D. T. POTTS , also called Persian Wild Goat, in Persian Pazan (pa@zan). It is regarded as the ancestor of the domestic goat. INNA N. MEDVEDSKAYA ,a land and a city, part of Inner Zamua, located in the area of the southwest shore of Lake Urmia. Ida and its ruler Nikdêra are mentioned in Neo-Assyrian sources dating to the reign of Shalmaneser III in connection with his campaign to the Inner Zamua/Mazamua in the 4th year of his reign (855 B.C.E.). All these place names are first mentioned under this king, which means that Zamua, which had been conquered by Ashurnasirpal II, did not include Inner Zamua/Mazamua. . See FASTING ii. . See GÚADIR-E K¨OM . See MEHREGAÚN . See MAHDI. . See NOWRUZ. . See PILGRIMAGE. N. SIMS-WILLIAMS , the representation of language by means of "ideograms," i.e. symbols representing "ideas," rather than (or usually side by side with) symbols which represent sounds. PIERRE OBERLING ,a Turkic tribe in Persia and Anatolia. It was one of the 24 original Oghuz tribes (Houtsma, p. 225; for discussions of its etymology, see Houtsma, p. 225, and Pelliot, pp. 194-95). Like other tribes that migrated to the Middle East in Saljuqid times, it has become widely scattered. PAOLA ORSATTI (Ignazio di Gesuà). An Italian missionary in Persia and a scholar of the Persian language. Carlo Leonelli was born near Pesaro in Italy in 1596 and died in Rome in 1667. He entered the Discalced Carmelite Order (see CARMELITES) taking the name Ignatius of Jesus, and was sent as a missionary to the East. He lived in Persia (Isfahan, 1629-34; Shiraz, 1634-41), and in Mesopotamia and Syria from 1629 to 1663 (Ambrosius aà Sancta Teresia, 1944, pp. 182-83; Chick, A Chronicle II, pp. 898-900; Orsatti, 1981). ... N. CHALISOVA ,literally meaning "making one suppose," a term applied to a rhetorical figure (badi¿, q.v.), also known as tawriya (disguising) and takòyil (making one imagine), a kind of play on words based on a single word with a double meaning (cf. amphibology, double entendre). It is not mentioned in early Arabic treatises on badi¿ and first appears in the 6th/12th century. (See S. Bonebakker, pp. 31-37, for details on tawriya and iha@m in early Persian tradition.) JOHN WOODS ,Timurid prince (797-818/1394-1415). The fourth son of Mira@næa@h b. Timur, Ijel was born in early 797/late 1394 (Yazdi, p. 561; the birth date 15 Moháarram 790/25 January 1388 given by the Mo¿ezz-al-ansa@b, fol. 129a, is probably to be rejected as too early) and was named by the conqueror after one of his ancestors (Semenov, 1948, pp. 52-53; Togan, p. 109). Ijel along with other young Timurid princes such as his cousins Ulug@-Beg and Ebra@him-Soltáa@n, the sons of ˆa@hrokò, traveled with their grandfather Timur's train in the last phases of the so-called Seven Years' Campaign, finally returning to Samarkand in late 806/mid-1404. ... . See ¿AZµOD-AL-DIN. MICHAL BIRAN , the first Muslim Turkic dynasty that ruled in Central Asia from the Tarim basin to the Oxus river, from the mid-late 10th century until the beginning of the 13th. The name Ilak-khanids or Ilek Khans, like the more common designation nowadays, Qara-khanids, derived from the titulature of the dynasty, which appears on its coins; Ilak (or Ilig) means prince, king, ruler, the highest title after the kòa@qa@n or khan (Doerfer, Elemente II, pp. 210-13), while Qara means black, but also grand and prestigious (Pritsak, 1955, pp. ... M. REZAZADEH SHAFARUDI ,a province, sub-province, and town in western Iran. The name "Ila@m" was given to the above localities for the first time in 1936, after the breakdown of armed resistance of the Lor tribes and establishment of the authority of the central government during the Reza Shah era. The name was taken from the ancient kingdom of Elam (q.v.), which extended from the above region to the provinces of K¨uzesta@n, Fa@rs, Isfahan, and Kerma@n. Until the mid-1930s the region was known as the Poætkuh of Loresta@n as opposed to the Piækuh of Loresta@n, which was located in the eastern part of the region. ... HABIBOLLAH ZANJANI iii. POPULATION ILAÚM PROVINCE POPULATION Boundaries and internal division. According to the first national census of 1956, the present province (osta@n) of Ila@m used to be a sub-province (æahresta@n) of the province of Kerma@næa@ha@n. In the census of 1966 it became a governerate-general (farma@nda@ri-e koll), and in the census of 1976 a province. In 1966, its area was 18,162 km2, which was modified to become 19,045 in 1976, 19,086 in 1986, and finally 20,150 km2 in 1996. ... BORIS A. LITVINSKY ,medieval name of an area in what is now Uzbekistan, to the south of Tashkent along the middle reaches of the Syr Darya (Jaxartes) river. In the north Ila@q bordered on the ˆa@æ area and Chatkal mountains of the Tien Shan range; in the west it was bounded by the river ˆa@æ (the old name of the Syr Darya); in the east it extended to the Chatkal, Quramin, and Qaramazar mountains. The area stretched along the AÚhangara@n river (modern Angren, a Syr Darya tributary), the valley of which was clearly divided into two zones, mountain and plain. ... LUTZ RICHTER-BERNBURG (Bayhaqi; ˆaraf-al-Din, in Ebn Abi Osáaybe¿a) ABU ¿ABD-ALLAÚH MOH®AMMAD b. Yusof, follower of Avicenna and author in medicine, science, and philosophy. He died at an uncertain age in the battle of QatÂva@n, Sultan Sanjar's catastrophic defeat at the hands of the Qara Khitay in 536/1141 (thus his contemporary and personal acquaintance Bayhaqi; erroneous dating in existing studies will have to be corrected accordingly). C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , Chorasmian king of the line of Anuætegin GÚar±a÷i (r. 1156-72). He was the son and successor of ¿Ala@÷-Din Atsïz b. Moháammad (see ATSÏZ GÚARÙA÷I), who had skillfully preserved the autonomy of Chorasmia (see CHORASMIA ii.) and had taken a prominent role in affairs during his father's lifetime. He became governor of Jand on the lower Syr Darya after it had been taken from its local ruler, and took part in the abortive invasion of Khorasan of 1156, which ended in Atsïz's death (Jovayni, II, pp. ... YURI BREGEL , name of two rulers of K¨úa@razm in the 16th and 18th centuries. .See ELÙI. .See ATAÚBAKAÚN-E AÚD¨ARBAÚYJAÚN. MAURO MAGGI ,site in Central Asia. Its location is not quite certain. The name itself (Eastern Turkish for "a road-sign hillock") is no help in the identification, as it is a factual description rather than a real place name, iles being "road signs, established on every dominant height or hill in the form of small stone cairns" (S. Hedin, who transcribes ille-dung). It has been suggested that it should be identified with Kuduk-Köl near Dumaqu (q.v.) in the eastern part of the Khotan region (G. Gropp, Archäologische Funde aus Khotan, Chinesisch-Ostturkestan, Bremen, 1974, p. ... REUVEN AMITAI ,the Mongol dynasty in Persia and the surrounding countries, from about 1260 until about 1335. The dynasty was founded by Hola@gu/Hülegü Khan (q.v.), the grandson of Ùengiz Khan (q.v.), and ruled the territory covered by present-day Persia, Turkmenistan, northern Afghanistan, the southern Caucasus (modern Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan), Iraq, and much of Anatolia. The name is derived from the title il-kòa@n that was used, to some extent, by all members of the dynasty (see the discussion of the title in HÜLEGÜ KHAN, who adopted it sometime before 1260). ... SHEILA S. BLAIR ii.ARCHITECTURE The architecture produced during the period of Il-khanid rule in Persia and Iraq is notable for its mammoth size, soaring height, sparkling color, and ingenious methods of covering space. Size and scale were seen as representative of power and authority, and the wider palette and increased surface of colored decoration served to further distinguish these buildings from the landscape. Builders in the Il-khanid period continued to use traditional materials such as brick, stone, wood, and plaster in standard forms and building types, which were often combined into larger complexes; but they incorporated new Chinese motifs into the standard decorative repertory. ... STEFANO CARBONI iii.BOOK ILLUSTRATION The Il-khanid period is no doubt the historical moment during which the art of painting, in particular in illustrated manuscripts, witnessed a dramatic increase in number, subject matter, artistic output, and patronage as compared to the late Saljuq epoch in Persia, to the late ¿Abbasid period in Baghdad, and to the rule of the At@abaks (q.v.) of Mosul in the Jazira region in northern Mesopotamia that preceded the advent of the Mongols in the area. It is fair to surmise that increasingly fewer works on paper are likely to survive as one goes back in time, so it is to be expected that, comparatively, more manuscripts from the Il-khanid period have been preserved than earlier ones, but this is not sufficient to challenge the notion that the late 13th century and especially the first quarter of the 14th can be regarded as perhaps the most important formative period in the history of Persian painting, an epoch of great changes, and a moment of fervor and stimulation on the part of both patrons and artists. ... PETER MORGAN iv.CERAMICS This entry deals with glazed wares and tiles of the so-called "Sultanabad" (SoltÂa@na@ba@d) group, lajvardina (< Pers. la@jvard "lapis lazuli") wares, and luster wares produced in the Il-khanid period. The period extends from the fall of Baghdad in 1258 to the last dated luster tiles made in 1339 (dated pieces are listed by Watson, 1985 and Ettinghausen, "Dated Faience"). Changes in the style, technology, and iconography of tile revet-ments can be traced at Takòt-e Solayma@n (q. ... HOSSEIN ZIAI (Ar. al-háekma/al-falsafa al-eæra@qiya; Pers. falsafa-ye eæra@qi), first introduced in the 12th century as a complete, reconstructed system distinct both from the Peripatetic philosophy (falsafa-ye maææa@÷i) of Avicenna (q.v.; d. 1037) and from theological philosophy (kala@m-e falsafi). Most medieval historians as well as specialist historians of philosophy concur that Illuminationist philosophy is a "novel" and a most complete system (al-nezáa@m al-atamm) constructed by the young Persian philosopher ˆeha@b-al-Din Yaháya@ b. ... RÜDIGER SCHMITT (Gk. atha‚natoi), name of a corps of 10,000 Persian e‚lite infantry soldiers in Herodotus (7.83.1, 211.1; 8.113.2). The later attestations in Athenaios (q.v.), Deipnosophistai 12.514c (who is quoting Heracleides of Cumae); Hesychius, Lexicon s.v. (with the erroneous definition as a "cavalry detachment"); Procopius (1.14.31); and other sources obviously derive from Herodotus's usage, whereas Dio Cassius (52.27.1) used atha‚natoi, with reference to Rome, for a standing army. See Supplement. (This entry will first appear at the online publishing site www.iranica.com.) See K¨AMSA TRIBES. C. EDMUND BOSWORTH , wife of the Ata@beg Nosárat-al-Din Jaha@n-Pahlava@n Moháammad b. ˆams-al-Din Eldigüz (r. 571-82/1175-86), the Eldigüzid or Ildegizid ruler in Arra@n, most of Azerbaijan, and then Jeba@l. She was the daughter of the powerful Turkish governor of Ray, nominally for the later Saljuqs, H®osa@m-al-Din Ïna@n± Sonqor, who was killed at the instigation of Eldigüz in 564/1169 (Ra@vandi, rev. ed., pp. 292-96; Ebn al-At¯ir, XI, p. 348). ... GEERT JAN VAN GELDER Incest and inbreeding are two different but related aspects of marriage and human reproduction: the former a legal and culturally determined concept that regards specific cases of sexual relationship, the latter a biological notion that concerns processes and tendencies in the reproduction of a population. Next-of-kin marriage in pre-Islamic Persia cannot be called incest by the standards of Zoroastrianism, since incest implies forbidden relationships (see FAMILY LAW i.). The coming of Islam changed this, by making Arab customs the basis of Islamic family law. ... CHRISTOPHER J. BRUNNER i.INTRODUCTION PIERFRANCESCO CALLIERI ii.HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY: THE ANCIENT FRONTIER WITH IRAN PIERFRANCESCO CALLIERI iii.POLITICAL AND CULTURAL RELATIONS: ACHAEMENID PERIOD ,Relations with Iran. This subject will be treated in the following thirty-two entries. i. Introduction. ii. Historical geography: the ancient frontier with Iran. iii. Political and cultural relations: Achaemenid period. iv. Political and cultural relations: Seleucid, Parthian, Sasanian periods. v. Political and cultural relations: medieval period to the 13th century. vi. Political and cultural relations: from the 13th to the 18th centuries. vii. Political and cultural relations: the Afsharid and Zand periods. ... PIERFRANCESCO CALLIERI iv.POLITICAL AND CULTURAL RELATIONS: SELEUCID, PARTHIAN, SASANIAN PERIODS Seleucus I (d. 281 B.C.E.), after establishing himself as heir of Alexander in western Asia, led an expedition to India (Matelli, 1987) ca. 305 B.C.E. It ended, however, with the cession of the territories of Paropamisadae, Aria, Arachosia, and Gedrosia to a new Indian king, Candragupta Maurya. This settlement was probably sealed by a marriage contract between the two ruling houses and the delivery of 500 war elephants. Seleucus employed these in his battles with rival Diadochs (Appian, Syr. ... MANSOUR BONAKDARIAN ix.POLITICAL AND CULTURAL RELATIONS: QAJAR PERIOD, EARLY 20TH CENTURY The Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906-11 (q.v.), directed against the native autocracy and British and Russian imperialist intervention, was an early example of an international revolutionary event in Asia. The contributions made by various non-Iranian individuals and groups to the constitutional/nationalist cause in Persia have long been acknowledged in the historiography of the revolution (Afary, chap. 9; Ja@vid, passim). The Persian revolution coincided with an intensified phase of Indian nationalist agitation against British colonial rule (the [British] "Raj"). ... C. EDMUND BOSWORTH v.POLITICAL AND CULTURAL RELATIONS:MEDIEVAL PERIOD TO THE 13TH CENTURY RICHARD M. EATON vi.POLITICAL AND CULTURAL RELATIONS: FROM THE 13TH TO THE 18TH CENTURIES MANSOUR BONAKDARIAN vii.POLITICAL AND CULTURAL RELATIONS: THE AFSHARID AND ZAND PERIODS MANSOUR BONAKDARIAN x.POLITICAL AND CULTURAL RELATIONS: PAHLAVI PERIOD. See Supplement. xi.POLITICAL AND CULTURAL RELATIONS: ISLAMIC REPUBLIC. See Supplement. xii.ISLAMIC DYNASTIES OF INDIASee under individual dynasties. SCOTT C. LEVI xiii.INDO-IRANIAN COMMERCIAL RELATIONS Table 1 Table 2 Since antiquity merchants have used both caravan and maritime routes to transport commodities between India and Persia. During the early modern era, as European companies became an important presence in the arena of Indian Ocean trade, an increased percentage of the total trade between the regions was conducted via the Indian ports of Surat, Thatta, and Lahori Bandar and the Persian ports of Hormuz, Bandar-e ¿Abba@s (Gombroon), and, from the beginning of the 19th century, Buæehr (qq. ... MARIO CASARI xiv.PERSIAN LITERATURE IN INDIA xix.INDIAN LITERARY INFLUENCES ON PERSIAN LITERATURE. See Supplement. xv.PERSIAN CORRESPONDENCE LITERATURE IN INDIA. See CORRESPONDENCE iv. STEPHEN F. DALE xvi.INDO-PERSIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY Historical works in Persian began to appear in India in the era of the Delhi Sultanate (q.v.) during the late 13th to 14th centuries. It was in Delhi itself, the capital of this expanding, if habitually unstable, kingdom, that most of the early Persian–language histories were written. However, it was particularly during the preceding Ghaznavid era (977-1186; q.v.), when Muslim armies penetrated deep into the Indian heartland, that poets and scholars, writing in Persian, began settling in northwestern India in significant numbers, founding the Persian-language tradition of scholarship in the subcontinent. ... xvii.PERSIAN PRESS IN INDIA.See viii. and ix. above; CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION vi.; H®ABL AL-MATIN. See also Supplement. CHRISTOPHER SHACKLE xviii.PERSIAN ELEMENTS IN INDIAN LANGUAGES Some Persian elements are present in most of the modern languages of the subcontinent of South Asia, as a consequence of the prolonged cultivation of Persian associated with pre-modern Indo-Muslim culture. In those languages and registers in which the impact of the classical Indo-Muslim civilization is most clearly discernible the presence of Persian elements is a very substantial one. In order to provide a clear if simplified picture of the quite complex factors which need to be considered in an overall mapping, the following treatment begins with a survey of the historical and cultural processes governing the differential presence of Persian elements in Indian languages. ... BARBARA SCHMITZ xx.PERSIAN INFLUENCES ON INDIAN PAINTING Between about 1300 and 1600, Persian painting styles had a sustained impact on the Indian art at the Sultanate and Mughal courts as well as on Hindu painting styles. Several approaches for a description of this far-reaching phenomenon would be possible. For the 14th century, we discuss the possibility that a group of so-called Small ˆa@h-na@mas are of Indian provenance, and trace the origin of the æa@hi figure in 14th-century Jain manuscripts to a Persian origin. ... BARBARA SCHMITZ xxi.INDIAN INFLUENCES ON PERSIAN PAINTING xxii.PERSIAN INFLUENCE ON INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.See DECCAN ii.; DELHI SULTANATE ii.; GARDEN iii.; HYDERABAD ii. xxiii.INDIAN INFLUENCE ON PERSIAN CINEMA. See x. above. xxiv.PERSIAN CALLIGRAPHY IN INDIA. See Supplement. xxix.SHI¿ITES IN INDIA. See CONVERSION iii.; see also under SHI¿ISM. xxv.MUTUAL MYSTICAL INFLUENCES. See under SUFISM. xxvi.MUTUAL MUSICAL INFLUENCES. See under MUSIC. xxvii.MUTUAL SCIENTIFIC INFLUENCES. See under SCIENCE. xxviii.IRANIAN IMMIGRANTS IN INDIA Although emigration from the Iranian plateau to the Indian subcontinent is not a phenomenon specific to any particular period, the trend does seem to have grown in significance after the foundation of Muslim governments on the subcontinent (see v. and vi. above). Immigrants from the Iranian plateau, known as ta@jik, had already begun to play important roles at the court of the Delhi Sultanate (q.v.) by the 13th and 14th centuries (Jackson, pp. 75, 79, 179). It is clear, however, that the second half of the 16th century marked the beginning of a new phase in Iranian immigration. ... SCOTT C. LEVI xxx.INDIAN MERCHANTS IN CENTRAL ASIA AND IRAN The Indian merchant diaspora in Central Asia and Persia emerged in the mid-16th century and remained active for over four centuries. The earliest available report of an Indian merchant diaspora community in Central Asia is found in the account of Anthony Jenkinson, an agent of the Muscovy Company. Jenkinson visited Bukhara in 1558-59, where he observed that it was common for the Indian merchants who traveled there to stay for several years while they conducted their trade (Jenkinson, p. ... SHAH MAHMOUD HANIFI xxxi.INDIAN MERCHANTS IN 19TH-CENTURY AFGHANISTAN Indian communities in Afghanistan performed an array of commercial functions in both the private and state sectors that served to integrate the Afghan economy and link it to surrounding markets in Central and South Asia. These were socially diverse communities; their collective experiences in the country were quite varied, particularly in their capacities as "portfolio capitalists" who straddled the worlds of commerce and political participation (Bayly and Subrahmanyam, p. ... xxxii.PARSEES OF INDIA. See PARSEES. D. T. POTTS . This subject will deal with the role of Indian Ocean in international trade in the following periods: CAROL BIER ,(Pers. nil), the common name of a broad genus, Indigofera, with numerous species, widely distributed throughout Asia, Africa, and the Americas. A member of the leguminous pea family, indigo is variously classified as an herb or small shrub; its stalks are long, bearing raceme flowers. It is usually perennial, but in some areas annual. Native species are known from Arabia, including the Yemen, and around the Indian Ocean. MICHAEL RUBIN , a telegraph company that controlled telegraph wires between Tehran and the Russian border and onward through Russia and Germany to London. Unlike the Indo-European Telegraph Department (IETD; q.v.) operated by the British Indian government and the native Iranian system, the Indo-European Telegraph Company (IETC) was privately owned and operated by the Siemens Company. MICHAEL RUBIN , a branch of the British Government of India, based in London, which managed a series of telegraph lines in Iran. The Indo-European Telegraph Department was distinct from both the Indo-European Telegraph Company (q.v.) backed by the Siemens Company, which operated a telegraph line from Tehran to Tabriz and then across the Russian empire to Europe, and from the Iranian government's own system, founded by E¿tezµa@d-al-SaltÂana and later managed by Mokòber-al-Dawla. While the IETD was an autonomous department for much of its existence, between February 1888 and April 1893, it was under direct auspices of the Director General of Indian Telegraphs. ... OSMUND BOPEARACHCHI , Greco-Bactrian kings who ruled over the region south of the Hindu Kush in the second and first century B.C.E. Alexander of Macedon's conquest of the Achaemenid satrapies of Bactria and Sogdia in Central Asia and the Indian territories south of the Hindu Kush (Hendukosh) plunged these regions into a political upheaval with far-reaching consequences. According to the Roman historian Justin (41.4, based on Pompeius Trogus's Historiae Philippicae), when Arsaces was about to throw off the yoke of the Seleucids in Parthia (around mid-third century B. ... . See under IRANIAN LANGUAGES. GHERARDO GNOLI . Indo-Iranian comparative studies enable us to distinguish a fund of religious concepts, beliefs, and practices that are common to ancient Iran and ancient India. It is methodologically possible to reconstruct some elements of an Indo-Iranian religion by using the surviving evidence of ideas and practices that seem to be unrelated to the Zoroastrian tradition in Iran and to the later developments of religious thought in ancient India and yet, at the same time, have something in common. These elements are connected with rituals, the pantheon, myth and epos, concepts of death and afterlife, cosmography—that is to say, several different aspects of a religion, though not ones that enable us to reconstruct an organic system from the standpoint either of doctrine or of ritual or as regards individual or collective behavior. ... CHRISTINE FROHLICH , rulers over a large part of northwestern India from Seistan (portions of the present-day border provinces of that name of Iran and of Afghanistan) to Sindh on the Indus river at the beginning of the 1st century C.E. They came after the Indo-Greeks and the Indo-Scythians and were, in turn, defeated by the Kushans in the second half of the 1st. century C.E. The main difficulty in studying this period is the lack of firm sources. Very few texts mention the Indo-Parthians, and inscriptions do not refer directly to them. ... . See Supplement. W. W. MALANDRA ,the name of a demon (dae@wa) in the Avesta. In sharp contrast to the Indra of the R®gveda [RV], the most celebrated god (deva‚) of the Vedic pantheon, whose defeat of the Snake of cosmic obstruction, Vrátra, is an act of creation, the Indra of the Avesta is a relatively insignificant dae@wa, mentioned only twice in conjunction with other demons, most significantly Saurwa (Ved. ›arva) and Nåºhaiƒya (Mitanni d.meæna-æa—at-ti-Áa, Ved. Na@satya@ dual). ... . See INDIA ii. HASSAN HAKIMIAN i.THE REZA SHAH PERIOD AND ITS AFTERMATH, 1925-53 Prior to the 1920s, traditional crafts (q.v.) dominated the industrial scene in Iran; and, despite a growing interest in industrial modernization after the 1870s, the role of industry remained very limited in the economy at the turn of the 20th century (Issawi, 1980, pp. 471-72; Bharier, 1971, p. 170). Factories and industrial establishments utilizing modern machinery were a rarity, with employment in modern industry at this time accounting for no more than an estimated figure of 850 jobs (Floor, 1984, p. ... ,the foundation and development of modern industries in 20th-century Iran. Although Iran is generally characterized as an oil economy, the entries below show that Iran has a relatively rich history of industrialization going back to the early part of the 20th century. Perhaps understandably, much of this history is intertwined with the history of the development of the oil industry. This connection derives, on the one hand, from the role of oil as one of the earliest and largest industries in Iran (and the Middle East). ... M. KARSHENAS AND H. HAKIMIAN ii.THE MOHAMMAD REZA SHAH PERIOD, 1953-79 Industrialization in Iran in the postwar period evolved in three distinct phases. These are: 1953-59, known as the semi-liberal phase; the short period of 1960-62, which was beset by crisis and recession; and finally the one and half decades between 1963 and 1979, which witnessed the longest period of sustained industrial accumulation in Iran (see ECONOMY ix.). PARVIN ALIZADEH iii.THE POST-REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD, 1979-2000S . See CRAFTS. MARIA MACUCH . i. Sasanian period. ii. Islamic period. i. SASANIAN PERIOD Our main source on jurisprudence during the Sasanian period is the Lawbook Haza@r da@desta@n "One Thousand Judgements" of the 7th century, known since the facsimile edition of a large part of the manuscript (Modi, 1901) as the Ma@daya@n ^ haza@r da@desta@n (MHD). This text does not supply a systematic overview on the law of inheritance, nor does it convey a complete picture of all the regulations in this legal field. ... AGOSTINO CILARDO ii.ISLAMIC PERIOD A. A. AFKHAMI , a common contagious infection of the upper-respiratory system caused by the Orthomyxovirus class of viruses. Members of the Orthomyxovirus family that infect humans include the Influenza-A Viruses (isolated in 1933), the Influenza-B Viruses (isolated in 1940), and the unusual Influenza-C (isolated in 1946), which predominantly infect lower animals. The first flu virus was isolated in 1931 from the snouts of pigs, a discovery that led to the coining of the disease as "swine flu." Although this affliction, usually characterized by a severe cold, is ubiquitous to mankind's experience with illness, it is nevertheless lethal to the extent that it can lead to acute complications such as pneumonia (i. ... .See AMLAÚK-E K¨AÚSáSáA JOHN LIMBERT (ca. 725-754/1325-53), one of the minor dynasties that controlled Persia following the collapse of the Il-Khanid state. Members of this family vied for power in southern Persia, and intermittently controlled Fa@rs, Isfahan, Kerma@n, and Loresta@n. For about twenty years the Injus waged complex and bloody power struggles with each other, the Il-Khans, the Chupanids (see CHOBANIDS), the Jalayerids of Baghdad, and the Mozaffarids of Yazd. The last ruler of the line, ˆa@h Shaikh Jama@l-al-Din Abu Esháa@q (q. ... ALIY I. KOLESNIKOV (b. St. Petersburg, Russia, 17 April 1876; d. Leningrad, USSR, end of December, 1941), Russian orientalist and historian of culture, best known abroad as the author of Sasanidskie et'udy (Etudes sassanides). In 1896, Inostrantsev matriculated in the University of St. Petersburg, Faculty of Oriental Languages (Department of Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Tatar Languages). He attended the lectures of the eminent teachers, arabist Victor R. Rosen, iranologist Valentin A. Zhukovsky, professor of ancient Iranian languages Carl G. ... .See EPIGRAPHY. STEVEN C. ANDERSON ,members of the mammalian order, small animals with several conservative anatomical characteristics. They retain five digits on all limbs and walk or run with soles and heels on the ground (plantigrade). They have flexible snouts and relatively small eyes and ears, sometimes lacking external evidence of either one or both. Most of them are solitary and nocturnal. They are carnivorous and predatory, although not all are exclusively so; many feed also on carrion and some, hedgehogs particularly, take some vegetable matter as well. ... STEVEN C. ANDERSON .The insects of Persia and Afghanistan belong to the Palearctic fauna, although in the eastern and southeastern parts of the region there are representatives of the Oriental fauna characteristic of the Indian subcontinent. Afro-tropical groups make up a small part of the fauna of southern and southwestern Persia. AMIR A. AFKHAMI (PASTEUR INSTITUTE OF IRAN), the Institute for bacteriology and vaccination founded by the Persian government in 1921 as a branch of Institut Pasteur of Paris. The idea of establishing an institute for microbiological research and immunology in Iran was conceived in the aftermath of the 1918-19 influenza (q.v.) pandemic in Persia which killed hundreds of thousands of the country's approximately ten million population. With this bleak backdrop Firuz Mirza@ Nosárat-al-Dawla, then Minister of Foreign Affairs, who was serving as the head of the Persian delegation to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, contacted the Institut Pasteur in Paris with regard to the establishment of an affiliated institute in Tehran to tackle Persia's public health issues. ... CLAUS V. PEDERSEN (INSTITUT FOR IRANSK FILOLOGI), University of Copenhagen. i. Forerunners. ii. History. i. FORERUNNERS Although the Institute was founded only in 1961, it has a long prehistory, since it is the natural culmination of about 200 years of Iranian studies in the Kingdom of Denmark. This scholarly activity arose from theological and linguistic interests. The most prominent names and contributions are the following, in chronological order: PAUL E. WALKER , founded in 1977 by H. H. Prince Karim Aga Khan. The Institute functions today as a gathering point for the Ismaili community's interest in its own history and in its relationship with the larger world of Islamic scholarship and contemporary thought. Its stated mission is to promote the investigation of Muslim cultures and societies, both of the past and of the present, to explore the interaction of religious ideas within the broader aspects of modern life, but to do so with special attention to often neglected fields that contain the intellectual and literary expressions of esoteric Islam, including Shi¿ism in general and Ismailism in particular, and geographical areas such as Central Asia and Africa. ... KAZEM IZADI , an academic body established in 1958 at the University of Tehran with the following main objectives: research, counseling, education, and publication. Research activities of the Institute were conducted in the following groups: urban studies, rural studies, tribal studies, demographic studies, socio-psychological studies, and other related areas. The Institute also offered a master's degree in social sciences. The Institute's history is divided into three distinct periods: (1) the period of formation and rapid growth, 1958-72, when the Institute was relatively independent and active in research, education, and publication; (2) 1972-79, when it was incorporated into the newly formed Faculty of Social Sciences and Cooperative Studies; and (3) the post-revolution period from 1979 to the present. ... ,See VINDAFARNAÚ. STEVEN C. ANDERSON IN IRAN, AFGHANISTAN, AND NEIGHBORING CENTRAL ASIA. This category includes all animals without a vertebral column. Thus it is a term of convenience that, though widely used, has little biological meaning. Well over a million species are known, and probably several times that many are unnamed and undescribed. The most species-diverse phylum is the Arthropoda (q.v.), of which the insects (q.v.) are by far the most numerous. Mollusks (snails, clams, squid, etc.) constitute the next largest phylum. These two phyla contain most of the economically important invertebrate animals, but the flatworms (Platyhelminthes) and the roundworms (Nemetoda) include many important parasites of humans, domestic stock, and crop plants. ... JENNY ROSE of kings, the ceremonies and symbolic actions used to assert the assumption of rulership and to elicit affirmation of it. Covered here is investiture under the pre-Islamic dynasties. E. BADIAN , the unsuccessful uprising of the Greek cities of Asia Minor against Achaemenid control, 499-493 B.C.E. GEN´ICHI TSUGE , an Arabic term used in texts on music to denote rhythmic mode (or cycle) or rhythmic pattern. .See KET!ÚB-E IQ!ÚN. ANNEMARIE SCHIMMEL (1877-1938), the spiritual father of Pakistan and leading Persian and Urdu poet of India in the fi;rst half of the 20th century. Born in Sialkot on 9 November 1877, Iqbal fi;rst learned Arabic and Persian, fi;nished the Scotch Mission College in his hometown, and then joined the University of the Punjab in Lahore. After teaching for some time in the Oriental College, Iqbal, already known as a fi;ne poet in Urdu, traveled to Cambridge (1905) on the advice of Sir Thomas Arnold (q.v.) to study Neo-Hegelian philosophy and law. ... A. SHAPUR SHAHBAZI ,the youngest son of Fer@e@dun and the eponymous hero of the Iranians in their traditional history. A cluster of legends in the Avesta, Pahlavi books, Sasanian-based Arabic and Persian sources, and particularly in the ˆa@h-na@ma of Ferdowsi have elevated Iraj to the rank of a favorite hero who is at once the name-giver of the Iranian nation, the ancestor of their royal houses, and a paragon of those slain in defense of just causes. BEHROOZ MAHMOODI-BAKHTIARI , a major Persian poet and satirist of the early 20th century and one of the most popular poets of the late Qajar period (b. Tabriz, Ramazáa@n 1291/October 1874; d. Tehran, 27 ˆa-¿ba@n 1344/12 March 1926). ,New Persian Ira@n (Mid. Pers. EÚra@n, from OIr. *Arya@na@m "of the Aryans" [see ARYANS]), name of the modern political state, also used, as noun or adjective (e.g., "Iranian plateau"), as a geographical term. The adjective is applied, independently of political boundaries, as an ethnolinguistic descriptor ("Iranian languages") and a cultural descriptor (see GEOGRAPHY). XAVIER DE PLANHOL i.LANDS OF IRAN Iranian culture is inseparable from the geographical space within which it was formed and crystallized, and from which, during the Achaemenid period, it expanded considerably to bordering regions. Later it was caught in the powerful grip of invasions by Arabs and Turks—the last great mass movements which re-drew the ethnic map of Eurasia and North Africa in a relatively short span of time. Yet Iranian culture was able to preserve its identity, even finding in modern times, in its contemporary Persian form, a venue for renewed vigor. ... Ehsan Yarshater ii.IRANIAN HISTORY: AN OVERVIEW This section provides a concise introduction to the history of Iran from its beginnings to modern times. The generally recognized periods of the country's history are reviewed, and some of the major motifs or themes in the politics or culture of the various periods are discussed. The discourse is divided into two sections: before and after the Arab conquest of Iran and the advent of Islam, the most important watershed in Iran's history. For detailed treatment of all the subject matter which is briefly touched on here, the reader is referred to the appropriate specialized entries; some of them are available only online at www. ... Ehsan Yarshater ii.IRANIAN HISTORY: AN OVERVIEW This section provides a concise introduction to the history of Iran from its beginnings to modern times. The generally recognized periods of the country's history are reviewed, and some of the major motifs or themes in the politics or culture of the various periods are discussed. The discourse is divided into two sections: before and after the Arab conquest of Iran and the advent of Islam, the most important watershed in Iran's history. For detailed treatment of all the subject matter which is briefly touched on here, the reader is referred to the appropriate specialized entries; some of them are available only online at www. ... (2)Iran in the Islamic Period (651-1980s) This section of Persian history begins with the conquest by Muslim Arabs and the introduction of Islam to Persia, the gradual conversion of the Persians to the faith of the conquerors, and some 200 years of Arab rule of Persian provinces. Then, the rise of local dynasties, namely, the Taherids, the Saffarids, the Samanids, the Ghaznavids, the Ziyarids, and the Buyids, is discussed. Next, the invasion of the Turkish Saljuqs and the powerful state that they formed is taken up, followed by a brief account of the Turkish dynasty of the K¨óa@razmæa@hs, who faced the Mongol invasion. ... FORMATIONOF LOCAL DYNASTIES The Taherids (821-73). The first of these dynasties came into being when T®a@her b. H®osayn, nicknamed D¨u'l-Yaminayn (the Ambidextrous), who had successfully led Ma¿mun's army against his brother Amin (810), was appointed the governor of Khorasan with full power. The governorship remained in his house (821-73) until Ya¿qub the Saffarid put an end to its rule and captured Niæa@pur, their capital. (A number of the Taherids were also governors of Baghdad. ... THESALJUQIDS (1040-1194) The plains of Central Asia, northwestern China, and western Siberia were breeding grounds for nomadic people, who kept multiplying and searching for new pastures. Both Iranian lands and China were the targets of their periodic inroads. When the waves of Saka andHephtalite invasions subsided, a fresh wave of Turkic nomads began to threaten the Iranian borders. The first appearance of the Turks on the northeastern borders of Persia occurred in the 6th century. The first clash between the Iranians and the Turks took place under the Sasanian Hormozd IV (579-90), when the Turks were defeated and pushed back by Bahra@m Ùubin, the Iranian general. ... THESAFAVIDS (1501-1722) The advent of the Safavids constitutes one of the major turning points in Persian history, and this for two reasons: one was the enforcement of the Shi¿ite branch of Islam on the country, the other was the unification of the country under a single rule, which has continued as such to the present day. The first helped the second and gave the country a distinctive character and identity against the Sunnite Ottomans in the west and the Sunnite Shaybanids in the northeast, and made it possible for Persia to withstand repeated Ottoman invasions. ... THEQAJAR DYNASTY (1779-1924) The Qajar were a Turkmen tribe who first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qezelba@æ tribes that supported the Safavids. Shah Abba@s I resettled them in different parts of Persia for defensive purposes. The branch that was settled in Astara@ba@d province gained importance and began to play an increasingly important part in the time of Nader Shah and Karim Khan and the struggles that followed their demise. Aqa Moháammad Khan (r. ... EHSAN YARSHATER MOHáAMMADREZA SHAH (1941-79) Iran and World War II. The long history of Russian and British interventions in Persian affairs had fostered widespread resentment against the two great powers. As a result Germany, which did not have a history of dealing with Persia and stood against both in World War II, was accorded a measure of sympathy in Persia. Its ideology of Aryan supremacy added to the people's admiration without their realizing the nature of Nazism. The Allied forces demanded right of passage through Persia in order to transport food and ammunition to the Soviet Union. ... EHSAN YARSHATER Thischronological table of events records major happenings of Iranian pre-history and history from the most ancient times to 2005. Included are political figures as well as figures who have contributed to Persian culture such as poets, writers, and artists, with the mention of their major works, as well as scholars of Iranian studies. In fact, the table contains a history of the development of Iranian studies throughout the world. EHSAN YARSHATER INDEXOF PROPER NAMES THAT OCCUR IN THE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE EHSAN YARSHATER iii.THE TRADITIONAL HISTORY OF PERSIA JOHN R. HINNELLS iv.MYTHS AND LEGENDS R. N. FRYE v.PEOPLES OF IRAN In the following discussion of "Iranian peoples," the term "Iranian" may be understood in two ways. It is, first of all, a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted, and transmitted, an Iranian language. The set of Iranian-speaking peoples is thus considered a kind of unity, in spite of their distinct lineage identities plus all the factors which may havefurther differentiated any one group's sense of self. These include: (1) divergent specializations in economic organization, environmental adaptation, and other aspects of material culture, emergent differences in oral traditions and folkways; (2) hand in hand with the preceding: different conditioning by already established populations encountered in the area of settlement or absorbed in the course of migrations; (3) further conditioning by the later introduction of non-Iranian-speaking populations. ... C. J. BRUNNER (2)Pre-Islamic Period This survey focuses on the early phase of the Iranian-speaking peoples' presence on the plateau, during the early state-building phase. It is driven, inevitably, by two major early resources: (a) the dahyus (on which see above, Introduction) enumerated in the Achaemenid inscriptions to define the extent of the king's domain, (b) Herodotus's list (3.89-94) of the 20 tax districts (nomoí, described as "administrations they call satrapies") and of the peoples in them across the entire Achaemenid empire. ... 3.Islamic Period. See Supplement |