville iv.Mongol Period Persian historiography reached its maturity during the period of 13th-15th centuries, which might broadly be described as the Turko-Mongol era. Compared with earlier centuries, the bulk of the chronicles recording Persia's history were now written in Persian, and although Arabic sources continue to be important (particularly in the early Mamluk period, to around 740/1340), they contribute only incidental and random information on the former lands of the eastern caliphate (Little; Melville, 1996). ... Maria Szuppe v.Timurid Period Timurid historiography is firmly rooted within the Persian literary tradition of official court histories of the post-Mongol period, such as the Ja@me¿ al-tawa@rikò of Raæid-al-Din, and the Ta@rikò-e jaha@n-goæa@ by ¿AtÂa@-Malek Joveyni, as well as being tributary of local traditions of regional history, notably Sayf Heravi's chronicle of the Karts (Kurts) of Herat (see Sayf b. Muháammad b. Ya¿qub al-Heravi). During the Timurid period the historiographical school of Khorasan developed, bloomed and crystallized into a canon that was adopted and followed beyond the Timurid period in Iran and Transoxiana. ... Sholeh Quinn v.SAFAVID Safavid historiography, although developing unique features of its own, had its origins in the eastern Timurid tradition that was centered in Hera@t (Aubin, p. 248). Many, if not most, Safavid historians praised earlier Timurid histories as works worthy of emulation. For example, Ebra@him Amini, author of FotÂuháa@t-e æa@hi, the earliest Safavid history (comp. 1531), mentions ˆaraf-al-Din ¿Ali Yazdi's Z®afar-na@ma (comp. 831/1427-28) in his preface, as does Eskandar Beg Torkama@n, author of the ¿AÚlama@ra@-ye ¿abba@si (q. ... .This entry is concerned with the historiography of the Iranian and Persephone world from the pre-Islamic period through the 20th century in Persian and other Iranian languages. Broadly speaking, this long time span can be divided into three major periods, each with its own particular range of explicit and implicit preoccupations: the pre-Islamic and the gradual construction of a grand or master narrative of Persian national history; the Perso-Islamic with its development of an array of annals, dynastic chronicles, and local histories and biographies; and the modern, when historical writing in Persian began to be influenced by various models of Western scholarly and academic historiography. ... CHARLES MELVILLE iv.MONGOL PERIOD Persian historiography reached its maturity during the period of the 13th-15th centuries, which might broadly be described as the Turko-Mongol era. Compared with earlier centuries, the bulk of the chronicles recording Persia's history were now written in Persian; and although Arabic sources continue to be important (particularly in the early Mamluk period, to around 740/1340), they contribute only incidental and random information on the former lands of the eastern caliphate (Little; Melville, 1996). ... MARIA SZUPPE v.TIMURID PERIODTimurid historiography is firmly rooted within the Persian literary tradition of official court histories of the post-Mongol period, such as the Ja@me¿ al-tawa@rikò of Raæid-al-Din, and the Ta@rikò-e jaha@n-goæa@ by ¿AtÂa@-Malek Jovayni, as well as being nourished by local traditions of regional history, notably Sayf Heravi's chronicle of the Karts (Kurts) of Herat (see Sayf b. Muháammad b. Ya¿qub al-Heravi). During the Timurid period the historiographical school of Khorasan bloomed and developed into a canon that was adopted and followed beyond the Timurid period in Iran and Transoxiana. ... SHOLEH QUINN vi.SAFAVID PERIOD Safavid historiography, although developing unique features of its own, had its origins in the eastern Timurid tradition that was centered in Herat (Aubin, p. 248). Many, if not most, Safavid historians praised earlier Timurid histories as works worthy of emulation. For example, Ebra@-him Amini, author of FotÂuháa@t-e æa@hi, the earliest Safavid history (comp. 1531), mentions ˆaraf-al-Din ¿Ali Yazdi's Z®afar-na@ma (comp. 831/1427-28) in his preface, as does Eskandar Beg Torkama@n, author of the ¿AÚlama@ra@-ye ¿ab-ba@si (q. ... ERNEST TUCKER vii.AFSHARID AND ZAND PERIODS Persian historical writing in the 12th/18th century reflected the profound changes that occurred in Iran after the 1134/1722 Afghan conquest of Isfahan. The next few decades saw the swift rise and fall of numerous pretenders to the Safavid throne, the most important of whom were the Afsharid (q.v.) and Zand dynasties. Afsharid and Zand court histories largely followed Safavid models in their structure and language, but departed from long-established historiographical conventions in small but meaningful ways. ... ABBAS AMANAT viii.QAJAR PERIOD In the century and a half that constituted the Qajar period (1786-1925), writing of history evolved from production of annalistic court chronicles and other traditional genres into the earliest experimentations in modern historiography. Aiming to fashion a new historical identity, Qajar historiography fused the pre-Islamic memory with Iran's dynastic history as well as with its Shi¿i past. With the rise of popular movements culminating in the Constitutional Revolution (q.v.), writing of history began to shift away from a narrative scripted by the powerful, into one about people and popular aspirations. ... ABBAS AMANAT, EIr. ix.PAHLAVI PERIOD Histriography of this period will be treated in two separate entries: (1) General survey of historical writings; and (2) Specific topics concerning historical works. x.ISLAMIC REPUBLIC. See Supplement CHRISTINE NOELLE-KARIMI xi.AFGHANISTAN The rise of the Dorra@ni dynasty under Ahámad Shah Sa-do@zay in 1160/1747 marked the beginning of an independent Afghan statehood, the political center of which was located in Qandaha@r and shifted to Kabul in 1775. Initially based on a loosely defined tribal polity, the Dorra@ni empire was gradually transformed into the modern state of Afghanistan, suffering territorial losses and upheaval along the way (see AFGHANISTAN X. POLITICAL HISTORY). These political developments are mirrored by the historiography of the day, which not only bears witness to the perceptions current at the time but also was subject to reinterpretation as new historical predilections arose. ... YURI BREGEL xii.CENTRAL ASIA The first Persian historical work produced in Central Asia (Transoxiana, K¨óa@razm, Farg@a@na, and Eastern Turkestan) was the 4th/10th century translation of the history of T®abari by the vizier of the Samanids, Abu ¿Ali Mo-háammad Bal¿ami. While no works on the history of the Samanids themselves were written for them as far as we know, the historians of the Ghaznavids wrote both general histories and histories of Khorasan; events in Transoxiana and other parts of Central Asia would sometimes occupy a prominent place in these works, but their general approach to Central Asia was from an outsider's perspective, and they cannot be considered a part of regional historiography. ... xiii.THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT. See under INDIA SARA NUR YILDIZ xiv.THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE Ottoman historical works composed in Persian occupy an important place in the corpus of court-oriented Ottoman historical writing of the early and classical periods. Although the predominant literary language of the Ottoman realm was Turkish, Persian, as a language of prestige and the preferred vehicle for the projection of an imperial image, provided an alternative linguistic medium for historical composition. Despite the smaller volume of historical works produced in Persian—approximately one-sixth of the total number of Ottoman histories from the beginning of the 9th/15th to the end of the 10th/16th century—the esteem accorded Persian compositions, as well as the influence of Persian works on subsequent Ottoman historical writing, is immeasurable. ... ARAM ARKUN ,colloquial term referring to the members of the Social Democratic Hn±¿akean Party [SDHP], also called Hn±¿akean Revolutionary Party and Hn±¿akean Social Democratic Party; it was also the name of the party's first periodical. Founded in Switzerland by Russian Armenians in 1887, the party quickly established branches in Persia, the Russian empire, the Ottoman empire, Europe, America, and the Balkans. It was strongly influenced by Russian and Balkan revolutionary movements as well as by Marxism; and, with a centralized structure, it was the only early Armenian political party to call for the complete independence of Ottoman Armenia, with Russian and Persian Armenia to be liberated forthwith. ... TAHSIN YAZIÇI , author of numerous scientific works (d. ca. 600/1203-04) who lived in Anatolia. H®obayæ's exact name is uncertain, since he seems to have used a number of versions in his various writings, including the pennames H®abeæ, H®asan, H®osayn, ˆaraf-al-Din, Jama@l-al-Din and Kama@l-al-Din. In a copy of his work entitled Kefa@yat al-tÂebb (Bursa Orhan Gazi Library, no. 1120), he refers to himself as Kama@l-al-Din Badi¿-al-Zama@n Abu'l-Fazµa@÷el H®obayæ b. ... KEITH HITCHINS , Tajik poet (b. Herat, mid-1780s; killed ˆahr-e Sabz in Uzbekistan, 14 D¨u'l-háejja 1258/15 January 1843). Details of his life are sketchy. The exact date of his birth is not known. He spent his early childhood in Herat, where he had been born (according to K¨alili Afg@a@ni, he was originally from Karkò; see Be±ka, p. 514), and then moved to Bukhara after 1801, where, in 1803, he was a student at the higher madrasa in Bukhara. He mastered the prescribed curriculum, but he already displayed impatience with routine tasks and having to deal with authority, which became the trademark of his career as a poet. ... KAIKHUSROO M. JAMASPASA , (b. 26 July 1870; d. 13 June 1931), scholar of Avestan and Zoroastrian studies. He studied Sanskrit with Sir Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, graduating in 1893. He then studied Avesta and taught at the Petit Orphanage in Poona before becoming private secretary to Kavasji Jalbhoy Seth in 1898, a post he held for the rest of his life; and he wrote a history of his employer's family which was published posthumously. Pursuing his scholarly interests in his spare time, he wrote in both English and Gujarati and became an active member of several learned societies. ... KAIKHUSROO M. JAMASPASA (d. 26 November 1944), Principal of the Bahauddin (Baha@÷-al-Din) College of Junagadh, and professor of literature, history, and political economy. He is best known for his works on Parsi history and numismatics; the latter includes, in addition to his book on the coins of the Mughal kings, some forty articles on the coins of the Muslim rulers of India. He was President of the Conference of the Numismatic Society of India which was convened in Delhi in 1922, thus becoming the first native scholar to be honored in this way. ... C. EDMOND BOSWORTH , a concise but very important Persian geography of the then known world, Islamic and non-Islamic, begun in 372/982-83 by an unknown author from the province of Guzga@n (q.v.) in what is now northern Afghanistan. It was dedicated to the local prince of the Farig@unid family, Abu'l-H®a@ret¯ Moháammad b. ¿Abd-Alla@h; and Vladimir Minorsky has surmised that it might have been written by the enigmatic ˆa¿ya@ b. Farig@un, author of a pioneer encyclopedia of the sciences, the Jawa@me¿ al-¿olum, for an amir of Ùag@a@nia@n on the upper Oxus in the mid-4th/10th century (see Minorsky, 1962, pp. ... URSULA SIMS-WILLIAMS , philologist of Indian languages and decipherer of Khotanese (1841-1918). Born in Secundra, India, the second of nine surviving children of the Rev. C. T. Hoernle, he was sent to Europe for his education in 1848. In 1858, he went to Basle University and, from 1860, studied Sanskrit in London under Theodor Goldstücker. He obtained his Ph.D. from Tübingen in 1872. JOHANNA NARTEN A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI ,Iranian hero who guarded the De‘-e Sapid "White Fort" on the border of Iran and Tura@n. He was a son of Go@darz and a leading member of his clan (see GOÚDARZIAÚN). When Sohra@b attacked Iran at the head of a Turanian army guided by Ho@ma@n (q.v.), he first met Hojir in single combat and overpowered him but gave him quarter (ˆa@h-na@ma [all references are to Khaleghi ed.] II, pp. 130-34, 138). Shortly afterwards, the Iranian army marched to meet the invaders; and Sohra@b, wishing to recognize his own father Rostam among the Iranian commanders, asked Hojir to identify them for him from the device on their family banners (see DERAFˆ). ... MARIA DAKAKE (Ar. háojja, "proof or argument"), a term used as: (1) a line of argument in the course of debate; (2) designation of the Shi¿ite Imams or their most essential spiritual function as "proofs of God"; (3) an epithet specifically applied to the Twelfth Imam, H®azµrat-e Hojjat; and (4) a high official in the hierarchy of Isma¿ili missionary activities (da¿wa; see DAÚ¿I). HAMID ALGAR (lit. Proof of Islam), a title awarded to Shi¿ite scholars, originally as an honorific but later as a means of indicating their status in the hierarchy of the learned. MAHMOUD SADRI ,a Shi¿ite religious lay association founded by the charismatic cleric Shaikh Mahámud H®alabi (q.v) to defend Islam against the Bahai missionary activities. H®ojjatiya exerted considerable, albeit indirect and unintended, influence on the education and world-view of the lay elite leadership of the 1979 Islamic revolution. The association was founded in the aftermath of the coup d'e‚tat of 1953 (q.v.). The explicit goal of H®ojjatiya was to train cadres for the "scientific defense" of Shi¿ite Islam in the face of the Bahai theological challenge (author's interview with Mahámud H®alabi, July 1994). ... GERHARD BÖWERING , popularly known in the Indian subcontinent as H®azµrat-e Da@ta@ Ganjbakòæ ("bestower of treasures"), was born and raised in Jolla@b and Hojvir, suburbs of GÚazna (see GÚAZNI) in Za@bolesta@n, and died in Lahore in around 465/1071-72 (see Nicholson, pp. x-xi), both towns being at the time major centers for Ghaznavid rule of the frontier region of Iran and India. He is the author of the Kaæf al-mahájub, the most celebrated early Persian Sufi treatise. ... DENIS WRIGHT , British Army officer and Anglo-Indian surveyor (b. Dingley, Northamptonshire, 1842; d. Merrow, Surrey, 1929). The son of a country parson, Holdich was commissioned in the Royal Engineers in 1862. He joined the Survey of India in 1865 and was Superintendent of Frontier Surveys from 1891 until re-tirement in 1898, by which time he had "a more profound knowledge of the geography and inhabitants of the north-western frontier of India than any other living man" (Geographical Journal, 1930, p. 324). He was a survey officer with British forces in their Bhutan (1865-66), Abyssinian (1867-68), and Afghan (1878-79) campaigns. ... TAHSIN YAZIÇI , biographer of the leaders of the K¨alwati Sufi order and minor poet (b. Istanbul, 982/1574, d. 1064/1654). In 996/1588 at the age of fourteen, he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca with his father, Ahámad AÚqa@, who was the head of the court confectioners (háalwa@±i-ba@æi), and his future Sufi shaikh, H®asan Z®arifi Efendi. He returned to Istanbul after the pilgrimage and followed in his father's footsteps and became a confectioner. During this time, he was appointed as a halberdier of the Imperial Chancery of State because of his passion for horsemanship. ... .See HAOMA. W. W. MALANDRA , name given to a section of the Avestan Yasna, namely, Y. 9-11.11, which thus, technically, is not one of the Yaæts at all. (There is a very brief, two-stanza Ho@m Yaæt found as Yaæt 20.) However, like the Sro@æ Yaæt (Y. 57), Y. 9-11.11 contains a sustained collection of stanzas appropriate to Haoma (q.v., for haoma the plant and its divinity), although it lacks the strophic divisions (Pahl. kardag, Pers. karda) common to the major Yaæts. WILLIAM L. HANAWAY AND LEONARD lEWISOHN , Persian poet of the Il-Khanid period. His name can be established on the basis of one of his g@azals (Diva@n, @gazal no. 85, pp. 97-98). His birthplace is unknown, as are the specific details of his early life and education. The introduction to Homa@m's diva@n, which was compiled shortly after his death, states that he died at the age of 78 (S®afa@, Adabiya@t III, p. 713). Since his death occurred in S®afar 714/1314-15, his birth date would have been in about 636/1238-39. Most sources follow Dawlatæa@h (Tadòkerat al-æo¿ara@÷, ed. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI ,son of Ve@sa, and one of the most celebrated heroes of Tura@n. His name, spelt K¨oma@n in T®abari (I, p. 610), is explained by Ferdinand Justi (Namenbuch, p. 132) as "derived from Hom < Haoma" (q.v.), which, despite the attestation of Ho@m in Sasanian proper names (Gignoux, pp. 96-99), seems unlikely. According to the ˆa@h-na@ma (IV, p. 33, v. 502 [all references are to ˆa@h-na@ma, ed. Khaleghi, unless otherwise stated], he was a descendant of Tur, son of Fere@dun (q. ... JALIL DOOSTKHAH , a Kaya@nid queen; she was daughter, wife, and successor to the throne of Bahman, son of Esfandia@r (qq.v.), according to the Iranian traditional history. The length of her reign is given as thirty years in the Bundahiæn (ed. Ankelsaria, 36.8; tr., p. 308) and historical sources, and as thirty-two years in the ˆa@h-na@ma (ed. Khaleghi, V, p. 511, v. 312) and Bahman-na@ma (p. 603, v. 10,437). Only one Pahlavi source, the Bundahiæn (ed. Ankelsaria 33. 8; tr., p. 275) has a report on her: during the reign of Vohuman (Bahman) "there was scarcity, the Iranians fought among themselves, and there was no man of the ruling dynasty who could rule; they seated Vohuman's daughter Huma@e‚ [Homa@y] on the throne of sovereignty. ... . See KòúAÚJU KERMAÚNI. JEAN DURING (lit. "auspicious"), an important modal system (dastga@h, q.v.) in traditional Persian music in a typical scale centered on G: D Ep F G Ap B C D Eb (p) F. In the first phases of modal development, the polarized note is primarily Ap, reached through the low-pitched (E p F G Ap), but all the phrases are concluded with G, which plays the role of the first degree and, later on, the reference note. Modulations consist essentially in carrying the reference note to D, C, G. Homa@yun comprises some thirty sections (guæa, q. ... WHEELER M. THACKSTON , posthumously known as Jaha@nba@ni Jannat-a@æia@ni (1508–56), second Mughal emperor in Kabul (1530–56) and northern India (1530–40 and 1555–56). The eldest son of Ba@bor (q.v.), the founder of the Mughal empire, born of Mahïm Begim (Begom) on 4 D¨u'l-qa¿da 913/ 6 March 1508 in Kabul, he succeeded to the throne on 9 Joma@da@ I 937/29 December 1530 after Ba@bor's death (Abu'l-Fazµl ¿Alla@mi, I, p. 121; Golbadan, fol. 20b). JACQUELINE CALMARD-COMPAS , French engineer, geographer, traveler (b. Altkirch, Haut-Rhin, 24 November 1812; d. Isfahan, 29 August 1848). Despite his short life and constant ill health, he carried out pioneering scientific research on the Ottoman empire, southern Russia, and Persia. He graduated as an engineer at the École des Mines de Saint-Étienne, where, in 1833, he married Jeanne Louise Ade‚laïde He‚riot (1819-83). She accompanied him on some of his travels and helped him with his work. In October 1835 he left France for Turkey, narrowly escaping shipwreck on the way. ... The EIr. should like to acknowledge contributions by Philippe Gignoux and Bizhan Ghaybi., PRODS OKTOR SKJÆRVØ .This subject will be treated in the following entries: i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Islamic law. iii. In Persian literature. iv. In modern Persia. See Supplement. E. K. ROWSON ii.IN ISLAMIC LAWThe foundational texts of Islam address, and generally condemn, sexual relations between members of the same sex. While the Qor÷a@n does not legislate explicitly on this matter, in its reiterated references to the story of the people of Lot it is unequivocal in expressing abhorrence for the desire of the men of that community to have sexual relations with Lot's angelic visitors: "And Lot! (LutÂ) when he said to his people, Will you commit an abomination that no one in the world did before you? You come to men (with lust) instead of women. ... EIr. iii.IN PERSIAN LITERATUREA sharp contrast exists between the treatment of homosexuality in Islamic law, on the one hand (see ii. above), and its reflection in Persian literature, particularly poetry (the chief vehicle of Persian literary expression), on the other. From the dawn of Persian poetry in the ninth century all through to the twentieth century, not only was homosexuality condoned in Persian poetry, but in fact homoeroticism formed almost the only amatory subject of Persian ghazals (short sonnet-like lyrics) and the main topic of much of Persian love poetry. ... iv.IN MODERN IRAN. See Supplement. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN , a monthly magazine published by the General Office of Fine Arts in the Ministry of Education (Eda@ra-ye koll-e honarha@-ye ziba@, Weza@rat-e farhang). The first issue was published in March 1957, under the managing editorship of Firuz Ba@qerza@da, but publication soon ceased. Eventually in October 1962 it was resumed and continued to be published until November 1979. . See Supplement. HUSHANG A¿LAM (¿asal, Ar. term now the most common name for honey in Persia; archaic Pers. angobin < Mid. Pers. angube@n, with the variants angup/me@n recorded in Frahang ^ Pahlav^k, ed. M. J. Maækur, Tehran, 1968, pp. 68, 144), the well-known substance made by honeybees (Ar. nahál; Pers. zanbur-e ¿asal [lit. "honey wasp"]; Mid. Pers. magas ^ angube@n [lit."honey fly"]; arch. Pers. mong) in their nests in the wild or in man-made beehives (Pers. kandu); the obsolete angobin still survives as anja/ebin in the compounds sek-anjebin "oxymel" (q. ... WILFERD MADELUNG ,the nesba of two Zaydi Imams referring to their ancestor Ahámad H®oqaynab. ¿Ali b. H®osayn b. ¿Ali b. Abi T®a@leb. Ahámad is said to have moved from H®oqayna, a village near Medina, to AÚmol in T®abaresta@n, where he died and was buried (at the same spot where Imam al-Na@sáer le'l-H®aqq was later buried). It seems more likely that a descendant of his had moved to AÚmol. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,the name of four journals published in Iran and Afghanistan. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN , ajournal published irregularly in Tehran between Esfand 1341 ˆ./March 1963 and 1355 ˆ./1976 (SoltÂa@ni, p. 429). The last available issue of it is, however, dated Farvardin-Ordibeheæt 1352 ˆ./April-May 1973. The publisher of the journal was Baha@÷-al-Din T®aba@tÂaba@÷i (attorney, b. 1925), and with issue no. 18 (Bahman 1345 ˆ./February 1967) Ha@æem PurtÂaba@tÂaba@÷i (attorney, b. 1929) became its editor. The journal was usually published in forty-two, single-column pages and printed on 16. ... ANTONIO PANAINO ,one of the Avestan entities (see AM‰ˆA SP‰NTA), normally mentioned in association with Am™-r™t@at (very often in a dual dvandva; see AMURDAÚD) already in the G@aƒ@as. The name is the Pahlavi form of Av. Hauruuata@t-, also by haplology Hauruu@aŸt- (NPers. K¨ord@ad; Skt. tr. Avird@ada, udaka "water" and s arvapravráttihá "source of everything"; Bartholomae, AirWb., cols. 1791-92; Gray, 1888, p. 5, n. 3, pp. 92-93; Jackson, p. 51; Narten, pp. 43-44, n. ... .See HORMOZD. A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI ,one of the last military leaders of Sasanian Persia. The correct form of his name is *Hormazda@n, attested as Hormezda@n by the 7th-century anonymous Khuzistan Chronicle, also known as Guidi's Chronicle (q.v.; tr. Nöldeke, p. 42), which also calls him "a Mede" and a leading general of Yazdegerd III. He was a member of one of the seven great families of Sasanian Persia (T®abari, I, p. 2534; see also HAFT), who had the right to wear crowns less elaborate than those of the great kings as "king of Ahva@z" (T®abari, I, p. ... .See AHURA MAZDAÚ. A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI , a brother of the Sasanian great king ˆa@pur II (r. 307-79 C.E.), who participated in Julian's Persian expedition of 363 C.E. He was one of the eight known sons of Hormozd II (q.v.), and was imprisoned by the nobles who had done away with two of his elder brothers and declared another, ˆa@pur (II), king of kings (Zosimus, 2.27; Zonaras, 13.5; cf. Suidas, s.v. "Marusas"; Ammianus Marcellinus had related the story of this Hormozd, but the account is lost: 16.10.16). After a while, Hormozd managed to escape (with the help of his wife and mother) first to Armenia and from there to the Byzantine emperor Constantine, who received him with great honor and appointed him a cavalry commander, hoping to use him as a rival against his brother, ˆa@pur II (Zosimus, 2. ... M. RAHIM SHAYEGAN (r. 272-73 C.E.; OÚhrmazd in the Sasanian inscriptions, the name of both the king and the supreme deity, from OPers. Auramazda@, Av. Ahura Mazda@, q.v.), the throne name of ˆa@pur I's (ˆa@buhr I) son and successor Hormozd-Ardaæe@r (OÚhrmazd-Ardaxæahr), spelled ÷whrmzd-÷rthætr in the Middle Persian version of ˆa@pur I's inscription on the Ka¿ba-ye Zardoæt (ˆKZ, Mid. Pers., ll. 23, 25), ÷hwrmzd÷rthætr in the Parthian (ˆKZ, Parth. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI ,Sasanian great king (r. 303-09 C.E.). In his Middle Persian inscription at T®a@q-e Bosta@n, ˆa@pur II (r. 309-79) calls himself "son of the Mazda-worshiping Majesty (bay), Ohármazd, king of kings of EÚra@n and Ane@-ra@n . . . ," grandson of Narseh (Herzfeld, I, p. 123; Back, pp. 490-91). Agathias (4.25), T®abari (I, pp. 835-36), and others confirm this descent (Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, p. 50 and n. 4; see also Justi, Namenbuch, s.v. Ahura-Mazda@h, no. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI ,Sasanian great king (r. 457-59 C.E.). He was the eldest son and heir of Yazdegerd II (Òazar, tr., p. 159; E¬iæe@, tr., Thomson, p. 242; Movse@s Dasxuranc¿i 1.10, tr. p. 9), and "was king of Sejesta@n" (T®abari, I, p. 871). When Yazdegerd "died in Pa@rs" (Òazar, loc. cit.) in 457 (Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, pp. 425-26), his second son Pe@ro@z, who was evidently in the eastern part of the empire, rose in rebellion while their mother, De@nak, ruled as regent (T®abari, I, p. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI ,Sasanian great king (r. 579-90 C.E.). He succeeded K¨osrow I Ano@æirava@n just as the latter was negotiating a peace treaty with the Byzantine empire, hoping to leave a stable and prosperous state as his inheritance (Menander Protector, tr., p. 153). Ano@æirava@n had appointed Hormozd as his heir after having observed in him the qualifications of a worthy prince (T®abari, I, p. 966; tr., V, p. 265; Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, p. 252, no. 3, where other sources are given). ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI ,Sasanian great king (r. 630-32 C.E.). In the turbulent years following the murder of K¨osrow II Parve@z (628), nearly a dozen rulers (including two daughters) of K¨osrow and one great general Farrokòa@n ˆahrvara@z came to the throne and were slain after a short while (Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, pp. 361-99). One of the last pretenders to the throne was a certain K¨osrow only known through Syriac and Greek sources (all references were collected by Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, p. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI Sasanian prince governor of Kuæa@n. There may have been two rulers of this name, but the emphasis here is on the one whom we now follow Herzfeld and Bivar in identifying as a son of Bahra@m I (q.v.) thereby retracting our objection in EIr. II, p. 516. He is known from his coins minted in eastern Iran and references in three Latin sources (see below). His coins are gold scyphate (cup-shaped) and light bronze issues; rare heavy copper and silver coins also occur. They were minted at Kabul, Balkò, Herat, and Marv, proving that Hormozd controlled the eastern portion of the Sasanian Empire. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI (also Hormozga@n, Arabicized Hormozja@n), BATTLE OF, the engagement which brought the Sasanians to power. It was fought between Ardaæir I (q.v.) and his Parthian overlord Ardava@n (Artabanus) V (IV according to the new reckoning; see EIr. II, p. 649), on 30 Mehr/28 April 224 C.E.; Ardava@n was killed and the 427-year rule of the Sasanian dynasty began (T®abari I, p. 821; Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, pp. 14-15, 409-11; Dina@vari, ed. ¿AÚmer and ˆayya@l, p. ... . See Supplement. JEAN DURING , seta@r and ta@r virtuoso (b. Tehran, 1907; d. Tehran, 1976). He was a student of Darviæ Khan (q.v.), who near the end of his life taught and recorded his repertoire of seta@r at the Center for the Preservation and Distribution of Traditional Persian Music (Markaz-e h®efzá o eæa@¿a-ye musiqi-e ira@ni). Hormozi studied music assiduously despite his family's disapproval and learned in two years the canonical repertoire (radif) of Persian music from GÚola@m-H®osayn Darviæ Khan. ... D. T. POTTS , an island and a strategic strait (Tanga-ye Hormoz) in the Persian Gulf, linking it to the Gulf of Oman, as well as the name of a medieval port near the strait. This entry will be treated in the following two periods: WILLEM FLOOR Mapof Strait of Hormuz, adapted from Map of Islamic Republic of Iran ERICH KETTENHOFEN , German philologist and specialist in Iranian and Turkish languages (b. 14 January 1863 in Halle an der Saale, d. 11 November 1908 in Strassburg). He began his studies of Sanskrit, Avestan, Persian, and comparative linguistics in 1883 at the university in Halle. Here he obtained his doctor's degree on 6 June 1885 under Christian Bartholomae (q.v.), with a thesis on nominal inflection in the Avesta and in the Old Persian inscriptions. (Only the first part, Die Stämme auf Spiranten, was published.) There followed his habilitation thesis (1889) at Kaiser-Wilhelms-Universität in Strassburg, where in 1892 he received the venia legendi (authorization to teach) for comparative Indo-European linguistics. ... MEIR M. BAR ASHER , better known as H®orr-e ¿AÚmeli (b. 8 Rajab 1033/26 April 1624, d. 21 Ramazµa@n 1104/26 May 1693), one of the outstanding Twelver Shi¿ite Hadith scholars of the Akòba@ri school (see AK¨BAÚRIYA) in the late Safavid period. He began his traditional education in his native village, al-Maæg@ara, in Jabal ¿AÚmel (southern Lebanon), with a family circle of teachers that included his father, his paternal uncle, and his maternal grandfather. He also studied in the neighboring village of al-Jaba¿ with renowned teachers, including H®asan b. ... JEAN CALMARD , a leading tribesman in Kufa, who obeyed the orders of ¿Obayd-Alla@h b. Zia@d (see EBN-E ZIAÚD) by intercepting H®osayn b. ¿Ali and his party and leading them to Karbala@, but later repented and fought on H®osayn's side. The first meeting between H®orr and H®osayn was not hostile. However, H®orr pressed upon H®osayn to change his course and follow him, even after the latter had informed him of the letters of support he had received from the Kufans, towards whom his party was heading. ... .See ASB. AZARTASH AZARNOUSH . The history of horse racing in Iran can be traced back to the Achaemenid period. Xenophon—after describing the riders of different tribes, their saddles, reins, chariots, and the ritual sacrifice of horses to the sun god (Cyr. II, pp. 355-57)—refers to a race set up by Cyrus (Cyr. II, pp. 361, 365). Cyrus also devised a race between Persian and Greek horses in Greece. It is surprising then that, aside from Xenophon's account, and the passing reference to "the length of a race course" (car™tu. ... WOLFRAM KLEISS , iron protectors for the hooves of pack animals (beasts of burden) and mounts. In Persia, as in southern Europe, both horses and donkeys are shod with them (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie VIII, p. 716). The horseshoes used in Persia are usually "made to measure" by hand, rather than by using machines. The nails used for horseshoes have rectangular, square, or rounded heads (Figure 1). HAMID ALGAR ,a body of antinomian and incarnationist doctrines evolved by Fazµl-Alla@h Astara@ba@di (d. 796/1394; q.v.), known to his followers also as Fazµl-e Yazda@n ("the generosity of God"). Its principal features were elaborate numerological interpretations of the letters of the Perso-Arabic alphabet and an attempt to correlate them with the human form. The movement that espoused these teachings was relatively short-lived in Persia, but it had a significant prolongation in Anatolia and the Balkans, primarily under the auspices of the Bekta@æi order. ... TAHSIN YAZICI , Kurdish Sufi author of a commentary on the Koran among other works (d. 900/1494-95), and father of the well-known historian Edris Bedlisi (d. 926/1520). There is no information about his early life. However, H®osa@m-al-Din's works attest to the fact that he was well educated and that he knew both Arabic and Persian. After completing his education, or possibly shortly before that, he joined the Nurbakòæiya Sufi order, which was a branch of the better-known Kobra@wiya order (IA XII/1, p. ... MOHAMMAD ESTELAMI (d. 683/1284), leading disciple and first successor of Jala@l-al-Din Rumi, who wrote down and edited his master's original dictations of the Mathnawi (Mat¯nawi). Information about the life of H®osa@m-al-Din is found in sources which aim primarily to narrate Rumi's life-story and provide a contextual framework for the composition of his literary works. Rumi himself often heaps praise on H®osa@m-al-Din, in particular in his Mathnawi (most conspicuously at the beginning of each of the six books), which he even refers to as "H®osa@mi-na@ma" (Mathnawi VI, v. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI (Av. Haoæyaºha, Ar. Uæanj/Uæhanj), called Pe@æda@d (< Av. Para’a@ta), an early hero-king, father of the Iranians and founder of the Pe@æda@dian dynasty in the Iranian traditional history. Information about him come from Avestan, Middle Persian, and Sasanian-based Arabo-Persian sources (Christensen, 1917, pp. 133-64 and passim; 1932, pp. 17, 42-43, 81; Yarshater, 1983, pp. 371, 413-15, 420-22). Previously the second part of Ho@æang's name was taken as –æyaºh, i. ... MARY BOYCE and FIROZE KOTWAL , a distinguished Parsi scholar-priest (b. 26 April 1833 in Navsari; d. 23 April 1908 in Pune). He was of Bhagaria@ (q.v.) stock, a descendant of the famous Dastu@r Ja@ma@sp AÚsa (q.v.; d. 1753). His father, Ja@ma@spji Edalji, was the first to be appointed Dastu@r (High Priest) of the Deccan, with charge of the Patel Dar-i Mihr in Pune. Ho@shang received his initial priestly training from him, becoming herbad (the first priestly qualification) in 1848 and mara@teb the following year. ... . See JALAÚYERIDS. (also referred to among Shi¿ites as Sayyed-al-ˆohada@÷), the second surviving grandson of the Prophet Moháammad through his daughter Fa@tÂema (q.v.) and the third Imam of the Shi¿ites after his father and his elder brother H®asan. WILFERD MADELUNG i.LIFE AND SIGNIFICANCE IN SHI¿ISM According to most reports, H®osayn b. ¿Ali was born on 5 ˆa¿ba@n 4/10 January 626; another report mentions the middle of Joma@da@ I 6/beginning of October 627 as his date of birth. Jointly with his brother, he was at first brought up in the household of Moháammad. Many of the accounts about Moháammad's treatment of his grandsons and his great love for them deal with them together and at times confuse them (for these reports see H®ASAN B. ... ii.IN POPULAR SHI¿ISM Imam H®osayn's revolt and tragic death at Karbala@ in present-day Iraq (10 Moháarram 61/10 October 680) was one of the greatest calamities in the early history of the Muslim community. The cult of H®osayn first evolved locally, where the archetypal motif of the "God who dies" had been deeply engrained since the ancient Mesopotamian traditions. The elements specific to the cult of H®osayn, which have come together to establish the ¿AÚæura@ (q. ... PETER CHELKOWSKI iii.THE PASSION (TA¿ZIA) OF H®OSAYN The ta¿zia (literally "mourning") is a dramatic form which Shi¿ite Muslims in Persia have created to commemorate the tragedy of H®osayn ebn ¿Ali, and thus it is comparable to the Christian passion play. It is the only significant drama that developed in the Islamic world before contemporary theater, which was introduced there along with many other Western influences in the mid-19th century. The ta¿zia emerged as an original dramatic form out of stationary and ambulatory mourning rituals that had become established as part of the commemoration of H®osayn's martyrdom at Karbala@÷ in the month of Moháarram (see H®OSAYN B. ... . See JALAYERIDS. SAID AMIR ARJOMAND , also known as Ruhi, the third of the four "special vicegerents" (nowwab-e kòa@sásáa) of the Hidden Imam. His vicegerency lasted from Joma@da II 305/November 917 (or a year earlier) to ˆa¿ba@n 326/June 938. Although he is commonly known by the nesba Nowbakòti, he probably acquired the name of this illustrious family from his mother rather than his father. It is also probable that he was from Qom, as he spoke the dialect of nearby AÚba and maintained close ties with the Imamite community there (Ebn Ba@bavayh, pp. ... HANS R. ROEMER , the common designation for Sultan Abu'l-GÚa@zi H®osayn Mirza@ b. Mansáur b. Ba@yqara@, the last Timurid ruler of major importance in Khorasan (r. 873-75/1469-70 and 875-911/1470-1506). Through his father he was a great-grandson of Timur's second son, ¿Omar-ˆaykò, and through his mother, Firuza Begom (a daughter of Timur's third son, Mira@næa@h), a great-grandson of Timur himself; born in Herat in Moháarram 842/May-June 1438, he died, of a respiratory attack, in the village of Ba@ba@ Ela@hi near Herat on 10 D¨u'l-h®ejja 911/4 May 1506. ... LEONARD LEWISOHN , popularly known as Ebn Karbala@÷i, a major Persian historian of Sufis and Sufism of 16th-century Persia and a poet (d. 997/1589). The appellation Ba@ba@-Faraji, which he used in the foreword (diba@±a) of his Rawzµa@t al-jena@n (I, p. 9), refers to his kinship affiliation with the Sufi saint Ba@ba@ Faraj Tabrizi (d. 568/1172-73), the custodianship of whose mausoleum in Tabriz was hereditary in his family. He also composed a diva@n of Persian poetry that is still unpublished (Rawzµa@t I, pp. ... H®. MAH®BUBI ARDAKAÚNI , probably the most important officer to hold the military rank of adjudant-en-chef (see AÚÔUÚDAÚN-BAÚˆI) during the Qajar period (d. ca. 1283/1866-67). H®osayn Khan attained the rank of a@juda@n-ba@æi through the good offices of Moháammad Khan Amir Nezáa@m Zangana, commander of the army of Azerbaijan. Previously he had been a chief officer in the army of Azerbaijan, a post which had been held by successive generations in his family since Safavid times. ... AMENEH YOUSSEFZADEH , a famous musician and a master of the kama@n±a, the chief traditional Persian string instrument played with a bow (d. 1313 ˆ./1934). H®osayn, in the early 20th century, was also known as Esma@¿ilza@deh, being the son of Esma@¿il Khan Kama@n±akaæ, the most famous kama@n±a player at the court of Na@sáer-al-Din Shah (Mo¿ayyer-al-Mama@lek, p. 25). , See AÚJUDAÚN-BAÚˆI, NEZ®áAÚM-AL-DAWLA ROGER M. SAVORY , Safavid governor (d. 941/1535), brother of Durmeæ Khan ˆa@mlu (q.v.) and a nephew of Shah Esma@¿il I, his father having married the shah's sister (H®asan Rumlu, ed. and tr. Seddon, I, p. 238; tr., II, p. 263, n. 5). Upon the death of his brother Durmeæ Khan, H®osayn Khan was appointed the governor of Herat in his place in 931/1524-25 (H®asan Rumlu, ed. and tr. Seddon, I, p. 189. Eskandar Beg, I, p. 52; tr. Savory, I, pp. 86-87), or 932/1525 (Dickson, p. 72). He also assumed the responsibilities of lala (guardian) of the young prince Sa@m Mirza@, the shah's brother (Haneda, p. ... ULRICH MARZOLPH , Persian popular romance narrating the exploits of a Kurdish warrior from ˆabestar known solely by the name of H®osayn. . See ARGHUNID DYNASTY OF SIND. BRUNO NETTL ,a guæa (significant melodic unit) of the canonic repertory of Persian classical music (radif). Its principal home is the mode (dastga@h, q.v.) of ˆur, ordinarily regarded as the most important of the twelve modes. It is also occasionally found in the mode of Nava@ (where it is sometimes designated as H®osayn), which overlaps in content with ˆur. The significance of the name is not clear; but a number of the components of the radif have personal names. While melodic material with the name H®osayni has been used for hundreds of years, it does not appear to have a consistent melodic identity. ... ¿ABD-AL-H®AYY H®ABIBI , the translator into Persian of Wa@¿ezá-e Balkòi's no longer extant Arabic work, the Fazµa@÷el-e Balkò. In the beginning of his translation, his name appears as ¿Abd-Alla@h b. Moháammad b. al-Qa@sem H®osayni (p. 1), while at the end it appears as Moháammad b. Moháammad b. H®osayn (p. 389). However, Moháammad-Mo÷men Balkòi refers to him in the Ta@rikò-e Balkò (p. 2) as ¿Abd-Alla@h b. Abu'l-Qa@sem H®osayni. ... , See DAˆTAKI, AMIR JAMAÚL-AL-DIN. JEAN CALMARD ,buildings specifically designed to serve as venues for Moháarram ceremonies commemorating the martyrdom of H®osayn b. ¿Ali (q.v.), and to accommodate visiting participants (Dehkòoda@, Log@at-na@ma, s.v.). This name has also been used for certain branches of early Shi¿ism and as a place name. H®osayniyas had been built in the major cities of Baghdad, Aleppo, and Cairo by the end of the third/tenth century, originally in the form of annexes to mosques (Ayoub, p. 154). They served as the starting-point for local ¿AÚæura@ (q. ... JEAN CALMARD , a háosayniya (q.v.) building located near the Baha@rband-e Moæir in the Sang-e Sia@h quarter of Shiraz, which is famous in particular for its exquisite tile paintings. It was built as an act of piety by H®a@ji Mirza@ Abu'l-H®asan Khan Moæir-al-Molk-e T¨a@ni (1226-1307/1811 or 1812-89), a wealthy Qajar dignitary, who served as the vizier of Fa@rs for thirty years. He financed the building of a number of religious institutions in Shiraz, including, in addition to this háosayniya (1290-93/1873-76), a magnificent mosque (1264-74/1848-57) named after him (Ba@mda@d, Reja@l I, pp. ... AMENEH YOUSSEFZADEH , Persian musician (b. Tehran, 1270/1853, d. Tehran, 1334/1916), the son of AÚqa@ ¿Ali-Akbar Fara@ha@ni, who was the most famous ta@r (the chief Persian plucked instrument) player at the court of Na@sáer-al-Din Shah (r. 1848-96). The father's radif (repertoire) passed down to his sons, and it is considered to be the wellspring of Persian traditional music. Losing his father when he was still quite young, AÚqa@ H®osaynqoli was instructed by his elder brother, Mirza@ ¿Abd-Alla@h. ... , See NEZ®AÚM-AL-SALT®ANA MAÚFI GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN , important governor in the early Qajar period (b. ca. 1155/1742, d. 1246/1831). He was the son of Mo-háammad Khan Qa@ja@r, a member of the Qova@nlu clan of the Qajars, who in the eighteenth century had governed Irava@n (Erevan, q.v.). His birthplace is unknown. His occasional use of the title of Qazvini could indicate Qazvin as a possible birthplace, but more probably the association relates to his successful campaign against S®a@deq Khan ˆaqa@qi near Qazvin and his subsequent governorship there. ... D¨ABIHá-ALLAÚH S®AFAÚ , an allegorical work by Fatta@hái Niæa@-buri, which is closely connected subject with his other work Dastur-e ¿oææa@q. The latter poem has 25,000 bayts in hazaj-e mosaddas-e maqsáur meter (mafa@¿ilon, mafa@¿ilon, mafa@¿il) and sometimes the last part is omitted (mafa@¿ilon, mafa@¿ilon, fa¿ulon). The author, Yaháya@ Sibak Fatta@hái Niæa@buri, was a well-known poet and writer of the era of ˆa@hrokò (807-50/1404-46). ... NATALIA CHALISOVA (lit. "beauty of rationale"), "fantastic etiology," a rhetorical device among the fi;gures of ¿elm-e badi¿ (the science of rhetorical embellishment; see BADI¿). It was included among the Persian poetical fi;gures as early as Ra@duya@ni's Tarjoma@n al-bala@g@a (late 5th/11th century). According to Ra@duya@ni, poets employ this device when describing something already endowed with many poetical attributes (sáefa@t) and images (ma¿a@ni), for example, spring or autumn. ... IRAJ KHADEMI , French composer of Persian origins (b. 1905 in Samarkand; d. 1983 in Paris). His father was a rich merchant, and his mother initiated him in-to music. He was studying in Moscow when the 1917 Revolution occurred. He then left for Germany and continued his studies there, where his father wanted him to do medicine. Simultaneously, however, he studied music at the Stuttgart Conservatory, and later in Tübingen and Berlin, where he studied piano with Arthur Schnabel and composition with W. Klatt. He settled in France in 1927 and entered the Paris Conservatory, where he studied composition and orchestration with Paul Vidal (Mahámud, pp. ... MOHSEN M. MILANI and EIr. , the events following the seizure of the American embassy in Tehran by leftist Islamist students in 1979 with subsequent wide-ranging repercussions on Iran's domestic politics as well as on U.S.-Iran relations. The crisis began on 4 November 1979, nine months after Moháammad-Rezµa@ Shah Pahalvi (r. 1941-79) had been overthrown and exiled and two weeks after he had been admitted to the U.S. for medical treatment, when some 300 leftist Islamist students stormed the embassy and took all personnel hostage. ... . See T®AHMAÚSBI ˆAÚH-NAÚMA. . See MAJLES. HABIBOLLAH ZANJANI . This entry examines the following main topics: (1) the growth of housing units during 1966-96; (2) the policies adopted in various development plans towards housing and the results obtained; (3) main characteristics of housing in Iran; and (4) investment in, and economics of, housing. JOHN D. GURNEY , authority on Persia, engineer and employee of the Persian government for over thirty years in the later 19th and early 20th centuries (b. 24 September 1846; d. Fenstanton near Cambridge, 15 June 1916). There is a lack of early biographical details. Some sources suggest that he was in fact Dutch and was born in Holland, though it was generally assumed he was German. During his own lifetime he divulged no information to biographical dictionaries; and in a brief obituary note his son was unable, or reluctant, to add any details. ... ABBAS MILANI , the longest serving prime minister in the modern history of Iran (b. 28 Bahman 1297 ˆ./19 February 1919; d. 18 Farvardin 1359 ˆ./7 April 1980). He was born in Tehran to a family of hybrid affinities and identity (Milani, p. 37). His mother, Afsar-al-Moluk, was a descendent of the middle-level Qajar clan and a devout practicing Shi¿ite. His father, H®abib-Alla@h, came from a middle class family with roots in the newborn Bahai religion, but there is little evidence that he was a practicing Bahai for any part of his adult life. ... JEAN CALMARD , dit), French orientalist (b. 16 February 1854 in Paris, d. 30 December 1926 in Paris). He is especially renowned as editor and translator of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish sources and for his prolific works covering this vast linguistic area, from Morocco to the Turko-Persian zone. He dealt with many aspects of Oriental studies, including art and literature, calligraphy, history of religions, linguistics (grammar, dialectology), philology, and political history. ERICH KETTENHOFEN and RÜDIGER SCHMITT , eminent German scholar of Iranian and Armenian studies (b. l July 1848 in Erfurt, d. 20 January 1908 in Freiburg im Breisgau). Hübschmann was born into the family of a mill owner. From 1868 he pursued philological studies in Jena (with August Schlei-cher), Tübingen, Leipzig, and Munich, where in February 1872 he was awarded his doctorate. His thesis, on Yasna 30 of the Avesta, had been supervised by Martin Haug (q.v.) and was published under the title Ein Zoroastrisches Lied (1872). After further studies in Avestan texts and in grammatical and etymological problems of this language, from 1874 he turned more and more to Armenian, only to come back to diverse aspects of Iranian studies again and again. ... INNA MEDVEDSKAYA ,a peripheral district and city of the same name in Elam, mentioned in the Assyrian sources only during the reign of Ashurbanapal. In 649 B.C.E., one Nabubelshumate, left his native sealand in the south of Babylonia and took refuge in the city of Óudimiri in Elam (R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Letters, London and Chicago, 1892-1914, No. 521). From another letter it is known that the Assyrians had to build a fleet to cross the Persian Gulf to pursue him (ibid., No. 795). This supports the location of Óudimiri somewhere near the point where the Ulai (the modern ˆa@ur) was flowing at that time into the Persian Gulf (J. ... .See ALBURZ MOUNTAIN RANGE. .See under AVESTAN PEOPLE. NASSEREDDIN PARVIN ,monthly periodical published in Persian by Iranian Zoroastrians. The name represents the Avestan term hu@xta meaning "Good word" (see HUMATA HUÚK¨TA HUVARˆTA). The publication started in Farvardin 1329 ˆ./March-April 1950 and continued until AÚb@a@n 1363 ˆ./October-November 1984. The license-holder, director, and publisher of this periodical was the physician Rostam S®arfa (b. 1285/1868); from Bahman 1351 ˆ./Jan.-Feb. 1973 it was edited by Ardaæir Jeha@ni@a@n. ... REUVEN AMITAI , fifth son of Tolui (and thus grandson of Ùengiz Khan) and Sorqoqtani K¨a@-tun, and founder of the Il-khanid dynasty (b. ca. 611/1215, d. 19 Rabi¿ II 663/8 February 1265). His name is derived from the Mongolian word for "surplus" (see Pelliot, II, pp. 866-67) and was written in the Muslim sources in various ways, reflecting both different pronunciations and the problems encountered in rendering Turco-Mongolian names into foreign languages: Hula@ku, Hula@wu (cf. Marco Polo's Ulau, Alau, etc. ... MEHDI AMANI & HABIBOLLAH ZANJANI . This subject includes three types of human migration in modern Iran: (1) migration within the country; (2) immigration of foreign nationals to Iran; and (3) emigration of Iranians to foreign countries. . See Supplement. MARY BOYCE , three Avestan words which encapsulate the ethical goals of Zoroastrianism. In form verbal adjectives, meaning "well thought, well said, well done," they were substantivized to mean "good thought, good word, good act" (Narten, 1986, p. 86, n. 1). The Pahlavi renderings are humeniæn(^h) hu-go@wiæn(^h) hukuniæn(^h). The earliest occurrence of the Av. formula is at the beginning of Yasna Haptaºha@iti (Y. 35.2), which (following Narten's German translation, 1986, p. 38) runs: "We are those who welcome the good thoughts, good words, and good acts which, here and elsewhere, are and have been realized. ... ,Elamite god, subject of a cult in Achaemenid Persepolis. See ELAM vi. J. T. P. DE BRUIJN .To make jokes and enjoy them is a universal human characteristic manifesting itself in all cultures and in many different forms. Taking into account both its psychological and its social aspects, humor has been described as "... the relief felt at the momentary lifting of one of the many restrictions which the physical and social environment imposes upon man. A great variety of dealings among human beings is immediately classified as humor if there is any suggestion of a deviation from ordinary reality and the conventions of human society" (Rosenthal, p. ... AMIR ARSALAN AFKHAMI , a medical philosophy that considers illness as an imbalance in the body's four elemental humors (±a-ha@r kòeltÂ), which are identified as blood (kòun, dam), phlegm (balg@am), yellow bile (sáafra@), and black bile (sawda@). Each of these humors is believed to possess two natures: hot (garm) or cold (sard) and dry (kòoæk) or moist (tar). Blood is considered hot and moist; phlegm, cold and moist; yellow bile, hot and dry; and black bile, cold and dry (Jorja@ni, ed. ... .See HUMORALISM. MICHAEL ALRAM , coins struck from the late fourth to the early eighth century by successive Central Asian invaders (so-called Iranian Huns) of northeastern Iran and northwestern India in imitation of Kushan or Sasanian money. (See Plate I. Examples of the Hunnic Coin Series; identifying captions are given below, preceding Bibliography.) The term "Iranian Huns" was introduced into the history of ancient Central Asia by Robert Göbl (1967). It must be emphasized that our knowledge of these Central Asian nomads is, to a certain extent, still vague; and the research on their history is controversial. ... MARTIN SCHOTTKY ,collective term for horsemen of various origins leading a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. They have been thought to have descended from the Hsiung-nu (also transliterated as Hiung-nu, Xiong-nu, meaning "the cruel slaves"), a nomadic people first mentioned in Chinese sources in 318 B.C.E. A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI . i. In the pre-Islamic period. ii. In the Islamic period. See Supplement. i. IN THE PRE-ISLAMIC PERIODPersian has two terms for hunting, nakòj^r and æeka@r, both of which have spread beyond Iranian languages. The first originated from a compound: *naxu- "first, top," and *s±ara-"what is to be chased," giving the sense of "top quarry, i.e., quarry sought for the display of the outstanding skill which its pursuit required of the hunter" (Gershevitch, p. 192; Emmerick, p. 62, derives it from *nis-scrya "to be hunted out"). ... URSULA SIMS-WILLIAMS , American geographer (1876-1947), b. Galesburg, Ill.; grad. Beloit College, 1897; M.A. Harvard, 1902; Ph.D. Yale, 1909. After graduation, Huntington first worked at the small Euphrates College, Harput, Turkey (1897-1901). He visited Central Asia in 1903, when he was appointed by the Carnegie Institution of Washington to assist Professor William M. Davis of Harvard in the physiographic work of an expedition to Russian Turkestan led by Raphael Pumpelly from May 1903 to July 1904. In 1905 he was invited to join Robert L. ... NASSEREDIN PARVIN ,name of a newspaper and a monthly journal published in Tehran. RÜDIGER SCHMITT , versatile German scholar who among other fields (e.g., German studies, mythology) specialized in Old Iranian and Elamite studies (b. 4 June 1869 in Liegnitz, Silesia; d. 1 September 1930 in Vienna). He studied Oriental languages and ancient history in Breslau, Berlin, and Königsberg, where he took his Ph.D. in 1897 with a dissertation entitled Die iranischen Eigennamen in den Achämenideninschriften (Norden, 1897). From 1912 on, he lectured on history of the ancient Near East at the University of Vienna—from 1921 as an associate professor (extraordinarius). ... MARY BOYCE AND FIROZE KOTWAL ,a Zoroastrian-Persian term of unknown etymology, designating the area (in known practice a town-quarter, a village, or a group of villages) assigned to a priest called the huæt-mo@bed. He performs, or arranges to have performed (when more than one priest is required), all the religious services needed by Zoroastrians of his huæt, and receives payments for these, from which he lives. According to a passage in two of the Persian Riva@yats (ed. Unvala, II, pp. 35.3-4, 444.11-12; tr. Dhabhar, p. ... DARYOUSH ASHOURI , university professor and author (b. 12 Esfand 1283 ˆ./2 March 1904 in Shiraz; d. 19 Morda@d 1336 ˆ./10 August 1957 in Tehran). He was a descendant of the Wesáa@l family, which was noted for its successive generations of poets and men of letters. His father, Mirza@ Moháammad Huæya@r, a dilettante poet and fan of literature, was a merchant of carpets and opium. Moh®ammad-Ba@qer lost his father at the age of thirteen and, as the eldest son of the family, replaced him in supervising of his younger brothers and sisters. ... .See ATOSSA. , artisans as a class and the chief of artisans in Sasanian society. See CLASS SYSTEM ii. A. D. H. BIVAR ,ruler of the Great Kushan lineage, successor of Kaniæka I the Great, known chiefly from inscriptions, and from a prolific coinage, who reigned from at least the year 28 to 60 of the Kaniæka Era, equivalent to 154-86 C.E. The first date derives from the Chaurasi Jaina temple Bra@hm^ inscription at Mathura@ (cf. S. Konow, 1931-32, p. 55; Agrawala, IV, no. 1913). The final date comes from the Kanµka@l^ Tilla Jaina image at Mathura@ (Bühler, 1898; Lüders, 1912a, no. 56). ... D. DURKIN-MEISTERERNST ,a term describing the use of Semitic word masks in Middle Persian texts, written in the official orthography of the Sasanian state and surviving in Zoroastrian texts (in manuscripts) and a small number of inscriptions (on rocks) and letters (on papyrus). The only other surviving text written in this way is the Christian Pahlavi Psalter fragment from Turfan. Huzwa@reæ combines with the archaizing orthography and the insufficient differentiation of many letters particularly in (Book) Pahlavi script to make this script very difficult to decipher. ... .See XWARÙIHR. RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. Hyda‚rne@s), a rendering of the Old Persian male name Vidrána (spelled vi-i-d-r-n), which is reflected also in Elamite Mi-tar-na, Mi-tur-na, Babylonian U´-mi-da-ar-na-÷, U´-(÷-)da-ar-na-÷, Lycian Widrñna-, Greek Ide‚rne@s, Ida‚rne@s, Latin Idarnes, and, possibly, Aramaic Wdrn. The etymological interpretation is far from clear, since the morphological analysis (as vi-drána-, vid-rána-, etc.) is not undisputed (Mayrhofer, 1979, p. 29, no. ... A. V. WILLIAMS , English orientalist, Professor of Arabic and Hebrew in the University of Oxford, who was the first scholar to attempt to write a comprehensive description of the religion of Zoroaster (1636-1703). His works are well known, but there is no full, modern biographical study, in the absence of which see the entry in P. Bayle's General Dictionary (VI, pp. 341-47), most of which is an English synopsis (fn. D, pp. 342-47) of Hyde's major work described below; see also E. J. Rapson's article in the Dictionary of National Biography (London, 1885-1912; repr. ... GAVIN HAMBLY, DEBORAH HUTTON , city in the Deccan of India, situated 17° 22' N, 78° 27' E, the former capital of the Nizams (Nezáa@ms) of Hyderabad (ca. 1724-1948) and at present the state capital of Andhra Pradesh in southern India. Hyderabad from the time of its foundation in 999/1591 until Indian independence in 1947 had a three and a half century history as one of the major Muslim states and as a center of Indo-Persian culture in the subcontinent. XAVIER DE PLANHOL . i.Iranian plateau. See AÚB. ii. Southwestern Persia. iii. Afghanistan. i. IRANIAN PLATEAU. See AÚB. ii. SOUTHWESTERN PERSIAFrom a hydrological perspective, southwestern Persia must be considered as part of the Persian Gulf drainage region (see DRAINAGE). Extending over an area of more than 350,000 km2, its main drainage area covers the central and southwestern Zagros mountain areas with their extremely complex geomorphology as well as the western and southern Zagros forelands. Of special importance for southwestern Persia is the hydrological system of great river catchments areas (e. ... STEVEN C. ANDERSON (Linnaeus, 1758), Pers. kafta@r. The striped hyena is the only current Asian representative of the mammalian family Hyaenidae. It is a medium-sized carnivore with a relatively large head and with the forequarters heavier than the hindquarters; the legs are long, with four digits on each foot. Hyenas weigh about 35-45 kg. Their pelage is long (shorter in summer than in winter), gray-white to yellowish brown on the sides, legs, and back, with black cross-stripes. Their stiff, black mane on the neck and back is erectile in anger and fear, giving the hyena a larger and more formidable aspect. ... .See PUBLIC HEALTH. (This entry will first appear online at www.iranica.com.) J. R. RUSSELL , or Hymn of the Soul, a Syriac poem, of which an early Greek translation also exists, composed probably in the third century C.E. in the region of Edessa (q.v.; modern Urfa, in southeastern Turkey), in an environment strongly influenced by the Parthians. The text (see Poirier, 1981; this includes the edition of both the Syriac and Greek texts, with a French translation) is first attested in a 10th-century manuscript of the apocryphal Acts of Thomas (see the English translation by Drijvers, which includes the Hymn), where it is most likely an interpolation, though Meshcherskaya argues that it is part of the original composition. ... N. CHALISOVA ,a fi;gure (or fi;gures) of speech in the classical Persian system of ¿elm al-badi¿ (see BADI¿). Hyperbole is known chiefl;y by the term eg@ra@q "surpassing the measure," as a trope or rhetorical fi;gure, and, in a wider sense, by that of moba@lag@a "exaggeration," as a mode of expression. The description of hyperbole in Persian treatises on badi¿ is naturally based on Arabic prototypes (see Heinrichs, in EI 2). In creative experience, however, the direction could have been the reverse: Jan Rypka was of the opinion that the Iranians' affection for hyperbolic expressions had already revealed itself in the Avesta (Rypka, Hist. ... ,ancient Greek form of the Old Iranian name of the region of Gorga@n. See GORGAÚN ii. ,father of Darius I. See GOˆTAÚSP; VIˆTAÚSPA. WERNER SUNDERMANN (Gk. Khre@seis Hystaspou), a collection of prophecies ascribed to Viæta@spa, the patron and follower of Zarathustra, whom the Middle Iranian and part of the ancient tradition also identified with Darius's father (J. Bidez and F. Cumont, I, p. 215, n. 3). The text of the work is not extant, except for resume‚s in Greek and Latin, attributable to the Oracles if they mention the name Hystaspes and contain prophetic material. The Greek title of the work is only used in the work Theosophy. |