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Steven C. Anderson, William L. Hanaway, Jr. (Ar. and Pers. ʿoqāb; also obsolete Pers. dāl < Mid. Pers. dālman; also obsolete Pers. and Mid. Pers. āloh), large, diurnal, raptorial birds of the family Accipitridae in several genera (45-90 cm long, wingspan 110-250 cm). Ten species of eagles occur at least seasonally in Persia, nine of which also occur in Afghanistan. i. Species in Persia and Afghanistan. ii. The eagle in Persian literature. in Zoroastrianism. See ELEMENTS i. Daniel Balland, Habib Borjian, Xavier de Planhol, Manuel Berberian Persia and Afghanistan lie on the great alpine belt that extends from the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean through the Indonesian archipelago and forms the world’s longest collision boundary, between the Eurasian plate in the north and several former Gondwanan blocks in the south, including the so-called “Iranian plates” and “Afghan plates” (Schöler, pp. 29f.). Hence, it is not surprising that they are regions of high seismic activity. i. In Afghanistan. ii. In Central Asia. iii. In Persia. iv. The historical record of earthquakes in Persia. Mark Horton, Derek Nurse, Farouk Topan, Will. C. van den Hoonard : Persian relations with the lands of the East African coast, particularly Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. i. Economic, political, and cultural relations through 1900. ii. Persian loanwords in Swahili. iii. Baluchi and Parsi communities. iv. Bahai communities. Antonio Panaino an English language quarterly published since 1950 by IsMEO (q.v.; Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente [Italian Institute for Middle and Far East]) and now by the IsIAO (Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente [Italian Institute for Africa and the Orient]). To date (2003) 52 volumes have been published. East and West was founded and edited until 1978 by Giuseppe Tucci. From 1978 to 1997 it was under the editorship of Gherardo Gnoli and, from 1997 to 2000, by Maurizio Taddei. After the sudden death of Professor Taddei (5th February 2000), Professor Gnoli once again took over the editorship in his capacity as president of the IsIAO. ... R. W. Ferrier, John R. Perry a trading company incorporated on 31 December 1600 for fifteen years with the primary purpose of exporting the staple production of English woolen cloths and importing the products of the East Indies. i. The Safavid period. ii. The Afsharid, Zand, and Qajar periods. While Portugal was politically united with Spain, from 1580 to 1640, the company encountered opposition from Portuguese trading interests, which were already established on the Indian mainland, islands in the Indian Ocean, and particularly in the Persian Gulf area. There the Portuguese controlled the small island Hormoz (q.v.), off the southwest coast of Persia. See DUTCH-PERSIAN RELATIONS. Anne Kroell a company established in 1664 to conduct all French commercial operations with the Orient. Colbert, minister of Louis XIV, had been aware of the great profits earned by the Dutch and English merchants in importing and selling Asian goods to the French (Kaepplin, p. 3). He wanted to deprive foreigners of such a profitable market and, therefore, founded a chartered company modeled on the Dutch company, which could, with the support of a reviving merchant marine and the protection of the king’s vessels, carry on trade with countries east of the Cape of Good Hope. ... Nicholas Sims-Williams term used to refer to a group of Iranian languages most of which are or were spoken in lands to the east of the present state of Persia. In terms of both historical and typological linguistics, the distinction between Western and Eastern Iranian is generally regarded as the most fundamental division in Iranian dialectology. Each of these two major groups is sometimes subdivided along the opposite axis, giving a potential four-way distinction between South-Western, North-Western, South-Eastern, and North-Eastern Iranian. ... Parvin Loloi (b. Warfield, Berkshire, 13 March 1814; d. Ventnor, Isle of Wight, 16 July 1883), orientalist and diplomat, best known for his translations from Persian and Indian languages. Between 1859 and 1883 he wrote many books on the cities of India. He also edited and prefaced many books, including an edition of Zartošt-nāma which was translated into English as The Life and Ethics of Zoroaster … by Alexander Rogers. Eastwick is, however, best known for his translations of the Golestān of Saʿdi and the Anwār-e Sohayli of Ḥosayn Wāʿeẓ Kāšefi. Jean During (b. Tehran, 1305/1906, d. 1371 Š./1993), one of the outstanding modern masters of Persian music. He was a grandson of ʿAlī-Akbar Farāhānī (d. ca. 1275/1858) and a son of Mīrzā ʿAbd-Allāh (1261-1336/1845-1918), the great masters of their own times. ʿEbādī began accompanying his father on the żarb (see DRUMS) at the age of seven years, then took lessons on the setār from his two sisters Mawlūd Ḵānom and Molūk Ḵānom before studying briefly with his father. ... Hamid Algar (or EBĀḤATĪYA), a polemical term denoting either antinomianism or groups and individuals accused thereof. It occurs generally in the context of condemning pseudo-Sufis, although it is sometimes used in connection with a variety of other religious deviants. The word is derived from ebāḥat, which in the terminology of Islamic jurisprudence means the permissibility which is inherent in all things unless canceled or modified by specific provisions of the law; the error of the antinomians lies in their rejection of all such provisions. ... Muhammad A. Dandamayev (Aram. Abar Naharā, “Beyond/Across the river”), the Akkadian name used in Assyrian and Babylonian records of the 8th-5th centuries B.C.E. for the lands to the west of the Euphrates—i.e., Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine (Parpola, p. 116; Zadok, p. 129; see ASSYRIA ii). These regions apparently passed from Neo-Babylonian to Persian control in 539 B.C.E. when Cyrus the Great conquered Mesopotamia. A. B. Khaledov (b. St. Petersburg, 1899, d. Orel, 1937), scholar of early Persian poets writing in Arabic. Born in the family of a surgeon of German origin, Eberman studied Arabic and Persian in 1917-21 at the Department of Oriental Languages at the University of Petrograd. As a researcher he was active only from 1919 to 1930, working at the Asiatic Museum of the Academy of Sciences (researcher, first rank, 1919-20) and the State Academy of the History of Material Culture (researcher, second rank, 1920-30). In 1924-29 he taught Arabic at Leningrad University (docent, 1925-29). ... See EBER-NĀRI. Nassereddin Parvin (lit., “communication”), title of five Persian language newspapers. Hamid Algar in Persian Sufi Tradition. The word Eblīs, a Koranic designation for the devil, appears to derive ultimately from the Greek diabolos. Some authorities have nonetheless imaginatively connected it with Arabic ublisa (“he was rendered hopeless”), with reference to the accursedness that befell Eblīs as a result of his rebellion (Maybodī, I, p. 145). Of the eleven Koranic verses in which the name Eblīs occurs (2:34, 7:11, 15:31-32, 17:61, 18:50, 20:116, 26:95, 34:20, 38:74-75), ten refer to this rebellion and the events immediately preceding and following it; the exception, 26:95, speaks of “the hosts of Eblīs” (jonūd Eblīs) being cast into Hellfire on the Day of Judgement. ... See ṢĀḤEB B. ʿABBĀD. Stephen Lambden (1270-1337/1854-1919), Bahai teacher and one of the “hands of the cause” (see AYĀDĪ-E AMR-ALLĀH). He was one of two Bahai sons of Mirza ʿAbd-al-Raḥīm Eṣfahānī (d. 1290/1872), the Shiʿite mojtahed, a crypto-Babi and Bahai, and Belqīs Ḵānom. His zealous Bahai teaching in Zanjān, Qazvīn, Tehran, Yazd, Kermān, and elsewhere led to his frequent imprisonment, for the first time in 1295/1878. ... Todd Lawson , Moḥammad b. Zayn-al-Dīn Abi’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Ḥosām-al-Dīn Ebrāhīm (b. ca. 837/1433-34; d. after 25 Ḏu ʾl-Qaʿda 904/4 July 1499). Shiʿite thinker. He lived and taught in his home town of Aḥsā in Baḥrayn, Najaf, and Mašhad during the last half of the 15th century. His best known work, the al-Mojlī, which is actually his commentary and super-commentary on a kalām treatise by himself, is important as an example of the immediate scholastic precursor to the kind of Shiʿite intellectual synthesis which would flower during the Safavid period and come to be called ḥekmat-e elāhī and whose most famous exponent was Mollā Ṣadrā. ... Lutz Richter-Bernburg , ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿABD-al-RAḤMĀN b. ʿAlī b. Aḥmad NAYŠĀBŪRĪ (Nīšāpūr, 5th/11th century), medical author known in the century after his death, at least in Khorasan, as “the second Hippocrates” (Bayhaqī, p. 107), and reportedly a student of Avicenna (q.v.; Ebn Abī Oṣaybeʿa, II, p. 22). He wrote commentaries on Hippocrates’ Aphorisms (Foṣūl) and Prognostics (Taqdemat al-maʿrefa) Galen’s De usu partium (Manāfeʿ al aʿżāʾ) and others.... C. Edmund Bosworth (204-80/819-93), littérateur (adīb) and historian of Baghdad, of a Khorasani family. His extensive adab (q.v.) works include treatises on poets and singing, praised by Abu’l-Faraj Eṣfahānī in his Ketāb al-aḡānī, and the partially extant literary anthology Ketāb al-manṯūr wa’l-manẓūm (Cairo, 1326/1908), used by, among others, Abū Ḥayyān Tawḥīdī (q.v.) in his al-Baṣāʾer wa’l-ḏaḵāʾer ... See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. ABU’L ḤADĪD. Ihsan Abbas cognomen of two famous viziers of the 4th/10th century: Abu’l-Fażl and his son Abu’l-Fatḥ. The father of the first was called Ḥoseyn. Tawḥīdī claims that this Ḥoseyn was of humble origin, a naḵḵāl (wheat-sifter) in the grain market of Qom (Aḵlāq al-wazīrayn, p. 82). This, however, is probably not true. After occupying major administrative posts, Ḥosayn was appointed chief of the chancery (dīwān al-rasāʾel) at the court of the Sāmānid amir Nūḥ. ... William C. Chittick , MOḤYĪ-al-DĪN Abū ʿAbd-Allāh Moḥammad Ṭāʾī Ḥātemī (b. 17 Ramażān 560/28 July 1165; d. 22 Rabīʿ II 638/10 November 1240), the most influential Sufi author of later Islamic history, known to his supporters as al-Šayḵ al-akbar, “the Greatest Master.” Although the form “Ebn al-ʿArabī,” with the definite article, is found in his autographs and in the writings of his immediate followers, many later authors referred to him as ‘Ebn ʿArabī’, without the article, to differentiate him from Qāżī Abū Bakr Ebn al-ʿArabī. ... D. S. Richards , ʿEZZ-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ b. Moḥammad Jazarī (b. Jazīrat Ebn ʿOmar [modern Cizre, in eastern Turkey] 4 Jomādā I 555/13 May 1160; d. Mosul, Šaʿbān 630/June 1233), major Islamic historian and important source for the history of Persia and adjacent areas from the Samanids to the first Mongol invasion. C. Edmund Bosworth conventional name for an otherwise unknown author of Fārs-nāma, a local history and geography of the province of Fārs written in Persian during the Saljuq period, so-called because his ancestors came from Balḵ in eastern Khorasan (Balḵī-nežād, p. 3; the form “Ebn al-Balḵī” is used in Kašf al-ẓonūn, ed. Flügel, IV, p. 344, no. 8681). His grandfather was mostawfī (chief accountant) for the taxation of Fārs around 492/1099 under Atābak Rokn-al-Dawla or Najm-al-Dawla Ḵomārtegīn, who had been appointed governor there by Sultan Barkīāroq (q.v.). ... Hūšang Aʿlam , ŻĪĀʾ-AL-DĪN ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH b. Aḥmad (not Aḥmad-al-Dīn as in EI2 III, p. 737), Andalusian botanist and pharmacologist. He was born in Malaga (Ar. Mālaqa; hence his nesba Mālaqī) in the second half of the 6th/12th century, and died in Damascus in 646/1248. He is best known for his encyclopedic Jāmeʿ. ... See ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH B. AL-BAYYEʿ. Herman G. B. Teule (Syr. bar ʿEbrāyā, Lat. Bar Hebraeus), ABU’L-FARAJ (b. Malaṭīa, 622/1225; d. Marāḡa, 685/1286), Syriac historian and polymath. His laqab Ebn al-ʿEbrī alludes to the place of origin of his family—ʿEbra on the Euphrates, near Malaṭīa (Malitene)—not to a Jewish origin. Baptized as Yoḥannōn, he was ordained a bishop of the West Syrian or Jacobite Church at the age of twenty and took the name Gregory. ... Daniel Gimaret , ABŪ BAKR AḤMAD b. ʿAlī b. Beḡčor (270-326/884-938), Muʿtazilite theologian. According to Ḵaṭīb Baḡdādī (IV, p. 309), he was of Turkish descent, which appears to be confirmed by the “name” (in fact a title) of his grandfather, if read as such. His surname, Ebn al-Eḵšīd (also read Eḵšīḏ, Eḵšād, or Eḵšāḏ) probably indicates that he was descended from a princely family of Sogdia or Farḡāna (q.v.). ... Anas B. Khalidov , ABŪ BAKR (or Abū ʿAbd-Allāh) AḤMAD b. Moḥammad b. Esḥāq b. Ebrāhīm HAMADĀNĪ HAMADĀNĪAḵbārī (fl. second half of the 3rd/9th century), man of letters, who wrote in Arabic Ketāb aḵbār al- boldān, a geographic work, in which primarily the Islamic world with its centers in Arabia, Persia, and Iraq are described. ... Charles Melville , KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ b. Aḥmad, librarian and historian (b. 642/1244; d. Baghdad, 723/1323). His family originated in Marv-al-Rūd in Khorasan; the name Fowaṭī derives from the occupation either of his or his father’s mother as a seller of waist wraps (Ar. fūṭa, pl. fowaṭ). He was enslaved by the Mongols at the siege of Baghdad (656/1258) and taken to Azerbaijan. Two years later Naṣīr-al-Dīn Ṭūsī appointed him librarian of the Marāḡa observatory. ... Wilferd Madelung , ABŪ BAKR MOḤAMMAD b. ʿOmar Tamīmī Ḥāfeẓ, traditionist with Shiʿite leanings (b. Baghdad 23 or 24 Ṣafar 284/1 or 2 April 897, d. Baghdad 15 Rajab 355/7 July 966). A student of Ebn ʿOqda (d. 332/943; q.v.), the foremost Kufan traditionist of his time, he transmitted from a large number of other traditionists and traveled to Egypt, Syria, and Persia to study and teach. For some time he was associated with the Buyid vizier Ebn al-ʿAmīd. Ebn al-Jeʿābī had a prodigious memory, even by the standards of traditionists. ... Wilferd Madelung (or al-Jonaydī), ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD b. Aḥmad Kāteb Eskāfī, Imami jurist. His nesba indicates that he came from Eskāf, or Eskāf Bani’l-Jonayd, a district of Nahrawān between Baghdad and Wāseṭ east of the Tigris (Yāqūt, Boldān I, p. 252). He could not have been born much later than 290/903, since he transmitted from the Wāqefī scholar Ḥomayd b. Zīād, who died in 310/922. ... J. Derek Latham , ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH b. Dādūya/Dādōē (b. Gōr, the present Fīrūzābād, Fārs, ca. 103/721, d. Baṣra ca. 139/757), chancery secretary (kāteb) and major Arabic prose writer. Ebn al-Moqaffaʿ was of noble Persian stock and bore the name Rōzbeh/Rūzbeh before his comparatively late conversion to Islam from Manicheism. He was the son of an Omayyad tax-collector named Dādūya, named Mobārak on conversion and nicknamed “the cripple-handed” (al-moqaffaʿ), whose disability was said to have resulted from torture for embezzlement. ... See ḤELLĪ, ʿALLĀMA. See FEHREST, AL-. Charles Melville , ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAlī b. Ṭabāṭabā, historian and naqīb of the ʿAlids in Ḥella (b. 660/1262 ?; d. after 709/1309 ?). In the winter of 701/1302 he wrote al-Faḵrī for Faḵr-al-Dīn ʿĪsā, governor of Mosul (Ebn al-Fowaṭī, IV/3, p. 277). The work is in two parts. The first, in the “mirror for princes” genre, uses anecdotes to explain the collapse of the ʿAbbasid caliphate in terms of their unfitting qualities as rulers. He commends the Mongol rulers for their justice, discipline, and attention to such practical skills as accountancy and medicine. Part II surveys the Islamic dynasties from the four Orthodox Caliphs to the fall of the ʿAbbasids in 656/1258. ... See BANŪ AMĀJŪR. See ʿABD-ALLĀH B. ʿĀMER. John E. Woods , ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ʿABBĀS AḤMAD b. Moḥammad ... Ḥanafī ʿAjamī (b. Damascus, 791/1389, d. Cairo, 854/1450), literary scholar and biographer of Tamerlane (Tīmūr). According to the autobiography quoted by Ebn Taḡrīberdī, when Tīmūr conquered Damascus in 803/1401, Ebn ʿArabšāh and his family were transported to Tīmūr’s capital, Samarkand. He spent the next eight years in Transoxiana and Chinese Turkestan, where he learned Persian and Mongolian and studied with Sayyed Šarīf Moḥammad Jorjānī, Saʿd-al-Dīn Masʿūd Taftāzānī, and Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad Jazarī. ... Stephen Lambden , MĪRZĀ ʿALĪ-MOḤAMMAD (b. Mašhad 1267/1850; d. Tehran, 1347/1928), prominent Bahai missionary. He was given the honorific designation Ebn(-e) Aṣdaq in certain Bahai scriptural writings. Toward the end of his life Bahāʾ-Allāh counted him a living martyr and referred to him as Šahīd ebn-e Šahīd (“martyr, son of a martyr”). He was a son of the Šayḵī, Bābī and Baha’i Mollā Ṣādeq Moqaddas-e Ḵorāsānī. ... D.M. Dunlop the name usually given to Abu Noʿmān Ebrāhim b. Mālek al-Aštar b. al-Hāreṯ al-Naḵaʿi. His prominence is due to his association with Moḵtār, and his active career is confined to a few years subsequent to the death of al-Ḥosayn b. ʿAli (61/680, q.v.). He was head of the latter’s partisans in Kufa (al-Ḥosayniya). ... See ʿAṬṬĀŠ. Daniel Gimaret , ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM b. Moḥammad Baṣrī, Muʿtazilite theologian (d. late 10th century), member of the so-called School of Baṣra and a partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī. Although it has been said that in his youth he had met Abū Hāšem, his main teachers were two eminent disciples of the latter, Abū ʿAlī b. Ḵallād and later Abū ʿAbd-Allāh Baṣrī. He was himself the first teacher of the Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār. ... Richard W. Bulliet , ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR MOʾAYYAD-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAlī, Shiʿite vizier of the caliph al-Nāṣer from 590/1194 to 592/1195 (b. ca 522/1128). A Persian born in Shiraz, Ebn al-Qaṣṣāb went at a young age to Baghdad where his father was a butcher (whence his name) in Darb al-Baṣrīya. Entering government service, he became an expert on finance and taxation and in 578/1182-83 a protege of the powerful Shiʿite superintendant of palace affairs (ostāḏ al-dār) Ebn al-Ṣāḥeb. ... C. Edmund Bosworth (Qāšānī), ABU’L-ʿABBĀS (d. Marv, 510/1116-17), Persian writer and boon-companion (nadīm), whose manual for courtiers preserves otherwise lost information on the later Ghaznavids. Presumably a native of Kāšān, Ebn Bābā worked in western Persia, Baghdad, and finally Khorasan, probably at the court of the Saljuqid Sultan Sanjar. His main fame is as author of the Ketāb raʾs māl al-nadīm, written for one Amir Raʾīs Saʿd-al-Molk Abu’l-Fatḥ Moḥammad. ... Sheila S. Blair (Bābūya), family of Persian builders, luster potters, and tile makers, descended from the Shiʿite scholar Ebn Bābūya al-Ṣadūq (d. 382/991; q.v.) and active in the 6th to 8th/12th to 14th centuries in central Persia. Several members are known. Martin McDermott (Bābūya), SHAIKH ṢADŪQ ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD b. Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī... Mūsā Qomī (b. Qom after 305, probably about 311/923; d. Ray, 381/991), author of one of the authoritative four books of Imami Shiʿite Hadith, Man lā yaḥżoroho’l-faqīh. See BĀBĀ KŪHĪ. Charles F. Beckingham , ŠAMS-AL-DĪN ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH MOḤAMMAD (b. Tangier, 17 Rajab 703 /25 February 1304; d. Morocco, 770/1368-9), the most famous Muslim traveler. A Berber from Tangier, he claims to have traveled extensively in Africa, the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, and China. His Toḥfat al-noẓẓār fī ḡarāʾeb al-amṣār wa ʿajāʾeb al-asfār, known as the Reḥla (Journey), professes to be a chronological narrative of his journeys from his departure from Tangier as a pilgrim in Rajab 725/June 1324 to his arrival in Fez, Morocco, after a journey to Mali in Ḏu’l-qaʿda 754/December 1353. ... Roger Savory , DARVĪŠ TAWAKKOLĪ b. Esmāʿīl b. Ḥājī Ardabīlī author of the Ṣafwat al-ṣafāʾ, a biography of Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn Esḥāq Ardabīlī (d. 935/1334), founder of the Safavid order of Sufis and the eponym of the Safavid dynasty. Ebn Bazzāz was a desciple of Shaikh Ṣadr-al-Dīn Ardabīlī (d. 794/1391-92), the son and successor of Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn. The work, also entitled al-Mawāheb al-sanīya fī manāqeb al-Ṣafawīya, deals mainly with Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn’s miracles and sayings and contains little of a biographical nature. ... Tahsin Yazici , NĀṢER-AL-DĪN ḤOSAYN b. Moḥammad b. ʿAlī Jaʿfarī Roḡadī, Persian historian and man of letters. He was the son of the scribe (monšī) Majd-al-Dīn Moḥammad, who had worked under Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad, grandfather of ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn Jovaynī. His mother Bībī Monajjema was the daughter of Kamāl-al-Dīn Semnānī and granddaughter of the faqīh Moḥammad b. Yaḥyā. Judging from an endowment record (waqfīya; Turan, p. 87), the name of his grandfather was Ḥasan. ... Lutz Richter-Bernburg prominent family of physicians of Gondēšāpūr at court during the early ʿAbbasid period. Notwithstanding their continued oral competence in Persian and the Persian aspects of their identity, the Boḵtīšūʿ family used Syriac and Arabic in their medical writings. Marco Salami , ABŪ TORĀB ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MORTAŻĀ b. Dāʿī b. Qāsem Rāzī Ḥosaynī (or Ḥasanī), known as ʿAlam-al-Hodā (d. after 525/1132), Imami traditionist and author of a heresiography in Persian. He and his brother Mojtabā transmitted Hadith directly from Jaʿfar b. Moḥammad Dūryastī and, through ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. Aḥmad Nīšābūrī, from Shaikh Ṭūsī, Sayyed Rażī, and Sayyed Mortażā. The famous traditionist and biographer Montajab-al-Dīn Qomī (504-85/1110-80) studied with and transmitted from him and from his brother. ... C. Edmund Bosworth , TĀJ-AL-MOLK ABU’L-ḠANĀʾEM MARZBĀN b. Ḵosrow-Fīrūz Šīrāzī (438-86/1046-93), last vizier of the Great Saljuq Sultan Malekšāh (r. 465-85/1072-92). Born of a secretarial family in Fārs, he served the Saljuq slave amir Qoṭb-al-Dīn Sāvtegīn in southern Persia and Iraq during the early part of Malekšāh’s reign. Sāvtegīn commended him to the sultan, who first made him intendant of the harems and private property of various of his sons, then treasurer and overseer of the palace buildings, and finally, when his capabilities had been amply demonstrated, head of the chancery (Dīvān al-enšāʾ wa’l-ṭoḡrā) in succession to Kamāl-al-Molk Abu’l-Moḵtār Zawzanī. ... C. Edmund Bosworth b. Manṣūr (d. Ahvāz 467/1074), vizier to the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Qāʾem from 15 Rabīʿ II 453/9 May 1061 to 4 Ḏu’l-ḥejja 454/9 December 1062. He seems to have been a native of Fārs, where he had been a wealthy merchant connected with the Buyid Abū Kālījār Marzbān (q.v.). With the arrival of the Saljuqs in Iraq, the caliph was once more able to choose his own vizier, and Ebn Dārost wrote to al-Qāʾem from Shiraz asking for the vizierate, offering a large sum of money and stating that he required no eqṭāʿ (q.v.). ... See BARDESANES. Seeger A. Bonebakker (Dorostūya), ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH b. Jaʿfar b. Dorostawayh b. Marzbān (b. Fasā, 258/871; d. Baghdad, Ṣafar 347/May 958), grammarian and lexicographer of Persian origin. Though he shared his father’s interest in Hadith (Taʾrīḵ Baḡdād IX, p. 429), his main pursuits were philological. ... Gul A. Russell , MANṢŪR b. Moḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Faqīh Yūsof (fl. late 14th-early 15th cent.), a descendent of a Shirazi family of jurists and physicians, is the author of two extant Persian works: a medical compilation entitled the Kefāya-ye mojāhedīya and an illustrated anatomy text known as the Tašrīḥ-e manṣūrī. Charles Melville , BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD b. Ḥasan, historian, probably from Āmol, who flourished around the turn of the 7th/13th century. He is the author of the earliest surviving history of Ṭabarestān, on which he was engaged around 603/1206 (400 years after the martyrdom of Imam ʿAlī al-Reżā, q.v.; Ebn Esfandīār, I, p. 203) and which he was still writing ten years later (I, p. 82). According to his own account, Ebn Esfandīār was in the service of the Bavandid (see ĀL-E BĀVAND) ruler Ḥosām-al-Dawla Ardašīr. ... Marco Salami , ABU’L-ʿABBĀS JAMĀL-AL-DĪN AḤMAD b. Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad (756 or 757-841/1355-1437), Imami scholar and jurist. A native of Ḥella, he spent most of his life there, where he taught at the Zaynīya school, and in Karbalāʾ, where he died and was buried. His teachers included ʿAlī b. Ḵāzen Ḥāʾerī, Meqdād Soyūrī, Ebn al-Motawwaj Baḥrānī, all former students of Moḥammad b. Makkī Šahīd-e Awwal. ... See ĀL-E FARĪḠŪN. See AḤMAD B. FAŻLĀN. See BAYHAQĪ, ẒAHĪR-AL-DĪN. C. Edmund Bosworth (or Ebn Pūlād), military adventurer, probably of Daylamī origin, active in northern Persia during the Buyid period (early 5th/11th century) and typical of the soldiers of fortune characterizing the “Daylamī intermezzo” of medieval Persian history. In 407/1016, he revolted against the Buyids (Ebn al-Aṯīr, IX, pp. 268-69). He is described as base-born; but he collected a following of soldiers and demanded the governorship of Qazvīn from Majd-al-Dawla Rostam, the feeble Buyid ruler of Ray and Jebāl, and his mother Sayyeda. ... See Supplement. Anas B. Khalidov , ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAlī Naṣībī, traveler and geographer of the 4th/10th century. Biographical data on him are exclusively derived from his single extant work on geography, which bears the title Ṣūrat al-arż (Configurations of the earth) in the oldest manuscript, dated 479/1086, of its last version. Years of his birth and death are not known. His nesba points to a descent from Naṣībīn in Upper Mesopotamia. The earliest dates given by him about himself indicate he stayed also in Lower Mesopotamia: soon after 320/932 at Tekrīt and in 325/936 at Baghdad. ... Heinz Halm , ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤASAN b. Faraj (or Faraḥ) b. Ḥawšab b. Zāḏān Najjār Kūfī, known also as Manṣūr al-Yaman (d. 302/914), Ismaʿili dāʿī (q.v.) and founder of the Ismaʿili community in northern Yemen. He came from the neighborhood of the Narses canal (Nahr Nars) in the countryside (sawād) of Kūfa south of present-day Ḥella in Iraq, where he was occupied as a linen weaver and manufacturer of narsī cloth. According to other sources, he was a carpenter or a joiner. ... Lutz Richter-Bernburg , ABU’L-FARAJ ʿALĪ b. Ḥosayn, also known as Ostāḏ (b. in Ṭabarestān, no later than the early 350s/960s; d. in or after 422/1031), author of, inter alia, propaedeutic epistles on philosophy and medicine and of a gnomology of Greek wisdom, and generally renowned as a litterateur. Of Qomī origin (Ebn Esfandīār, p. 125, tr. Browne, pp. 54, 77f., n. 5) or of “ancient” Rāzī stock (Yāqūt, Odabāʾ V, pp. 168 f.), Ebn Hendū came from a family in the secretarial profession; he can be said to be a representative of the well-educated scribal class so prominent during the ʿAbbasid period. ... Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā (or Ḵūsfī), MOḤAMMAD, a poet of the 9th/15th century. Living in the village of Ḵūsf, near Bīrjand, Ebn Ḥosām was a farmer by trade and remained unattached to any of the rulers and powerful men of his time. It appears from his works that he was a learned Shiʿite, well versed in literature, jurisprudence, and the biographies and traditions relating to major figures in Islam—an expertise that he put to good use in his qaṣīdas dedicated to them. ... See Supplement. Michael G. Carter (Ḵālūya), ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH ḤOSAYN b. Aḥmad b. Ḥamdān Hamaḏānī, philologist and Koran scholar. He was born in Hamadān and traveled in 314/926 to Baghdad while still a young man, where he studied the linguistic sciences under both Basran and Kufan masters, principally the Basrans Ebn Dorayd and Abū Saʿīd Sīrāfī, the Kufans Abū Bakr Anbārī and Abū ʿOmar Zāhed Ḡolām Ṯaʿlab, and Nefṭawayh of the mixed school. ... Franz Rosenthal , ABŪ ZAYD ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN b. Moḥammad (b. 1 Ramażān 732/27 May 1332; d. 26 Ramażān 808/17 March 1406), the historian famous for the general theory of history and civilization brilliantly expounded in his Moqaddema. The world history, Ketāb al-ʿebar wa dīwān al-mobtadaʾ wa’l-ḵabar fī ayyām al-ʿArab wa’l-ʿAjam wa’l-Barbar, has a first chapter and an added appendix, both of which were already treated by Ebn Ḵaldūn himself as independent works, the first known as Moqaddema (Introduction) and the second as Taʿrīf... (Autobiography). There is no satisfactory modern edition of either the ʿEbar or even the Moqaddema. The former is to be quoted according to the seven-volume Būlāq printing of 1284/1867 (tr. of the Berber history by de Slane, P. Casanova, and H. Perès, Paris, 1925-34, 1956; recent tr. of large excerpts by A. Cheddadi, Paris, 1986), and the Moqaddema according to the edition of E. M. Quatremère (Paris, 1858). The Moqaddema, in its entirety or partially, has been printed innumerable times, and there are translations in many languages. ... Daniel Gimaret , ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD BAṢRĪ (d. 2nd half of 3rd/10th century), Muʿtazilite theologian of the so-called “school of Baṣra,” partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī. He had been Abū Hāšem’s first disciple at ʿAskar Mokram, then at Baghdad. His own followers included the two future teachers of Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār, Abū ʿAbd-Allah Baṣrī and Abū Esḥāq b. ʿAyyāš (q.v.). ... W. Montgomery Watt , ABU’L-ḴAYR ḤASAN b. Savār (or Sovār) b. Bābā b. Bahrām (or Behnām) Ḵᵛārazmī, philosopher. He was born in 331/942, presumably in Baghdad; his father, a Nestorian Christian, was apparently a wineseller (ḵammār). He studied logic and other philosophical subjects under the noted philosopher Yaḥyā b. ʿAdī, and medicine under Jebrāʾīl b. ʿObayd-Allāh b. Boḵtīšūʿ (q.v.). The names of his books have long been known from the Fehrest of Ebn al-Nadīm and other bio-bibliographical works, but it is only in recent decades that mss. of some of these have come to light. ... See Supplement. See FATḤ B. ḴĀQĀN. C. Edmund Bosworth military commander of the Ghurids, and connected, according to Jūzjānī, with the district of Gorzevān on the headwaters of the Morḡāb in the province of Gūzgān in northern Afghanistan. ee ʿABDALLĀH B. ḴĀZEM. See Supplement. C. Edmund Bosworth (or Ḵorradāḏbeh), ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH b. ʿAbd-Allāh (fl. 3rd/9th century), author of the earliest surviving Arabic book of administrative geography. He was not, apparently, the first geographer to write in Arabic, but he is the first whose book has survived in anything like its original form. His grandfather Ḵorradāḏbeh was a Zoroastrian who converted to Islam at the urging of the Barmakids (q.v.). His father ʿAbd-Allāh was by 201/816-17 al-Maʾmūn’s governor in Ṭabarestān, where he campaigned in the mountains and dislodged the local ruler. ... See ʿALĪ B. ʿĪSĀ B. MĀHĀN. See BANŪ MĀJŪR. See ĀL-E MĀKŪLĀ. C. Edmund Bosworth (Mardūya), AHMAD b. Mūsā b. Mardawayh b. Fūrak Eṣfahānī, scholar of Isfahan in the Buyid period (323-410/935-1019), who wrote in the fields of tradition, tafsīr (Koranic exegsis), history, and geography. He studied Hadith in Iraq and in his native town and was the pupil of such leading traditionists as Ebn Manda and Abū Sahl Qaṭṭān. His Koran commentary is lost but is quoted in Ebn Ḥajar’s Eṣāba; his selections from the Ṣaḥīhṟ of Boḵārī appear likewise to be lost. ... D. M. Dunlop (Marzbān), ABŪ AḤMAD ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN. b. ʿAlī b. Marzbān Ṭabīb Marzbānī (d. Tostar, Jomādā I 396/February-March 1006), administrative official under the Buyids. Martin McDermott (Mattūya), ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ḤASAN b. Aḥmad b. Mattawayh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the Basran school, a student of Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār (d. 415/1025). Where Ebn Mattawayh lived and the date of his death are not known. Wilferd Madelung has established that his Majmūʿ was written rather soon after ʿAbd-al-Jabbār’s death and that the late date sometimes given for Ebn Mattawayh’s death as 468/1075 or 469/1076 has no foundation. ... See MESKAWAYH. ee ʿABDALLAHÚ B. MOʿĀWĪA. ee ʿABDALLAH B. MOBĀRAK. ee ABŪ DOLAF YANBŪʿĪ. See Supplement. C. Edmund Bosworth , LAYṮ b. Fażl, a client (mawlā) and governor of Sīstān 199-204/815-19. Previously governor of Egypt in 182-87/798-803 (Kendī, pp. 139-41), he was appointed governor of Sīstān by the caliph Maʾmūn in place of the discredited Moḥammad b. Ašʿaṯ. ... Ihsan Abbas , ABU’L BARAKĀT ŠARAF-AL-DĪN MOBĀRAK b. Aḥmad b. Mobārak Erbelī (564-637/1168-1239), historian of Erbel. Both his father and his uncle, Ṣafī-al-Dīn ʿAlī, who translated Ḡazālī’s Naṣīḥat al-molūk from Persian into Arabic, were also financial administrator (mostawfī). Abu’l-Barakāt did not limit himself to arithmetical knowledge, which was essential for such an office, but was also well versed in rhetoric, prosody, grammar, and Hadith. Erbel in his days was an independent and prosperous city-state. ... See ABU’L-WAZĪR MARVAZĪ. See NAWBAḴTĪ FAMILY. See ABŪ SAHL NAWBAḴTĪ. See NAWBAḴTĪ, ḤASAN B. MŪSĀ. Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā , AMIR BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN BARANDAQ ḴOJANDĪ, Timurid poet (b. 757/1356; d. ca. 837/1433). Son of Amir Noṣratšāh, governor of Ḵojand under Tīmūr, he pursued a career as a poet, despite retaining the title amir. After a period of travel in Persia and India, he settled in Samarkand. He wrote panegyrics for a number of rulers and high officials including the Delhi Sultan Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Toḡloqšāh II (r. 790-91/1388). ... Martin McDermott , ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Rāzī (d. Ray, before 319/931), one of the most prominent and active Imami theologians. He had a major role in the development of Shiʿite Islam in its formative period during the first century of the occultation of the Twelfth Imam. Little biographical information is available about Ebn Qeba. Starting out as a Muʿtazilite master of theology (kalām), he converted to Shiʿism and contributed to an early stage of Muʿtazilite influence in Imami theology. Ebn Qeba was actively engaged in continuous oral and written debates with scholars belonging to other schools of Shiʿism, particularly Zaydis. ... Franz Rosenthal , ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH b. Moslem DĪNAVARĪ (213-276/828-889), important early philologist in the widest sense of the term and author of numerous works on what is known as the “Arab sciences,” including the religious sciences dealing with the Koran and Hadith. Martin McDermott (Qūlūya), ABU’L-QĀSEM JAʿFAR b. Moḥammad b. Jaʿfar b. Mūsā b. Qūlawayh Qomī Baḡdādī (d. Baghdad, 368/978 or 369/979), Imami traditionist and jurist, a disciple of Abū Jaʿfar Kolaynī and teacher of Shaikh Mofīd. He apparently first studied in Qom and later traveled as far as Egypt in search of traditions. He also recounted traditions from his father, who was a companion of Saʿd b. ʿAbd-Allāh Ašʿarī Qomī. ... See Supplement. See ʿABDĀN B. RABĪṬ. Josef van Ess (or Rēvandī), ABU’l-ḤOSAYN AḤMAD b. Yaḥyā (d. 298/910?), Muʿtazilite theologian and “heretic” of Ḵorāsānī origin. While still young, he went to Baghdad, where he had relatives. Apparently, he was already an accomplished theologian by then, for in the capital he studied not kalām but grammar. He attended the courses of the philologian Abu’l-ʿAbbās Moḥammad Mobarrad (d. 286/900) and transmitted his Ketāb al-moqtażab (Aʿsam, 1975, p. 181; 1978-79, pp. 464, 468). He joined the ascetic wing of the Muʿtazilites. ... See EBN RĀVANDĪ. C. Edmund Bosworth , ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD b. ʿOmar (d. after 290/903), Persian author of a geographical compendium. He was from Isfahan, where the name Rosta is attested in this period (Ebn Rosta, I, p. 151; Abū Noʿaym Eṣfahānī, pp. 162, 316), and it was probably there that the book was written. He himself mentions in his book that he had been in Medina—apparently his only significant journey outside his native Persia—in 290/903 (pp. 73, 75; tr. Wiet, pp. 79, 81). His book is extant in two manuscripts. ... , ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤOSAYN. See ḤOSAYN B. RŪḤ. Jean Calmard , ʿOMAR (k. Kūfa 66/686), commander of the Omayyad troops at Karbalāʾ. Son of the famous Arab general Saʿd b. Abī Waqqāṣ, he had just been made deputy-governor (nāʾeb) of Ray by ʿObayd-Allāh b. Zīād (see EBN ZĪĀD) and was to go to Dastabā to quell a Daylamite rising when he was called back to check Ḥosayn b. ʿAlī’s insurrection. It was only under the threat of losing his post that he finally obeyed and marched at the head of 4,000 men, reaching Karbalāʾ on 3 Moḥarram 61/3 October 680. ... Wilferd Madelung family name of two Imami traditionists: Abu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan (or Ḥosayn) Fāmī Qomī (4th/10th century) and his son. See ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD. Wilferd Madelung (Šāhūya), ABŪ BAKR MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAlī, a leader and envoy of the Carmatians (q.v.). In Šawwāl 366/May-June 977 he occupied Kūfa at the head of 1,000 Carmatians supporting the claim of the Buyid Ażod-al-Dawla to the rule of Iraq against that of his cousin ʿEzz-al-Dawla. Later he became the permanent representative of the Bahrain Qarmaṭīs to the court of Ażod-al-Dawla (q.v.). In 369/979-80 he was sent by ʿAżod-al-Dawla from Hamadān on a mission to Baṣra but soon returned to his court. ... Hossein Ziai , Qāżī ZAYN-AL-DĪN ʿOMAR (b. Sāva, fl. early 12th century), Persian philosopher and logician. After serving as a judge in his native city, he became disillusioned with public life and moved to Nīšāpūr, where he had more contact with other scholars. He earned his living by copying philosophical texts. He was often cited in the later Persian philosophical tradition, though he has remained almost unknown to Western historians of philosophy and logic. His works on logic, in which he made innovative proposals for the use of Persian in place of Arabic terms, were especially influential. ... Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi , ABŪ JAʿFAR (or Abū ʿAbd-Allāh) ZAYN-AL-DĪN (or ʿEzz-al-Dīn, Rašīd-al-Dīn) MOḤAMMAD b. ʿALī b. Šahrāšūb b. Abī Naṣr b. Abi’l-Jayš (b. Sārī, Māzandarān; d. Aleppo, 22 Šaʿbān 588/2 September 1192), the most illustrious Imami scholar of the 12th century. He was also called, though rarely, Ebn Kīā-Kay from the Persian name of his ancestor Abū Naṣr meaning “great sovereign.” ... See AVICENNA. See AḤMAD B. ʿOMAR B. SORAYJ. Ihsan Abbas , ABU’L-ḤASAN MOḤAMMAD b. Aḥmad b. Moḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Ebrāhīm Eṣfahānī (d. 322/933), poet and critic. An ʿAlawid from the Hasanid line, he was born, brought up, and educated in Isfahan, which, in his days, was a great center of learning. Very little is known about him. It seems that he did not travel abroad to meet learned shaikhs but was content with the local masters he met. The remaining fragments of his poetry contain some information about his activities in his native town. His dīvān was known to Ebn Ḵallekān (d. 681/282), who quotes it, acknowledging that he knows nothing about the poet himself. ... Wilferd Madelung ABU’l-FAŻĀʾEL AḤMAD b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar b. Moḥammad Ḥasanī, Imami scholar. The Banū Ṭāwūs, named after their ancestor Moḥammad Ṭāwūs, were a family of Hasanid šarīfs well established in Ḥella in the 6th/12th century. Aḥmad’s mother was a daughter of the Imami scholar Warrām b. Abu’l-Ferās (d. 605/1208-09); through his father, he was descended from a daughter of the Shaikh Abū Jaʿfar Moḥammad b. Ḥasan Ṭūsī. ... Etan Kohlberg b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar (b. Ḥella, 15 Moḥarram 589/21 January 1193; d. Baghdad, 5 Ḏu’l-qaʿda 664/8 August 1266), Imami author, scholar, and bibliophile, called Ḏu’l-ḥasabayn “possessing two distinctions” because he was descended from both Ḥasan and Ḥosayn b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭāleb. See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. WĀSEʿ. See ṢĀʾN-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ EṢFAHĀNĪ. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak , AMĪR FAḴR-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD b. Amir Yamīn-al-Dīn Ṭoḡrāʾī, a poet of the 8th/14th century. He was born in 685/1286-87 (Rypka, p. 261; Bāstānī Rād, p. yd) in Faryūmad, a center of culture in western Khorasan, into a family of landed gentry; he died on 8 Jomādā II 769/30 January 1368 (ʿAbd-al-Razzāq Ḵᵛāfī, II, p. 101). Jean Calmard , ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH (b. ca. 28/648), Omayyad governor responsible for the death of the Imam Ḥosayn b. ʿAlī. He was the son of Zīād b. Abīh, a favorite of Moʿāwīa, and a Persian slave called Marjāna. He was given the governorship of Khorasan in 54/673 at the age of twenty-five, and soon afterward, he was appointed governor of Baṣra, where he subdued Kharijite unrest (Ṭabarī, II, pp. 168, 172, 185-87). ... Amnon Netzer (Abraham), the name of the first patriarch of the Hebrew people. He was known to Moḥammad as one of the earliest prophets to profess monotheistic belief. He is venerated in the Koran as the father of the Arabs and the first who professed Islam (3:110, 106). A large number of stories of the prophets in the Koran are devoted to the life, deeds, and beliefs of Ebrāhīm; he is mentioned in twenty-five different suras, with information mostly based on Talmudic and midrashic legends. ... See ʿAKKĀS-BĀŠĪ. See AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN. EIr b. Manṣūr b. Yazīd b. Jāber ʿEjlī (d. 166/777-78), prominent Sufi and ascetic of 2nd/8th century. Ebrāhīm was born to a notable Kufan family in Balḵ, migrated with his tribe from Khorasan to Syria before 137/754, and was killed in a military expedition against Byzantium in about 160-66/777-83. In Sufi legends various glamorous tales are attributed to Ebrāhīm’s repentance and abdication from the governorship of Balḵ and his conversion to asceticism. ... See ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM. Sheila S. Blair Safavid architect mentioned on two tiles: one in the dome of the tomb of Shaikh ʿAbd-al-Ṣamad at Naṭanz and another, dated 1072/1661-62, in the south wall of the south ayvān of the congregational mosque at Isfahan (Godard, p. 261). The latter inscription does not specify what work was involved, but the only restoration known to have been carried out in the mosque during the reign of Shah ʿAbbās II (1052-77/1642-67) was the addition to the horizontal part of the facade’s rectangular inscription of the south ayvān. ... See TAHERIDS. Munibur Rahman (or Ḥarīr?), author of a general history called Tārīḵ-e ebrāhīmī or Tārīḵ-e homāyūnī. Nothing is known about his life. According to Saʿīd Nafīsī (Naẓm o naṯr I, p. 355), he lived at the court of the Mughal emperor Homāyūn (r. 937-64/1530-56), where he compiled his history around 957/1550. The book begins with the story of Adam and comes down to the events of Homāyūn’s reign until 956/1549 (or 957/1550). ... C. Edmund Bosworth (I) b. Maḥmūd b. Sebüktegīn, Abu’l-Moẓaffar, Ẓahīr-al-Dawla, Rażī-al-Dī, Ghaznavid sultan (r. 451-92/1059-99). Ebrāhīm succeeded his brother Farroḵzād in Ḡazna on 19 Ṣafar 451/April 6, 1059 (Bayhaqī, ed. Fayyāż, p. 483) at the age of twenty-seven; he and Farroḵzād were virtually the only survivors from the general massacre of Ghaznavid princes perpetrated by the usurping Turkish ḡolām commander Ṭoḡrïl in 443/1051-52. All subsequent Ghaznavid sultans were from the progeny of Ebrāhīm alone. ... See BÖRĪ. Sheila S. Blair Persian metalworker named in the inscription in Kufic script on the copper door knockers removed from a city gate in medieval Ganja (Soviet Kirovabad, Republic of Azerbaijan) and taken to the convent of Gelatʿi in Imeretiya, just east of Kutaisi in Georgia. According to the inscription, the gate was erected in 455/1063 during the reign of the Shaddadid Šāvūr b. Fażl under the supervision of a local judge named Abu’l-Faraj Moḥammad b. ʿAbd-Allāh. ... See ZAYN-AL-ʿĀBEDĪN MARĀḠAʾĪ. Tahsin Yazici Turkish poet and lexicographer. His father Hodāyī Ṣāleḥ, who had been educated in Persia, was appointed by the Ottoman Sultan Moḥammad II as shaikh of a zāwīa in Moḡla in southwestern Turkey. Šāhedī was born there; since he was seventy-six years old when in 951/1544 he composed his Golšan-e asrār, the year of his birth must have been 875/1470. His father died when he was only ten years old and he had to work as an apprentice to a silk merchant (ḵazzāz). ... See FĀRŪQĪ. C. Edmund Bosworth (or Yenāl; d. 451/1059), early Saljuq leader. The name Īnāl/Yenāl comes originally from an old Turkish title already attested in the early 4th/10th century by the traveler Aḥmad b. Fażlān (q.v.), confirmed by Moḥammad Ḵᵛārazmī’s mention (p. 120) of yenāl-tigin as a title of the Oḡuz (Bosworth and Clauson, pp. 6, 10-11; Doerfer, Elemente IV, pp. 196-99). Ebrāhīm Īnāl is described as a uterine half-brother of Ṭoḡrel and Čaḡrī Beg (q.v.). ... Abbas Amanat , Ḥājī Mīrzā MOḤAMMAD Kalāntar and Eʿtemād-al-Dawla (b. 1158/1745, d. 1215/1800 or 1216/1801), lord mayor (kalāntar) of Shiraz during the late Zand era, the first grand vizier (ṣadr-e aʿẓam), and a major political figure of the Qajar period. GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN Khan of Qarābāḡ in late 18th century. Born in 1730, he was the son of Panāh Khan of the Javānšīr tribe, which lived in the plains of Qarābāḡ (Bāmdād, I, p. 10). Nāder Shah Afšār (q.v.) had forced the tribe and its khans to submit to him and to accompany him to Khorasan. After Nāder’s death, Panāh Khan returned to Qarābāḡ and managed to penetrate the eastern sector of the Armenian enclave of mountainous Qarābāḡ. ... See AFSHARIDS. See ḠAFFĀRĪ. See ẒAHĪR-AL-DAWLA. See LODĪ DYNASTY. Everett Rowson , ABŪ ESḤĀQ, the most celebrated musician at the court of Hārūn al-Rašīd and a central figure in the development of the Iraqi school of music under the early ʿAbbasids. He was born in Kūfa in 125/742-43 to Persian parents who had recently moved there from Arrajān in Fārs, reportedly to escape the exactions of a tyrannical Omayyad governor (Aḡānī V, p. 2). ... Marianna S. Simpson Safavid prince, patron, artist, and poet generally referred to as Solṭān Ebrāhīm Mīrzā (b. Ḏu’l-qaʿda 946/April 1540; d. 5 Ḏu’l-ḥejja 984/23 February 1577). See ABŪ ESḤĀQ NAẒẒĀM. ee ṢAḤḤĀF-BĀŠĪ. See ŠARQĪ. John R. Perry nephew of Nāder Shah, claiming the Afsharid throne briefly (1161-62/1748-49). Ebrāhīm was born the second of four sons of Moḥammad-Ebrāhīm Beg, Nāder’s younger brother, and was first named Moḥammad-ʿAlī. After his father’s death on a campaign in 1152/1739, he took the name Ebrāhīm Beg. During the 1740s he was military commander (sardār) of Azerbaijan and campaigned successfully against the Safavid pretender Sām Mīrzā at Ardabīl. ... Carl W. Ernst (b. about 947/1540-41), historian of the ʿĀdelšāhī dynasty (q.v.) of Bījāpūr. He traveled from Persia to India as a merchant, and from the age of twenty served Sultan ʿAlī ʿĀdelšāh as a steward (ḵᵛānsālār) and scribe. In 1005/1596-97, he received from Sultan Ebrāhīm ʿĀdelšāh an appointment as ambassador to Aḥmadnagar; he also held posts as governor of the Bījāpūr (qq.v.) fort and treasurer. ... Priscilla P. Soucek b. Šāhroḵ, Timurid prince, ruler of Shiraz, military commander, and renowned calligrapher (796-838/1394-35). At his instigation and with his assistance Šaraf-al-Dīn ʿAlī Yazdī wrote his biography of Tīmūr (Tamerlane), the Ẓafar-nāma. Ebrāhīm himself achieved renown as calligrapher, particularly in the ṯolṯ script, which he employed in both Koranic manuscripts and architectural inscriptions. See ABU’L-QĀSEM EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN. Priscilla P. Soucek also known as Mīrzā ʿAmū, a calligrapher specializing in the nastaʿlīq script. One of the principal students of Mīrzā Ḡolām-Reżā Eṣfahānī (d. 1307/1889-90), he was active during the reign of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qājār (r. 1264-1313/1848-96). Although some albums of his calligraphy are also known, Ebrāhīm is chiefly remembered as the designer of architectural inscriptions for religious structures in Tehran, Ray, and Qom. ... dialect. See RĀMANDĪ. See ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ EBRĀHĪMĪ See ABU’ l-QĀSEM KHAN KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ. EIr a monthly magazine first published on 15 Bahman 1334 Š./4 February 1956 as the organ of Tūda party prisoners under the auspices and with the facilities of the Office of Tehran’s Military Governor, General Teymūr Baḵtīār. Its format was thirty-eight, and later sixty-six, 16.5 x 23 cm pages, priced at 10 rials. Munibur Rahman pen name of Sayyed MOḤAMMAD-QĀSEM, author of ʿEbrat-nāma, a history of the reigns of Awrangzēb’s successors, namely Bahādoršāh (d. 1124/1712), Jahāndāršāh (d. 1124/1713), and Farroḵ-sīar (d. 1131/1719), till the fall of the Sayyed Brothers (1135/1723). Very little is known about him. His father’s name was Sayyed Borhān-Allāh, who spent much of his life traveling in Deccan, Lucknow, and Multan. ... See JUDEO-PERSIAN. Stuart C. Brown (Pers. Ekbātān), present-day Hamadān (q.v.), capital of the Median empire, summer capital of the Achaemenids, and satrapal seat of the province of Media from Achaemenid to Sasanian times. Ecbatana (48°31’ E, 34°48’ N; alt. 1,800 m) is in the Zagros mountains of central-west Persia at the base of the eastern slope of the Alvand range (q.v.; the classical Mount Orontes; Diodorus Siculus, 2.13.7; Polybius, 10.27; “Iasonius mons” of Ammianus Marcellinus, 23.6.39). The city controls the major east-west route through the central Zagros, the so-called High Road. ... Eckart Ehlers Five primary ecological regions may be distinguished in Persia, each with a characteristic combination of features: the Caspian lowlands, the Alborz system (qq.v.) and mountain ranges in Khorasan, the Persian plateau, the Zagros system with the Makrān mountain ranges, and the lowlands along the Persian Gulf. Although most of these regions can be easily defined and characterized, the vast Persian plateau is host to considerable variation in vegetation cover. Four components are of decisive importance: climatic differentiation, phytogeographical diversity, the impact of topography, and the role of human intervention in nature. ... Xavier de Planhol, Robert C. Henrickson, Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Ryka Gyselen, Ann K. S. Lambton, Maria E. Subtelny, Bert Fragner, Hassan Hakimian, M. Hashem Pesaran, Vahid F. Nowshirvani, M. Siddieq Noorzoy, Habib Borjian OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Economic geography. ii. In the Pre-Achaemenid period. iii. In the Achaemenid period. iv. In the Sasanian period. v. From the Arab conquest to the end of the Il-khanids. vi. In the Timurid period. vii. From the Safavids through the Zands. viii. In the Qajar period. ix. In the Pahlavi period. x. Under the Islamic Republic. xi. In modern Afghanistan. xii. In Tajikistan. Xavier de Planhol i. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY The heartland of the Iranian world, encompassing both Persia and Afghanistan, is an arid high plateau, from which communication with the outside world is extraordinarily difficult. In the north there is an almost continuous barrier running from the Caucasus to the Alborz (qq.v.) and thence to the mountains of Khorasan and the Hindu Kush; it can be crossed only through narrow gorges (like the Darband pass, the Safīdrūd valley, and the passes of the Kopet Dag and the Hindu Kush), and the difficulties are compounded by such obstacles as the Caspian Sea (q.v.). ... Robert C. Henrickson ii. IN THE PRE-ACHAEMENID PERIOD Pre-Median Persia was a crucial economic component of ancient southwest Asia from the earliest times (Voigt and Dyson; Dyson, 1987; Voigt, 1987; E. Henrickson, 1989). Throughout its prehistory and early history, interregional diversity of economic scale and complexity characterized Persia. Gross topography, climate (q.v.), ecology (q.v.), and natural resources formed a regionally diverse mosaic of subsistence and economic potentials, ultimately reflected in cultural regions. ... Muhammad A. Dandamayev iii. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD The Achaemenid empire, extending from the Indus river to the Aegean sea, comprised such economically developed countries as Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, Babylonia, Elam, and Asia Minor, lands which had their long traditions of social institutions, as well as Sakai, Massagetai, Lycians, Libyans, Nubians and other tribes undergoing the disintegration of the primitive-communal phase. Therefore, the socioeconomic structure of the empire was characterized by extreme diversity. ... Ryka Gyselen iv. IN THE SASANIAN PERIOD The Sasanians, who inherited the economic conditions left by the Parthians, were quick to forge an economic state so powerful and distinctive that its fame spread well beyond their political frontiers and their period. Although it is impossible in this brief article to take note of all the factors that shaped Sasanian economic power, whether successively or in conjunction, it is possible to highlight several elements that contributed to its particular character, which became a model for the economic evolution of the Near East. ... Ann K. S. Lambton v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS The economic order in Islamic Persia was in theory, if not always in practice, derived from Islamic norms. Society was conceived of essentially as a political and moral entity, and extra-economic criteria were taken as the basis for material life. In Sasanian Persia society was theoretically divided into four estates: the religious classes; the warriors; the bureaucracy, among whom were included biographers, doctors, poets, and astronomers; and lastly peasants, shepherds, merchants, and artisans. A similar hierarchical division of society is found in the works of philosophers and in mirrors for princes in the Islamic period. These not only reflect, in some measure, historical reality—although that reality was, in fact, much more complex—but also, to some extent, molded the way men thought of themselves. However, in practice, the division between the various classes was not rigid. ... Maria E. Subtelny vi. IN THE TIMURID PERIOD The Timurid invasions against the Kartid rulers of Khorasan, which began in 783/1381, caused socioeconomic dislocation and unprecedented wholesale destruction and pillaging of towns, as well as brutal massacres of their populations (or, in more fortunate cases, the extraction of ransom money, large-scale confiscations, and the deportation of classes of people possessing specialized skills). Once he was established, Tīmūr’s (d. 807/1405) main concern, in the tradition of the Chingizid (see ČENGĪZ) models he sought to emulate, was to secure trade routes and to reestablish the exchange economy, with a view to enriching the Transoxanian base of his empire. ... Bert Fragner vii. FROM THE SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS The first Safavid king, Esmāʿīl I (907-30/1501-24), initiated a process of political and religious change in Persia that profoundly affected the economic structure. During the three centuries 1500-1800 the technology, organization, and ethnography of Persian agriculture, animal husbandry, manufacturing, and accounting underwent partial change. ... Hassan Hakimian viii. IN THE QAJAR PERIOD At the outset of the Qajar dynasty, the Persian economy displayed the characteristics of a traditional economy disintegrating under the stress of political anarchy. Several decades of external invasions, internal strife, and endemic lawlessness, exacerbated by the decline of transcontinental trade routes, had brought widespread decay and decline, if not near complete exhaustion, to the economy. ... M. Hashem Pesaran ix. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD From Reżā Shah’s rise to power to his abdication (1299-1340 Š./1921-41). Upon seizing power, Reżā Shah’s priority was to establish the authority of the state over the whole country and to build a strong central bureaucracy. He formed a national army, introduced conscription, and set about the establishment of social and economic infrastructures and the reform of the country’s financial, administrative, legal, and educational systems. ... Vahid F. Nowshirvani x. UNDER THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC The 1979 revolution and the establishment of the Islamic Republic in Persia has had a profound impact on the economy of the country. Since 1979 there have been marked changes in the economic policies, institutions, and structure of the country, in addition to major economic dislocation and disruption of production. Not all the changes have resulted directly from the revolution; many other factors, such as the protracted and costly war with Iraq, trade and financial sanctions, as well as wide fluctuations in the world oil market have also shaped the developments after the revolution. ... M. Siddieq Noorzoy xi. IN MODERN AFGHANISTAN Attempts at modernization in Afghanistan in such spheres as land tenure, taxation, currency, and trade were made in the 19th century by various governments and with different degrees of success. Two factors constrained government efforts at reform: limited domestic resources and an overriding concern for safeguarding the country’s sovereignty and independence. Modernization entailed opening avenues to European imperialism through dependence on European resources and technology, especially in the later 19th and early 20th centuries. ... Habib Borjian xii. IN TAJIKISTAN Before its incorporation into the Soviet Union the territory of Tajikistan constituted the eastern part of the Bukharan emirate, with an economy based on agriculture and animal husbandry, as well as on such highly skilled local manufacturing as silk weaving, pottery, and leatherwork. The Russian imperial government had introduced cultivation of cotton on a significant scale only in the densely populated Farḡāna valley, in the northern part of Tajikistan. Rudimentary modern industry was established mainly in Ḵojand, the only significant urban center incorporated into Soviet Tajikistan (Asimov, pp. 190-92; Nurnazarov and Rahimov, pp. 46-50). ... Fakhreddin Azimi (Ar. ʿAdālat “justice”), ḤEZB-E, Persian political party founded by ʿAlī Daštī (q.v.) in December 1941. After the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Persia in August 1941 Daštī, until then an ardent supporter of Reżā Shah (1924-41), was one of the first Majles deputies to defy him publicly and to advocate investigating the conduct and record of his regime (Moḏākarāt-e Majles, 1 Mehr 1320 Š./23 September 1941). ... See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION. Amir Hassanpour (Pers. and Ar. Adab), pen name of the Kurdish poet ʿAbd-Allāh Beg b. Aḥmad Beg Bābāmīrī Miṣbāḥ-al-Dīwān (b. Armanī Bolāḡī, a village northeast of Būkān in western Azerbaijan, 1277/1860, d. ca. 1297 Š./1918). He was born into a family of landed nobility that traced its descent from the local Mukrī rulers and educated first at the local mosque and then in Tehran, though he returned home after only a year. ... Samuel Lieu (Aram. and Syr. Urhai/Orhāi; Ar. Rohāʾ), now Urfa in southeastern Turkey, former capital of ancient Osrhoene. It is situated on a limestone ridge, an extension of the ancient Mount Masius in the Taurus mountains of southern Anatolia, where the east-west highway from Zeugma (in the vicinity of modern Birecik) on the Euphrates to the Tigris met the north-south route from Samosata (Somaysāṭ) to the Euphrates via Carrhae (Ḥarrān). Edessa was held successively by the Seleucids, Parthians, and Romans. ... Karim Emami (Pers. vīrāyeš, a neologism; Ar.-Pers. tahḏīb, tanqīḥ, now obsolete; rarely pīrāyeš, pardāḵt), the techniques of preparing a text for publication, now widely practiced at the major publishing houses in Persia. various authors Pers. āmūzeš o parvareš; earlier Ar. Per. taʿlīm o tarbīat) in Iranian-speaking areas. OVERVIEW of the entry: 1. Ancient and Traditional: i. In the Achaemenid period. ii. In the Parthian and Sasanian periods. iii. The traditional elementary school (maktab). iv. The medieval madrasa. v. The madrasa in Shiʿite Persia. vi. The madrasa in Sunni Kurdistan. 2. Modern: vii. General survey of modern education. viii. Nursery schools and kindergartens. ix. Primary schools. x. Middle and secondary schools. xi. Private schools and educational groups. xii. Vocational and technical schools. xiii. Rural and tribal schools. xiv. Special schools. xv. Foreign and minority schools in Persia. xvi. School textbooks. xvii. Higher education. xviii. Teachers’-training schools. xix. Teachers’-training colleges. xx. Adult education. xxi. Education abroad. xxii. Physical education: see PHYSICAL EDUCATION. xxiii. Military education: see MILITARY EDUCATION. xxiv. Education in postrevolutionary Persia, 1979-95. 3. Women’s Education: xxv. Women’s education in the Qajar period. xxvi. Women’s education in the Pahlavi period and after. 4. Education in Afghanistan and Tajikistan: xxvii. In Afghanistan. xxviii. In Tajikistan. Muhammad A. Dandamayev i. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD Little is known of the training of children during the Achaemenid period. In two Elamite documents from Persepolis drafted in the 23rd regnal year of Darius I (499 B.C.E.) “Persian boys (who) are copying texts” are mentioned (Hallock, nos. 871, 1137); the texts in question are records of the issue of grain to twenty-nine individuals and wine to sixteen. It is possible that the boys were learning Persian cuneiform script, which was probably known only to a few scribes, as it was used mainly for royal triumphal inscriptions. ... Aḥmad Tafażżolī ii. IN THE PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS No concrete evidence on education in Parthian times has survived. It may be postulated, however, that it was similar to education in the Sasanian period. Information about the latter period is confined mainly to education of princes, the nobility, the clergy, and administrative secretaries (dabīrs, q.v.). Most peasants were illiterate, but most urban merchants were probably acquainted at least with writing and calculation (Christensen, Iran Sass., p. 416). Jalīl Dūstḵᵛāh and Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī iii. THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (MAKTAB) Before the establishment of a modern educational system in Persia in the early 20th century children received their early and intermediate education in the maktab (or maktab-ḵāna, lit., “place of writing”) under the tutelage of an āḵūnd (q.v.), mulla (clerical teacher), or moʿallem (teacher), who worked alone or occasionally with one or two assistants. Women often served as instructors (zan āḵūnd, zan āqā, or mollā bājī) in maktabs. ... Christopher Melchert iv. THE MEDIEVAL MADRASA In the Middle Ages the madrasa (lit., “place to study” Ar. darasa “to study”; for discussion of darasa as a technical term meaning “to study jurisprudence” and darrasa meaning “to teach jurisprudence,” see Makdisi, 1961, pp. 10-11) was a college for the professional study of the Islamic sciences, particularly jurisprudence (feqh) but also the Koran, Hadith, and such ancillary fields as Arabic grammar and philology, knowledge of which helped in understanding sacred and legal texts. ... ʿAbbās Zaryāb v. THE MADRASA IN SHIʿITE PERSIA After the introduction of the institutionalized madrasa by Neẓām-al-Molk in the late 11th century (see iv, above) Shiʿite madrasas were also founded in Persia and Iraq. For example, by the mid-13th century madrasas had been established in such Persian cities as Qom (eight; Calmard; Mottahedeh, pp. 179-80; Madelung, pp. 77-84; Qazvīnī, pp. 194-95; Modarresī Ṭabāṭabāʾī), Ray (seven), Kāšān (four), Āba (two), Sāva (two), and Varāmīn (two). ... ʿAbd-Allāh Mardūḵ vi. THE MADRASA IN SUNNI KURDISTAN Until the mid-20th century the pursuit of education in Kurdistan was possible only through mosques, as only mullas were literate. Concomitant with their function as places of worship, mosques served as social centers and as rest houses for travelers and itinerant mendicants. Every mosque also contained a chamber called a ḥojra, where the mulla offered lessons in religion and theology free of charge to Muslim boys. Boys, though very seldom girls, began their studies at the age of seven years. ... Ahmad Ashraf vii. GENERAL SURVEY OF MODERN EDUCATION A modern system of national education emerged in Persia in the 1920s and 1930s, after the Pahlavi state had been founded; during this period the influence of the religious establishment was minimized, and the government gained control over schools, expanding enrollment at all levels. Tūrān Mīrhādī viii. NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS The beginnings of formalized preschool education in Persia can be traced back to about 1270/1891, when Armenians in Jolfā, near Isfahan, founded a kindergarten, which continues to function today. By 1298/1919 there were a few kindergartens in Tehran and other cities, primarily founded by missionaries and minority groups. They included Margaret Sorǖīān’s (or Sorūrīān’s) establishment in Tehran (founded in 1328/1910) and that of Šūšanīk Ḵānzādīān, in Tabrīz, which were open only to Armenians. ... Sayyed ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd ix. PRIMARY SCHOOLS A movement to introduce modern primary education into Persia began in 1315/1897, when the newly appointed grand vizier, Mīrzā ʿAlī Khan Amīn-al-Dawla (q.v.), initiated his modernizing reforms. In that year, under his patronage, Ḥājī Mīrzā Ḥasan Rošdīya founded the first modern primary school in Tehran. Rošdīya had already established the first Persian school in Erevan in 1300/1883 and the first modern primary school in Tabrīz in 1305/1888, though in the latter city he had met with continued resistance from conservative religious authorities. ... Aḥmad Bīrašk x. MIDDLE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS Modern secondary education in Persia was originally based on the 19th-century European humanistic system, which was focused on general knowledge and building character, rather than on professional or vocational training. This basic European philosophy dominated the Persian secondary-school system until the 1960s, when reforms were introduced by American advisers. Aḥmad Bīrašk xi. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUP Despite government intervention in educational matters since the foundation of Dār al-fonūn (q.v.) in the mid-19th century, the initial expansion of modern education in Persia was promoted by foreign missionaries and private individuals, usually philanthropists, who considered that national progress lay in expansion and development of the educational system. In 1315/1898 a group of citizens formed Anjoman-e taʾsīs-e makāteb-e mellīya (Council for the Foundation of Private Schools), later renamed Anjoman-e maʿāref (q.v.). ... Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr xii. VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS Attempts to train Persians in modern technology began under the crown prince ʿAbbās Mīrzā (q.v.) and his vizier, Mīrzā Abu’l-Qāsem Qāʾem-Maqām, in the 1810s and 1820s, when seven students were sent to England, three to Russia, and two to France for training in various technical skills. In 1260 Š./1844 the grand vizier Ḥājī Mīrzā Āqāsī (q.v.) sent five students to England, and in 1266/1850 the reforming grand vizier, Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr Kabīr (q.v.), sent five craftsmen to Russia for advanced training in various industrial arts (Maḥbūbī, Moʾassasāt I, pp. 187-95). Moḥammad Bahmanbeygī, Nāṣer Mīr, Moḥammad Pūrsartīp, and EIr xiii. RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1329/1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources necessary to implement these laws, and, in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts, fearing that “dangerous ideas” might disrupt traditional agrarian relations (Sīāsī, pp. 126-31). As a result, rural education underwent a sluggish growth in this period. ... Samineh Baghchehban-Pirnazar xiv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS Children with special educational needs include the gifted, slow learners, the physically handicapped, the emotionally disturbed (nā-sāzegār), and the blind and the deaf. In Persia education for such children basically consists of instruction in reading, writing, other elementary-school subjects, and some vocational training. Blind pupils and some deaf pupils can, however, with the help of interpreters, advance through secondary school and sometimes even university. ... Majd-al-Dīn Keyvānī xix. TEACHERS’-TRAINING COLLEGES Dānešgāh-e tarbīat-e moʿallem, the oldest institution for educating teachers in Persia, was founded as Dār al-moʿallemīn-e markazī (see xviii, above) in Tehran in 1336/1918. It has gone through various phases and changes of name since. Its purpose was to train primary-school teachers, and the curriculum was equivalent to that of a secondary school. In addition, courses in philosophy, logic, and principles of education were offered. ... EIr xv. FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA Modern education was introduced to Persia in the 19th century by European and American religious institutions and military advisers. From 1251/1836, when the first modern elementary school was founded by the American mission in Urmia, until the early 20th century scores of foreign schools were founded by Christian missionaries, the Alliance Universelle Israılite (q.v.), and secular educators in Tehran and provincial towns. In addition, religious minorities in Persia founded modern schools. ... Aḥmad Bīrašk and EIr xvi. SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS No standardized schoolbooks existed in Persia before the advent of the modern educational system. The first were written by European teachers at the Dār al-fonūn (q.v.) in the mid-19th century. They were translated by Persian assistants and printed at the school’s own press for distribution only among the students. A collection of fifteen textbooks from the Dār al-fonūn held in the library of the Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e āmūzeš o parvareš) shows that the emphasis was on mathematics and the exact sciences. ... David Menashri xvii. HIGHER EDUCATION Higher education in the modern sense was first introduced in Persia under the Pahlavis (1925-78) and through a continuing process of reform played a central role in social change in the country. Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾ ī xviii. TEACHERS’-TRAINING SCHOOLS The first institution specializing in the training of elementary-school teachers in Persia, Dār al-moʿallemīn-e markazī (Central Teachers’ College), was founded in a private house in Tehran in 1336/1918. The first director was Abu’l-Ḥasan Forūḡī (q.v.; d. 1959), younger brother of the well-known statesman Ḏakāʾ-al-Molk Forūḡī (q.v.). ... Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr xx. ADULT EDUCATION The first adult-literacy classes in Persia were organized by constitutionalists at primary schools in Tehran and provincial towns in 1327/1909, but those efforts did not outlast the chaos of the period following the Constitutional Revolution (q.v. v; Ḥekmat, p. 376). The first national campaign for adult literacy was initiated in 1936 by ʿAlī-Akbar Dāvar (q.v.), at that time minister of finance and one of the main architects of modernization under Reżā Shah (1924-41). ... Afshin Matin-Asgari xxi. EDUCATION ABROAD IN THE QAJAR PERIOD Persian awareness of a need to learn from Europeans arose in the wake of major military defeats and territorial losses in two wars with Russia in the early 19th century. In 1226/1811 Crown Prince ʿAbbās Mīrzā (q.v.) and his vizier, Mīrzā Bozorg Qāʾem-Maqām, sent two Persians to study in England, followed by five more in 1230/1815. They were to study engineering, medicine, and military technology. Among the second group were Mīrzā Ṣāleḥ Šīrāzī, who wrote the first detailed account of a parliamentary system published in Persia and in 1252/1836 issued the first Persian printed book and newspaper, and Mīrzā Jaʿfar Khan Tabrīzī, who as Mošīr-al-Dawla became a close adviser to Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1264-1313/1848-96). ... Golnar Mehran xxiv. EDUCATION IN POSTREVOLUTIONARY PERSIA, 1979-95 The history of education in the Islamic Republic falls into two phases: from the revolution to the cease-fire between Persia and Iraq in 1367 Š./1988 (the revolutionary period), when Islamic ideology predominated, and the subsequent period of reconstruction and privatization. Afsaneh Najmabadi xxv. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE QAJAR PERIOD The premodern conception of women’s education was varied. In some medieval books of ethical instruction and counsel (see ANDARZ ii) teaching women to read was recommended (Fānī Kašmīrī, p. 141), whereas other authors warned against it (Kay Kāvūs, p. 98; cf. Qoṭb-al-Dīn, pp. 135, 142; Ṭūsī, pp. 229-30, Šojāʿ, p. 220; Dawwānī, p. 206). In the Qajar period girls were sometimes sent to maktabs (see iii, above) until the age of eight or nine years, to be taught rudimentary reading and writing and to receive religious instruction. ... EIr xxvi. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD AND AFTER In the 1920s and 1930s women’s public education in Persia was established and grew rapidly. The number of elementary and secondary schools for women increased. In 1926-27 the enrollment of females in primary schools was about 17,000, 21 percent of total enrollment at that level, and in secondary schools about 700, 6 percent of the total enrollment at that level. By 1946-47 female enrollment in primary schools was 26 percent of the total, in secondary schools 21 percent, and in higher education 8 percent (Table 1). ... M. Mobin Shorish xxvii. IN AFGHANISTAN Traditional education in the regions lying within the present boundaries of Afghanistan followed the general pattern prevalent in pre-Islamic and Islamic Western Asia (see i-v, above). By the end of the 19th century, however, mosque schools (maktabs) and madrasas had lost their vitality, rigor, and scope. As modern Afghanistan emerged, internecine struggles among the ruling Abdālī (q.v.; see also DORRĀNĪ; AFGHANISTAN x) and subsequently among the Moḥammadzai clan ensured that no trace of regular and systematic education remained in the country. ... Habib Borjian xxviii. IN TAJIKISTAN Modern education in Tajikistan developed as the country emerged as a Soviet socialist republic, under the Soviet policy of standardizing the educational system throughout the Soviet Union, with language as virtually the only variable. In Tajikistan, as in other Central Asian republics, this policy brought about nearly universal literacy and establishment of institutions of secondary and higher education that provided training in a wide range of occupations required by the local economy. ... Afshin Matin-Asgari, Golnar Mehran, Afsaneh Najmabadi, EIr, M. Mobin Shorish, Habib Borjian xxi. Education abroad. xxii. Physical education: see PHYSICAL EDUCATION. xxiii. Military education: see MILITARY EDUCATION. xxiv. Education in postrevolutionary Persia, 1979-95. 3. Women’s Education: xxv. Women’s education in the Qajar period. xxvi. Women’s education in the Pahlavi period and after. 4. Education in Afghanistan and Tajikistan: xxvii. In Afghanistan. xxviii. In Tajikistan. S. Moinul Haq , ʿABD-AL-WAHHĀB BOḴĀRĪ (b. Ahmadnagar, date unknown, d. Dawlatābād, 1190/1776; Malkāpūrī, pp. 205-09), Deccani biographer and poet in Urdu and Persian. According to his own account (Taḏkera-ye bīnaẓīr, pp. 33-34; cf. Belgrāmī, pp. 241-42), he was born and spent his early years in the Neẓāmšāhī capital, Ahmadnagar (q.v.), but later moved to Dawlatābād. After completing his studies in Persian and Arabic, theology, law, and medicine, he practiced as a physician. ... François de Blois a family of officials and poets from Qazvīn, reputed descendants of the caliph Abū Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans (13th century). They came to prominence with five brothers, all of whom held high posts under the Mongols. See BĀDENJĀN. See SAYF-AL-DĪN ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN EḠLAMEŠ. See NASTARAN. Edda Bresciani, Philip Huyse, Heinz Heinen, Ruth Altheim-Stiehl, Jonathan M. Bloom, Shahrough Akhavi, E. Yarshater, Moḥammad el Saʿīd ʿAbd al-Moʾmen, Ludwig W. Adamec : relations with Persia and Afghanistan. i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period. ii. Egyptian influence on Persia in the Pre-Islamic period. iii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periods. iv. Relations in the Sasanian period. v. Political and commerical relations in the Islamic period: see FATIMIDS, AYYUBIDS, IL-KHANIDS. vi. Artistic relations with Persia in the Islamic period. vii. Political and religious relations with Persia in the modern period. viii. Egyptian cultural influence in Persia, modern times. ix. Iran’s cultural influence in the Islamic period. x. Relations with Afghanistan. Nassereddin Parvin xi. PERSIAN JOURNALISM IN EGYPT A number of Persian journals published in Egypt. After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the economic and commercial importance of Egypt increased and the country attracted a number of Iranian merchants and craftsmen who settled with their families in Cairo or Alexandria. They were mostly educated and had spent some time in Turkey and Caucasus and had traveled to Egypt at the time when the aspirations for the rule of law and civil liberties had become widespread among the Iranian elite and intellectuals. See HERBEDESTĀN. See HERBED. See FARĀBĪ. Cosroe Chaqueri DŪSTDĀR (ʿAlī-ābādī; b. Sārī, Māzandarān, 1262/1883, d. Baku, ca. 1938), second most prominent figure in the the Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran (Ḥokūmat-e jomhūrī-e šūrawī-e Īrān), the radicalized second phase of the Jangalī movement in the years 1920-21 (see COMMUNISM i). Eḥsān-Allāh was born into a Bahai family and educated at Dār-al-fonūn (q.v.). ... Iraj Afšār also known as Eḥtešām-al-Molk and Moʿtamed-al-Dawla, second son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār (1233-305/1818-88). He seems to have belonged to Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah’s inner circle ... Kambiz Eslami (d. Tehran, Šawwāl 1278/April 1862), seventeenth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā (q.v.) and governor of several regions in Persia during the reigns of Moḥammad Shah (1250-64/1834-48) and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1264-1313/1848-96) Qajar. He was named governor of Yazd shortly after Moḥammad Shah had appointed Ḥājī Mīrzā Āqāsī (q.v.) premier in 1251/1835 and most probably on the latter’s recommendation. ... Īraj Afšār (1255-1310/1839-92), first son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār (q.v.) and maternal grandson of Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā Dawlatšāh (q.v.). Initially, he served as personal attendant (ājūdān-e ḥożūr; Ḵormūjī, p. 258) to the shah with the title Eḥtešām-al-Molk. In 1282/1865 he was governor of Kohgīlūya and Behbahān. ... Mehrdad Amanat , Mīrzā Maḥmūd Khan ʿAlāmīr Qajar, also known as Masʿūd Davallū (b. 6 Šaʿbān 1279/27 January 1863; d. 6 Bahman 1314 Š./26 January 1936), governor, diplomat, and speaker of the Persian Parliament (Majles; Plate I). He was the youngest son of Moḥammad-Raḥīm Khan Qājār Davallū, a highly influential chamberlain (ḥājeb-al-dawla) under Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah. At age nine, while continuing his traditional education in Arabic and Persian, he was sent to the Dār-al-fonūn (q.v.). ... Nassereddin Parvin weekly newspaper published in Tabrīz by ʿAlīqolī Khan Tabrīzī, known as Ṣafarov, who had distributed political šab-nāmas (lit. night letters) in 1310/1892. Seven issues of Eḥtīāj appeared between 12 Moḥarram and 1 Rabīʿ I 1316/3 June-20 July 1898. The meaning of its title (Need) alluded to Persia’s dependence on foreign manufactures. Its satirical articles on this subject led Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā, the crown prince, and his chief steward (pīškār) Amīr-Neẓām Garrūsī (q.v.). ... See ḠAZĀLĪ ii. Rüdiger Schmitt b. 27 September 1906 in Leipzig; d. 3 July 1989 in Würzburg), German scholar of oriental studies, particularly of Iranian onomastics, lexicography, and dialects. Devin J. Stewart (lit. permission, license, authorization), a term describing a variety of academic certificates ranging in length from a few lines to many fascicles. Giving, receiving, and collecting such certificates grew from the science of Prophetic tradition and became an essential part of Islamic education in nearly all academic fields. Three main types of certificate developed in the medieval period. ... Devin J. Stewart (consensus), a technical term in Islamic jurisprudence (oṣūl al-feqh). Opposed to ḵelāf (dissent, disagreement), ejmāʿ is defined by most jurists of the four Sunni schools and by many later jurists of the Twelver and Zaydi Shiʿite schools as the unanimous agreement of authoritative Muslim jurists on a given point of the law. ... S. Peter Cowe (or Echmiadzin; Arm. Eǰmiacin; Tk. Ūč Kelīsā), currently designation of three separate but interrelated entities: the cathedral and monastic complex which forms the residence of the supreme patriarch and catholicos of all the Armenians, the city in which this complex is located, and the district of which the latter is the administrative center. The name means “The Only-begotten descended” and is associated with a vision vouchsafed to the first primate of Armenia, St. Gregory the Illuminator. ... Aron Zysow in Shiʿism. Ejtehād is an Arabic verbal noun having the literal sense of exerting effort. Both ejtehād and its derivatives, including the active participle mojtahed, are used in Islamic literature in several distinct senses. Although as a technical legal term it has been variously defined, according to what is perhaps the most illuminating definition common to Sunni and Shiʿite writers, ejtehād is the “expending of one’s utmost effort in the inquiry into legal questions admitting of only probable answers” (masāʾel ẓannīya; ʿAllāma Ḥellī, p. 51). ... Janet Afary (Mojāhed), FERQA-YE (FEAM; lit., Social-Democratic party), an organization founded in 1905 by Persian emigrants in Transcaucasia with the help of local revolutionaries. It played an important role during the Constitutional Revolution of 1324-29/1906-11 (q.v.) by introducing radical ideas and by taking part in the struggle for the restoration of the Constitution in 1908-09. Members of the organization maintained close links with the Hemmat party, a radical-democratic party organized by Transcaucasian revolutionaries of both Muslim and non-Muslim origins. ... See ECBATANA. James Russell Gk. Akilisēnē, region along the Euphrates in northwest Armenia. Here stood the temple and estate of Anahit at Erēz (see ARZENJĀN). Strabo (11.12.3) describes the site, because of whose fame and prominence the region was known also as Lat. Anaetica, Gk. Anaitis khōra. After Chris-tianization, a necropolis of the patriarchs of the Armenian Church was located in the province, at Tʿil (Semitic l-w, “Hill”), where there had been a shrine of Anāhīd (q.v.). ... J. Bečka (Ekrom), MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAbd-al-Salām, known as Dāmollā Ekrāmče (contemporary Tajik: Domullo Ikromča), a Bukharan scholar and madrasa teacher (1847-1925). He was born in Bukhara, where he received a traditional madrasa ecducation. In 1896 he traveled to the Near East, where he acquainted himself with a more favorable intellectual milieu, which he compared to that in Bukhara. Upon returning to Bukhara, he used his new experience and the writings of Aḥmad Dāneš (q.v.). ... J. Bečka (Jalol Ikromī; 1909-93), considered to be Tajikistan’s most important fiction writer and playwright of the Soviet period. He was born in Bukhara to the family of a judge. He attended Samarkand’s teachers training college and moved to Dushanbe in 1930, where he spent a year in prison during the 1930 purges. F. Grenet and N. Sims-Williams Arabo-Persian form of a Sogdian royal title attested in Sogdian script as (ʾ)xšyδ (more anciently and more commonly written by means of the ideogram MLKʾ ) and in Manichean script as (ʾ)xšy(y)δ. The Old Turkish title šad may be a dialectal variant of the Sogdian word, which is almost certainly etymologically identical with OPers. xšāyaθiya-, Mid. Pers. and NPers. šāh “king”. ... See KĪMĪĀ. Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi , TĀJ-AL-MOLK MOḤAMMAD b. Aḥmad b. Ḥasan ʿAbdūsī Dehlavī (700-52/1300-51), author in Persian and secretary (dabīr) at the courts of the Tughluqid sultans Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Tōḡloq (720-25/1320-25) and his son Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Mo-ḥammad (725-52/1325-51). He joined the royal chancery at an early age and eventually became Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Moḥammad’s private secretary (dabīr-e ḵāṣṣ), who sent him in 1328 to the court of the Il-khanid Abū Saʿīd (q.v.). ... W. Thackston , ḴᵛĀJA, a master calligrapher of the chancery taʿlīq style from Herat (fl. mid 10th/16th cent.). Eḵtīār never left his native city and worked, according to Qāżī Aḥmad, for thirty years on the chancery documents of the Safavid prince Sultan Moḥammad Ḵodā-banda, who was appointed governor of Khorasan in 943/1536 and later ruled as shah from 985/1578 to 996/1588. Examples of his work are held by museums. ... Maria Eva Subtelny the citadel of Herat (referred to in the sources as qalʿa, ḥeṣār), located on an elevation adjacent to the north wall of the old city (Esfezārī, I, p. 77), and actually consisting of two parts, the stronghold proper—a rectangle of fired brick measuring about 18 x 42 m, and a larger area to the west of unfired brick, roughly 60 x 25 m—that were originally buttressed by 25 towers (only 18 of which were recorded in the late 1970s), which reflect various periods of construction. ... David Pingree (choices, elections), a term used in Islamic divination and astrology in at least four principle meanings: 1. It refers to hemerologies in which each of the thirty days of a month, either synodic or conventional (e.g., the Persian hemerology), is characterized as being good (saʿd) or bad (naḥs) for undertaking specified activities. ... Rudi Matthee (Society of Muslim bretheren), the first modern religio-political movement in the Islamic world, founded in 1928 by Ḥasan Bannāʾ (1906-49) in Esmāʿīlīya Egypt. Mass membership and a forceful stance against the corrupt ruling elite and for national sovereignty gave the Eḵwān considerable influence in Egyptian political life between the 1930s and 1950s. ... Paul E. Walker a self-professed brotherhood of piously ascetic scholars. In order to advertise and propagate their special mix of philosophy and religion, the Eḵwān al-Ṣafāʾ wrote a lengthy account of all the known sciences and how the study of each in turn contributes to help liberate the soul and set it on a course toward a future angelic existence once detached from its earthly prison upon the death of the body. M. Asif Naim-Siddiqi , SAYYED MĪR ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD b. Ḥojjat-Allāh Asadābādī, a poet of the 17th century from Asadābād, a village near Hamadān. He spent a few years in Shiraz studying and then moved to Isfahan, where he stayed for about two years, working at a coffeehouse and associating with poets like Ḥakīm Šefāʾī (Naṣrābādī, pp. 255-56; Awḥadī, apud Golčīn-e Maʿānī, Kārvān I, pp. 94-95; Belgrāmī, p. 85). In 1018/1609 he went to Khorasan and from there, via Kabul and Qandahār to Agra, India, where he arrived in 1021/1612. ... S. Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī , MAHDĪ b. Abu’l-Ḥasan, poet and professor of Islamic law and philosophy (b. in Qomša, ca 1320/1902; d. in Tehran, 1354 Š./1975). His ancestors had emigrated from Bahrain to Qomša (present-day Šahreżā) near Isfahan during the reign of Nāder Shah (1148-60/1735-47). Mahdī learned the basics of Islamic sciences under Shaikh Mollā Hādī Farzāna in his native town Qomša before moving to Isfahan to study Islamic jurisprudence (feqh), oṣūl, and philosophy. ... Hamid Algar, J. W. Morris, Jean During (or ʿAlīšāh; 1895-1974), innovative and charismatic leader of one branch of the Ahl-e Ḥaqq (q.v.) and author of several texts on its teachings. i. Biography. ii. Teachings. iii. Music. See ʿAṬṬĀR. See PHILOSOPHY. François Vallat, Elizabeth Carter, R. K. Englund, Mirjo Salvini, Françoise Grillot-Susini, Sylvie Lackenbacher ancient country encompassing a large part of the Persian plateau at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. but reduced to the territory of Susiana in the Achaemenid period. The name Elam is derived from Greek Aylam, itself borrowed from Hebrew ʿElām; the Elamites called their country Ha(l)tamti/Hatamti “lord country,” which the Akkadians rendered Elamtu and the Sumerians designated with the ideogram NIM “high, elevated.” i. The history of Elam. ii. The archeology of Elam. iii.Proto-Elamite. iv. Linear Elamite. v. Elamite language. vi. Elamite religion. vii. Non-Elamite texts in Elam. For a long time scholars confused Elam with Susiana, equivalent to the plain and lower Zagros foothills in the present Persian province of Ḵūzestān. Two important factors have recently modified this understanding, however. First, Tal-e Malyan (Mālīān) in Fārs has been identified as the ancient center of the component kingdom of Anshan (q.v.; Hansman; Lambert; Reiner, 1973b), and, second, it has been established that Susa and Elam were distinct entities. ... See ALBORZ. See ALBORZ COLLEGE. David O. Morgan (Īlčī) envoy, messenger, or official traveling on government business during the Mongol period and thereafter. The Mongols were especially insistent on the sacrosanct status of ambassadors, especially their own; and the murder of an elčī, together with the ill-treatment of two others, helped precipitate Čengīz Khan’s (q.v.) invasion of the Sultan Moḥammad Ḵᵛārazmšāh’s empire in 616/1219. Fakhreddin Azimi, Shaul Bakhash i. Under the Qajar and Pahlavi monarchies. ii. Under the Islamic republic, 1979-92. iii. In Afghanistan. Elections, or more specifically parliamentary elections underpinning constitutional representative institutions introduced in Persia in 1324/1906, constituted the primary vehicle for expressing popular sovereignty and the constitutionally stipulated means of conferring legitimacy on political arrangements. A survey of elections in the Qajar and Pahlavi periods can be divided into four periods. J. T. P. de Bruijn (Ar. marṯīa, Pers. mūya), poetry of mourning in Persian literature. The Western term elegy covers a wider range of themes, most of which are represented in the Persian tradition. The frequent complaints of the transience of life and the cruelty of fate, of disasters or of personal grievances (the so-called šakwīyāt) are elegiacal in this broad sense, but they are not included in the present article, which is restricted to poems lamenting the deaths of individuals. Mansour Shaki, Mansour Shaki i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Manicheism. iii. In Persian. In Mazdean cosmogony two diverse accounts are presented regarding the elements of the material world, the traditional and the syncretic. Both proclaim creation to be an emanation from the divine essence, the Endless Light (asar rōšnīh), through the omnipresent fire. The traditional accounts are set out mainly in the first and third chapters of the Bundahišn (q.v.). ... François De Blois (Pers. pīl, fīl). Although elephants are normally associated with the humid tropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, in antiquity their natural habitat extended more widely. According to Assyrian and Egyptian sources, elephants lived wild on the middle Euphrates and it was there that the ancient Babylonians encountered the animal that they called pīru or pēru, from which name is derived the words for “elephant” in the Iranian languages: Old Persian pīru- (attested only in the meaning “ivory”), Middle and New Persian pīl, Sogdian pyδ, Ḵᵛārizmian pyz. ... Michael B. Charles ii. IN THE SASANIAN ARMY The Sasanian military deployed Indian elephants in siege warfare and, more infrequently, in set piece engagements where the beasts had a psychological impact on enemies not accustomed to facing them. Elephants were otherwise used for pioneering/engineering duties and, presumably, for general logistics tasks. Edda Bresciani (Greek version of ancient Egyptian Ibw “the country of the elephants,” Aram. Yb), the largest island in the Nile, opposite Syene (ancient Egyptian Swn “market,” modern Aswān). The island was always the administrative center of the southernmost province of Egypt, controlling the first cataract and the main frontier post en route to Nubia, but during the Achaemenid occupation (525-402, 342-332 B.C.E.) the military garrison (Aram. haila) increased in importance. The rab haila “commander of the army” had military jurisdiction over Upper Egypt as far as Memphis, though he lived in Syene. ... F. R. C. Bagley (1893-1970), British historian of medicine in Persia. After attending Oxford University, he volunteered for war service and was commissioned in the British army and posted to India in 1914; he transferred to the Indian army in 1918 but was invalided out in 1919. He became a medical student and qualified at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London. From 1925 to 1931 he was physician to the British legation at Tehran. He took part in negotiations on the transfer of quarantine stations in the southern ports, became an honorary physician to the shah, and acquired a lifelong interest in Persian medicine, together with a thorough knowledge of Persian and a fair knowledge of Arabic. ... See ELĪJĀ BAR ŠĪNĀJĀ. Tahsën Yazici , Ḥaṣīrīzāda (b. in Sütlüce, Rajab 1266/May 1850), Turkish poet and scholar. Wolfgang Felix Elīya b. Šīnā; Lat. Elias Nisibenus), prominent Nestorian polyhistor (Nisibis, 975-1049). His work is an important source for Sasanian history. In 1002 he was made bishop of Bēṯ Nuhādrē in Adiabene, and in 1008 metropolitan of Nisibis (Naṣībīn). He wrote in Syriac and Arabic on theological issues, i.e., apologetics against Muslims and other Christian churches and treatises on ethics, asceticism, and canon law. Aram Arkun [Yeqīkīān] (1880-1951; pseud. V. Vasakuni, P. Andrēasean, V. Turean, G. Margarean, G. Astłuni, and Hnčʿakean), an active figure in Persian and Armenian politics, the press, and literature during the first half of the 20th century. Ełikean fled oppression in his native Ottoman empire in December 1896. Radicalized, he was forced to leave the Caucasus for Persia in 1902. He joined the Armenian Social-Democratic Hnčʿakean party and formed its first group in Rašt in 1904. ... Robert W. Thomson (Elisaeus), author of History of Vardan and the Armenian War, a detailed account of the Armenian rebellion against Yazdegerd II (439-57) in 450, which was prompted by his persecution of their Christian faith. The leader of the resistance was Vardan, prince of the Mamikonean family. According to Ełišē, the Byzantine emperor refused to intervene, and the Armenian army was defeated at Avarayr (q.v.), southeast of Mount Ararat, in June 451. Vardan was killed, surviving nobles were imprisoned in Persia, and the leading clergy was martyred. ... Peter Jackson (Īlčīktāy,Īljīkdāy), the name of two Mongol generals. (1) An army commander under Čengīz Khan (q.v.), responsible for the destruction of Herat. Upon hearing that the people of Herat had rebelled and killed the governors recently appointed by the Mongols, in Šawwāl 618/November-December 1221 Čengīz Khan dispatched Eljigidei from Ḡazna with 80,000 men to raze the city and exterminate its inhabitants. ... See ASSYRIA. Hūšang Aʿlam any of several species of hardy deciduous ornamental or forest trees of the genus Ulmus L. (fam. Ulmaceae), typically called nārvan in Persian. Hard, inflexible, and durable, elm wood (especially that of U. minor) is used locally in Persia by cartwrights in making beams, pillars, boat parts, lāvak/lo(v)ak (a kind of round, shallow wooden tub or platter; Gīlakī lāk), qand-e lāk (Gīlakī; a lāk with a raised center on which lump sugar is chopped up with a special ax), etc. See MĪR DARD. See REJĀL, ʿELM-E. Nassereddin Parvin title of two Persian magazines. Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī a high school in Tehran with 500 students studying experimental sciences, mathematics, and economy. It was the second school established in Tehran to offer modern education. It was founded in Du’l-ḥejja 1315/May 1898 by Anjoman-e maʿāref (q.v. Council of Education) as a result of Anjoman’s disagreement with the principal of Rošdīya school over the disbursement of funds. The school included an elementary section (Ebtedāʾīya) for boys between seven and twelve years of age and an advanced section (ʿElmīya) for boys who could read and write Persian fluently. ... (Faṣāḥāt). See RHETORIC. Malcolm E. Yapp (1779-1859), author of an important description of Afghanistan. He was a British Indian official who rose to become governor of Bombay. He was the fourth son of the eleventh Baron Elphinstone, a minor Scottish peer of modest circumstances. John Perry , Captain (?-1751), English merchant, seaman and shipbuilder for Nāder Shah Afšār. From 1734 onward the British merchants of the Russia Company were permitted to transit Russia to trade with Persia, crossing the Caspian Sea in Russian vessels. In 1739 Elton, an “enterprising but indiscreet Englishman” (Malcolm, II, p. 102) arrived at Estarābād (Astarābād) and secured the royal assent to market goods directly in Persia, bypassing the shah’s middlemen. ... Peter Jackson (d. 633/1236), first Sultan of Delhi. A member of the Ölberi tribe (for the correct spelling, see Golden) of the Qipčaq, he was enslaved at an early age and purchased in Delhi by Qoṭb-al-Dīn Āybeg, then one of the military commanders in India on behalf of the Ghurid Sultan Mo ʿezz-al-Dīn Moḥammad b. Sām (r. 599-602/1203-6). He rose in his master’s favor, obtaining the post of amīr-e šekār (master of the hunt) and in succession the governorship of Gwalior and the eqṭāʿs of Baran and Badāʾūn, and married Āybeg’s daughter. ... C. Edmund Bosworth (b. Ballylickey, Cork County, Ireland, 2 June 1912-d. Edinburgh, 2 September 1984), scholar of Islamic and modern Persia. Son of a naval officer, Lt.-Comdr. A. S. Elwell-Sutton, he was a scholar at Winchester College and then studied Arabic at the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, graduating in 1934. John F. Hansman semi-independent state frequently subject to Parthian domination, which existed between the second century B.C.E. and the early third century C. E. in the territories of Ḵūzestān (Susiana), in southwestern Persia. Kambiz Eslami , MĪR, ʿEMĀD-AL-MOLK B. EBRĀHIM (ca. 961-30 Rajab 1024/ca. 1554-15 August 1615), one of the most celebrated nastaʿlīq calligraphers of Persia. He was born in Qazvīn to a family of Sayfī Ḥasanī sayyeds who had been associated for years with the Safavid court in such capacities as librarian or accountant. He is reported by modern authors (Huart, pp. 239-42; Ḵalīl, p. 5) to have studied calligraphy under three well-known calligraphers of the time: ʿĪsā Beg Rangkār, Mālek Deylamī, and Moḥammad-Ḥosayn Tabrīzī. ... C. Edmund Bosworth b. Būya b. Fanā-Ḵosrow, the eldest of three brothers who came to power in western Persia as military adventurers and founded the Buyid dynasty (q.v.). ʿAlī ruled in Jebāl from 320/932 and in Fārs from 322/934 as head of the family. Their rise to power forms part of the Deylamite resurgence which characterized the 4th/10th century (See DEYLAMITES ii). Kathryn Babayan WAḤĪD QAZVĪNĪ (ca. 1025-1112/1615-1701), poet and court historiographer (majlesnevīs, wāqeʿanevīs) for nearly three decades (1055-85/1645-74), under Shah ʿAbbās II (r. 1052-77/1642-66) and Shah Solaymān (r. 1077-1105/1666-94) during the first eight years of his reign. Toward the end of Solaymān’s reign (1101/1689-90) he attained the position of grand vizier. Finally, after nine years of service, he was forced to retire from the grand vezierate (1110/1699). Two years later, in his late eighties, he died in Isfahan, during the reign of Shah Solṭān Ḥosayn. ... J. T. P. de Bruijn KERMĀNĪ, mystic and poet of the 8th/14th century who used ʿEmād or, more rarely, ʿEmād-e Faqīh, as a pen name. He was born in Kermān toward the end of the 7th/13th century. Both his father, Maḥmūd Faqīh, and ʿEmād-al-Dīn were religious scholars and mystics whose spiritual pedigree reached back, through the teacher Neẓām-al-Dīn Maḥmūd, to Zayn-al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Salām Kāmūʾī, a companion of Šehāb-al-Dīn Abū Ḥafṣ ʿOmar Sohravardī. ... Donald S. Richards , ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH MOḤAMMAD b. Moḥammad b. Ḥāmed EṢFAHĀNĪ, an eminent 13th-century government servant and man of letters, born in Isfahan in 519/1125, either on 2 Jomādā II/6 July or in Šaʿbān/October. After a period in ʿAbbasid service in Iraq, he moved at the age of 41 to a career of greater fame in Syria, although he acknowledged himself to be a product of the central ʿAbbasid milieu (Bondārī, 1971, p. 104). He died in Damascus on 1 Ramażān 597/5 June 1201. ... Emilie Savage-Smith b. Serāj-al-Dīn Masʿūd ŠĪRĀZĪ, the most prominent member of a 16th-century family of physicians in Shiraz. His grandfather, also named ʿEmād-al-Dīn Maḥmūd, had been physician to Shah Esmāʿīl I (r. 907-30/1501-24). The younger ʿEmād-al-Dīn Maḥmūd studied medicine with his father and taught a number of students himself. Early in his career ʿEmād-al-Dīn Maḥmud was in the service of ʿAbd-Allāh Khan Ostājlū, governor of Šīrvān. ... C. Edmund Bosworth , ABŪ KĀLĪJĀR b. Solṭān-al-Dawla Abū Šojāʿ(399-440/1009-48), amir of the Buyid dynasty in the period of that family’s decadence and incipient disintegration, being the last effective ruler of the line. He ruled over Fārs and Ḵūzestān 415-40/1024-48, in Kermān from 419/1028 and in Baghdad nominally 416-18/1025-27 and in actuality from 435/1044 until his death in Jomādā I 440/October 1048. Maria E. Subtelny b. Moḥammad ʿAtīq-Allāh, Ḵᵛāja, a vizier of the Timurid Sultan Ḥosayn Bāyqarā (r. 875-912/1470-1506; q.v), executed in Herat in 903/1498. Although the exact date of his appointment is not known, according to Ḵᵛāndamīr (Dastūr, p. 433), he held the post of vizier for almost twenty years. He was the maternal uncle of Kamāl-al-Dīn Ḥosayn and Rašīd-al-Dīn ʿAbd-al-Malek, the sons of his more famous contemporary Neẓām-al-Molk Qewām-al-Dīn Ḵaurāfī, appointed vizier by Sultan Ḥosayn in 876/1471-72. ... ʿAbd-Allāh Forādi , MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN SAYFĪ QAZVĪNĪ calligrapher (b. Qazvīn, 27 Farvardīn 1245 Š. /16 April 1866; d. Tehran, 26 Tīr 1315 Š./17 July 1936). Son of Moḥammad, a qabāla-nevīs (scrivener), Moḥammad-Ḥosayn was a member of the Neʿmat-Allāhī Sufi order. He received his early education in Qazvīn. Before settling in Tehran, he spent some time in Iraq and Mašhad, where he lived as a scribe, working mainly in the nasḵ style. Upon the recommendation of Amīr Bahādor, he was asked by Moẓaffar-al-Dīn Shah to copy the Šāh-nāma, which was completed in 1315/1897-98 (Tehran, 1322/1904). ... See NEẒĀM-AL-MOLK. Taqi Pūr-Nāmdārīān well-known poet of the first half of the 6th/12th century. His real name is not known, but his reputation as ʿEmādī, according to his contemporary Rāvandī, derives from the title of his first patron ʿEmād-al-Dawla Farāmarz b. Rostam (q.v.), the ruler of Māzandarān from 515/1121(Rāvandī, p. 210). Some hagiographers and, following them, most modern scholars maintain that he was a native of Šahrīār of Ray. ... See ČAHĀRDAH MAʿSŪM, SHIʿISM. Mehrdad Shokouhi two archeological sites in Afghanistan. (1) A village near the south bank of the Amū Daryā (q.v.), about 50 km north of Qondūz, 37° 11’ N, 68° 55’ E. At the north of the village stand the ruins of an octagonal mud brick fort over 220 m in diameter, built over a massive octagonal rampart rising about 20 m above the plain. ... See JOVAYNĪ. See MAHDĪ. Hamid Algar leader of the congregational prayer performed at midday on Fridays. This prayer, comprising two prayer cycles (rakʿas) preceded by a sermon (ḵoṭba), normally takes the place of the regular noon prayer with four rakʿas. Customarily the emām-e jomʿa both delivers the sermon and leads the prayer, though his title refers only to the latter function. See MAHDĪ. See eʿAMĀMA. See SHIʿISM. J. T. P. de Bruijn , RAŻĪ-AL-DĪN ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH MOḤAMMAD b. Abī Bakr b. ʿOṯmān, Persian poet of the Mongol period, also noted for his learning (b. in Herat; d. in Isfahan in 686/1287). During the decade 650-60/1250-60 he wrote panegyrics for the Qara Khitai rulers of Kermān and their officials. His residence in Kermān more or less coincided with the reign of Qotloḡ Terken (Tarkān) ʿEṣmat-al-Donyā wa’l-Dīn (655-81/1257-82 or 83), a period of cultural prosperity in the history of that province. ... Fakhreddin Azimi politician (b. Ḵoy, 1901, d. Paris 9 Nov., 1966). He was one of nine sons of the prominent religious dignitary and Majles deputy Mīrzā Yaḥyā Emām-e Jomʿa Ḵoʾī. He was educated in Tehran and Belgium, where, in the second half of the 1930s, he studied economics and finance and married a Belgian national. Upon his return to Persia, he was employed by the Ministry of Finance. In the post-1941 era Emāmī joined the ʿEdālat party, remaining a close lifelong friend of its leader, ʿAlī Daštī (qq.v). ... Cyrus Mir (b. 1321/1903, d. 1360 Š./1981), emĀm-e jomʿa (Friday prayer leader) of Tehran (1326-57 Š./1947-78). He was born in Tehran to Sayyed Abu’l-Qāsem, the emām-e jomʿa of Tehran, who had married Moẓaffar-al-Din Shah’s daughter and opposed the Constitutional Revolution of 1906-9 (q.v.). See SHIʿISM. Roger M. Savory son of the celebrated Georgian ḡolām Allāhverdī Khan (q.v.). Emāmˊqolī Khan is first mentioned as governor of Lār in Fārs in 1018/1610 (Eskandar Beg, II, p. 807; tr. Savory, II, p. 1010). On the death of his father in 1022/1613, Shah ʿAbbās appointed Emāmqolī Khan to succeed him as governor-general (beglarbeg) of Fārs; he retained the post of governor of Lār and held the rank of an amir of the dīvān (Eskandar Beg, II, p. ... ḥosayn Maḥbūbī Ardakānī ĪL-ḴĀNĪ (b. 14 Šawwāl 1211/ 9 March 1796, date of death not known), the twelfth son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qajar; his mother was Begom Jān Qazvīnī (Solṭān-Aḥmad Mīrzā, pp. 35, 206). When only eleven years old, he received the title īl-ḵānī and was made chief of the royal guards (sarkešīkčī-bāšī), a post he held from 1222/1807 until the death of his father in 1250/1834 (Montaẓáam-e nāṣerī III, p. ... Hamid Algar, Parvīz Varjāvand a shrine believed to be the tomb of a descendent of a Shiʿite Imam. In addition to emāmzāda, such structures are also known as āstāna (lit., threshold), marqad (resting place, mausoleum), boqʿa (revered site), rawża (garden/tomb), gonbad (dome), mašhad (place of martyrdom), maqām (site/abode), qadamgāh (stepping place), and torbat (dust, grave). i. Function and devotional practice. ii. Forms, decorations, and other characteristics. iii. Number, distribution, and important examples. What is certain is that from the 5th/11th century onward, Shiʿite scholars granted recognition to pilgrimage to emāmzādas as a valid form of devotion. Thus, Shaikh Mofīd (d. 413/1022) composed a text (zīāra) for recitation at the tombs of descendants of the imams, the wording of which suggests the devotional purpose of all such pilgrimage. ... See CLOTHING, CRAFTS, TEXTILES. Barbara D. Metcalf , ḤĀJĪ (b. Thana Bhawan, India, 1233/1817, d. Mecca, 1317/1899), spiritual guide and scholar. He belonged to a scholarly family of Fārūqī shaikhs. In 1249/1833 he went to Delhi, where he joined the reformist circle of Moḥammad-Esḥāq Dehlavī (1192-1257/1778-1841; Metcalf, pp. 71-72). At Dehlavī’s urging he rejected his given name, Emdād Ḥosayn, and took what was regarded as the more religiously correct name, Emdād-Allāh, by which he is known. ... Mansour Shaki (Exposition [of Zoroastrian doctrines] by Ēmēd, son of Ašawahišt), a major 10th-century Pahlavi work comprising forty-four questions (pursišn) put by a priest (āsrōn), Ādur Gušnasb, son of Mihr-ātaš, grandson of Ādur Gušnasb, to the saint (hufraward) Ēmēd, son of Ašawahišt, the high priest (mōbedān mōbed) of the Zoroastrian community, and his answers. Rivāyat, also an Arabo-Persian word meaning “narration, exposition, exegesis,” was used in post-Sasanian times by the Zoroastrian clergy for the Middle Persian nigēz. ... John D. Yohannan distinguished American transcendentalist, philosopher, and poet (b. 25 May 1803, Boston, Mass.; d. 27 April 1882, Concord) Only two other major Western authors have contributed as much to the cultivation of Persian poetry as Emerson: Goethe (q.v.) in the early years of the 19th century and Edward FitzGerald (q.v.) in the later years. Equally notable has been the reverse influence exerted by Persian poets upon Emerson’s own work. His sources were almost exclusively two books by the German author Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall: Der Diwan von Mohammed Schemseddin Hafiz (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1812-13) and Geschichte der schönen Redekünste Persiens (Vienna, 1818). ... See HUMAN MIGRATION. Tahsın Yazici , MEḤMED (Moḥammad Amīn) b. Solaymānīya in Persia, 1261/1845, d. Istanbul, 28 Šaʿbān 1342/5 April 1924), Turkish poet and man of letters who also wrote in Persian. He was born to one Aḥmad Efendī and received a madrasa education in Solaymānīya. In 1284/1867 he was appointed assistant chief clerk of the city, and he continued to serve in a variety of Ottoman administrative posts throughout his career. After moving to Istanbul, to a position in the Ministry of Fnance, he also taught Persian at the Eyüb Ruştiye (Ayyūb Rošdīya) middle school. ... See AMIR. See UNITED ARAB EMIRATES. Jirí Bečka , MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn, Sufi poet of Arab descent, born in 1688 in Sangārak, Afghanistan, died in 1749 in Bukhara. He studied in the Bukhara madrasa and remained in that town until his death. He left a dīvān with ḡazals, qeṭʿas, and robāʿīs. Of the many manuscripts of his dīvān in the libraries of the former Soviet Union, twelve are in the Manuscript Fund of the Tajik Academy of Sciences in Dushanbe, one of which was written in the last year of the poet’s life. ... M. Amani economic activity in which one engages and employs his or her time and energy. Before the first general census was carried out in 1956, there were no comprehensive data available on the active population in Persia on a national scale. Since 1956, the data provided by successive censuses (q.v.) and surveys make it possible to analyze the level of employment and economic activity. Whatever their inaccuracy in recording, interpretation or classification, these data provide a general idea of the situation and how it has evolved. ... David Yeroushalmi the name or most likely the penname (taḵalloṣ) of the Jewish-Persian poet of Isfahan and Kāšān. Together with his 7th-8th/13th-14th century predecessor Šāhīn, he is one of the two most prominent and beloved poets of Judeo-Persian literature. Since Wilhelm Bacher’s pioneering study on Šāhīn and ʿEmrānī in 1907 a large number of ʿEmrānī’s works have been uncovered and much new light has been shed on the poet’s life and times, and his literary output. ... See CONCESSIONS. Daryush Shayegan . ASPECTS SPIRITUELS ET PHILOSOPHIQUES (4 vols., Paris, 1971-73), the magnum opus of Henry Corbin (q.v.), consisting of essays summarizing most of the major themes that defined his scholarly career and revealing his intellectual grasp of Persian philosophical thought. The four volumes are devoted respectively to the four distinct but parallel itineraries by which he believed himself to have found the way to the heart of Persian spirituality: Volume I to different aspects of Twelver Shiʿism, the phenomenon of the holy book, and the cycle of prophethood and walāyat (sainthood); Volume II to Šehāb-al-Dīn Sohravardī and the Persian platonists; Volume III to theories of love and mystical lovers in the work of Rūzbehān Baqlī and the connections between Shiʿism and Sufism apparent in the works of Ḥaydar Āmolī, Ṣāʾen-al-Dīn Torka Eṣbahānī, and ʿAlā-al-Dīn Semnānī; and Volume IV to the school of Isfahan, including Mīr Dāmād, Mollā Ṣadrā, and Qāżī Saʿīd Qomī, as well as the Shaikhi school, the twelfth imam, and chivalry in general, along with a general index (see below). ... EIr, Layla S. Diba (mīnā,possibly a dialect form of mīnū < Mid. Pers. mēnōg “uncorporeal, spiritual, the world beyond, heaven” < *"sky" < "blue," meaning "glass, luster, enamel" [Horn, Etymologie, s.v. mīnō]). Enamel is a heat-fused glass paste colored by metal oxides and used to decorate metal surfaces. In medieval sources mīnāʾ denoted glaze, glass, and, after the 11th century, enamel. Enamel was associated with lapidary, glassworking, and goldmithing crafts and was probably used primarily in place of precious stones before the 17th century, when the medium was first used extensively. Textual sources and a few datable examples suggest that at that time champlevé enameling and enamel painting—sometimes in slight relief, in transparent and opaque colors on gold, copper, and silver—began to appear in Persia. ... Ahmad Ashraf (1311-61 Š/1932-82), political scientist and translator. He was born in Tehran into a middle-class family of religious scholars. He received his bachelor’s degree in political science in 1333 Š./1954 from Tehran University and his master’s and doctorate in politics in 1958 and 1962, respectively, from the London School of Economics, London University. As a youth, he was a member of the Tūda party, but after the 1953 coup d’ıtat (q.v.) he joined Ḵalīl Malekī’s Socialist League (Jāmaʿa-ye sosīālīsthā). ... Sheila S. Blair Timurid builder or tile maker of the 15th century. He reportedly built or decorated the dome of the Qobba-ye sabz (Green Dome) in Kermān. Sir Percy Sykes, the first European to refer to the building, reported that an inscription (now lost) was read to him stating that the building was the work of the master Ḵᵛāja Šokr-Allāh and the master ʿEnāyat-Allāh, son of the master Neẓām-al-Dīn, the architect (meʿmār) from Isfahan, and was constructed in 640/1242, which is probably a misreading since stylistically the building dates to the 15th century. ... Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi (b. in Burhanpur, 19 Jomādā I 1017/31 August 1608; d. in Delhi on 19 Jomādā I 1082/23 September 1671), Sufi and scholar, descendant of an old respected Lahore family that had converted to Islam in Punjab. The family had risen to prominence as scholars, Sufi saints, and officers in the 15th century. Neither ʿEnāyat-Allāh nor his younger brother Moḥammad-Ṣāleḥ mentioned their father’s home; he seems to have moved from Lahore to Burhanpur as a servant of the Mughal state. ... Elton L. Daniel an alphabetically arranged reference work which seeks to provide scholarly articles relating to “all aspects of Iranian life and culture.” ... Elton L. Daniel a reference work of fundamental importance on topics dealing, according to its self-description, with “the geography, ethnography and biography of the Muhammadan peoples.” Published under the auspices of E. J. Brill, it exists in two editions. The first edition was published during the period 1913-1938 and supervised by a distinguished editorial board which eventually included M. Th. Houtsma, T. W. Arnold, Basset, Hartmann, A. J. Wensinck, W. Heffening, E. Lıvi-Provençal, and H.A.R. Gibb. ... See ENTSIKLOPEDIYAI SOVIETII TOJIK. Živa Vesel and Hūšang Aʿlam , pre-modern. In Persia, as in other Islamicized lands, the notion of an encyclopaedia developed out of the “need for inventory” of the knowledge acquired through numerous translations of foreign (mainly Greek) scientific texts subsidized by Baghdad (Arnaldez et al., p. 448). The newly introduced sciences were variously combined with indigenous sciences. The first Persian author who distinguished himself in the encyclopaedic field was Abū Naṣr Fārābī (d. 339/950) in his Eḥṣāʾ al-ʿolūm, composed in Arabic. ... See FOUNDATIONS. See Supplement. See GREAT BRITAIN. D. N. Mackenzie, John D. Yohannan, Michael Beard, Karīm EmāmĪ OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Persian elements in English. ii. Persian influences in English and American literature. iii. Translations of classical Persian literature. iv. Translations of modern Persian literature. v. i. Translations of English literature into Persian. Words from all stages of Persian and from many fields have found their way into English, but almost always through the medium of one or more other languages. The earliest were literary words, quoted from Old Persian by classical Greek and Latin authors, which were then carried down to later European languages. ... Ulrich Marzolph , SAYYED ABU’L-QĀSEM (b. Shiraz, 1921, d. Tehran, 25 Šahrīvar 1372 Š./16 September 1993), eminent Persian folklorist. He was born into an educated and clerical family. After receiving his early education in Shiraz he studied political science at Tehran University. Later he traveled to Geneva and visited other cities in Europe. He felt himself intellectually indebted to Ḥasan Waḥīd Dastgerdī, M oḥammad-Taqī Malek-al-Šoʿarāʾ Bahār (q.v.). ... See BIBLE. See ĪNJŪ. See AḴNŪḴ. J. C. Reeves attributed to the seventh antediluvian biblical patriarch Enoch (Genesis 5.21-24), which show Iranian influence. Judging from the number of citations and allusions to Enochic “books” and “apocalypses,” many such works circulated among Jewish and Christian groups during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine eras. Ancient estimates of Enoch’s books range from Ṭabarī’s “thirty scrolls” (I, pp. 173-74) to the assuredly fantastic “360 books” (variant “366”) of 2 Enoch. ... See REVOLUTION OF 1978-79. Nassereddin Parvin a newspaper published by Abu’l-Ḥasan Banī-Ṣadr and supporting his political views. It was published in three runs. See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION. See WHITE REVOLUTION. Jürgen Paul (composition), the process of creating or composing something as well as the result of this process and the rules of the art; it denotes a genre of prose literature, copies, drafts, or specimens of official and private correspondence. Enšāʾ collections are extant in Arabic, Persian, and Turkic (Ottoman and Eastern). The authors or compilers, when they are known, frequently were high officials: scribes, secretaries, (kottāb, monšīs) in the secretariat (dīvān al-rasāʾel or dīvān al-enšāʾ; see DĪVĀN). ... M. Asif Naim Siddiqui , SAYYED, Urdu-Persian poet and writer (b. in Moršedābād in 1169/1756 and d. in Lucknow in 1233/1818; Pervez, p. 23). His forefathers are said to have emigrated to India from Najaf during the reign of Farroḵsīar (1124-31/1713-19; Sandelavī, fol. 43). In 1763, hostilities in Moršedābād forced his father, Māšā-Allāh Khan, to move to Fayżābād and then to Delhi. Only sixteen years of age, Enšāʾ-Allāh Khan joined the poets in Nawwāb Šojāʿ-al-Dawla’s employ in Fayżābād. ... Gerhard Böwering (the Perfect Human Being), a key idea in the philosophy and ethics of Islamic mysticism. The phrase was coined by Ebn al-ʿArabī (d. 638/1240, q.v.) in the first chapter of the Foṣūs al-ḥekam (p. 50), although the idea underlying it is as old as Sufism itself. ... L. P. ELWELL-SUTTON (lit. “Awakening”), a Persian newspaper published in Karbalā, Iraq, in 1333/1914 by Mīrzā ʿAlī Āqā Šīrāzī Labīb-al-Molk (Ṣadr Ḥāšemī, Jarāʾed o majallāt I, pp. 282-83), editor of Moẓaffarī published in Būšehr and Mecca (Browne, Press and Poetry, nos. 322,323). Twenty-one issues were published in 1333/1914; the name was then changed to Ḥaqīqat (three issues), then to Enteqām (one issue), and to Ḡayrat-e Karbalā (four issues), presumably as result of suppression. ... Fakhreddin Azimi , ʿABD-ALLĀH and NAṢR-ALLĀH, two brothers active in 20th-century Persian politics. Their father was a diplomat, who also served as a director-general (modīr-e koll) of the Ministry of the Interior (Wezārat-e kešvar) under Reżā Shah, a Sufi affiliated to the Ṣafī-ʿAlīšāhī order, and a leader of the Anjoman-e oḵowwat (q.v.). ... H. Borjian (Ėntsiklopediyai Sovetii Tojik, Tajik Soviet Encyclopedia), the first general encyclopedia of Tajikistan, published in the Tajik Persian language and Cyrillic alphabet (8 vols., Dushanbe, 1978-88). It includes more than 23,000 articles (VIII, p. 197) in a total of 4904 pages plus 242 folios (mostly in color) of additional figures and maps. Each volume measures 20 x 26 cm, printed in a triple-column format. It was published in a run of 15-23,000 copies. Eskandar Firouz, Daniel Balland : efforts to protect natural resources, wildlife, and ecosystems and to control pollution in Persia. i. In Persia. ii. In Afghanistan. In Persia conservation consciousness began, as it so often does, with concern for wildlife. In the absence of protective legislation, the more conspicuous plains species—notably gazelles and the wild ass—had been relentlessly pursued by hunters using Jeeps all too often and were obviously threatened with extinction. The efforts of a group of sportsmen resulted in 1956 in the nation’s first conservation law and the creation of the Game Council of Persia (Kānūn-e šekār-e Īrān;). ... See ANZALĪ. Nicholas Sims-Williams Christian legend attested by texts in many languages. A page of the manuscript C2 (preserved in the Turfan collection of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Orientabteilung, and most recently edited by Sims-Williams, pp. 154-57) was identified by Martin Schwartz as belonging to a Sogdian version of the legend. See EPʿREM KHAN. François de Blois narrative poems of legendary and heroic content. Classical Persian literary theory did not recognize the epic as a distinct genre and included works discussed here under the general heading maṯnawī. Modern Persian critics have coined for them the term ḥamāsa-sarāʾī, roughly “heroic poetry.” These works, however, have nothing in common with the Arabic monorhyme poetry that medieval compilers associated with the term ḥamāsa, i.e., “enthusiasm.” ... See PLAGUES. J. T. P. de Bruijn originally a Greek word meaning “inscription” and denoting in Western literatures a genre of short poems characterized by their contents and style rather than by a specific prosodic form. The term epigram is most often used for satire and light verse, but it has also been applied to aphoristic poetry (cf. the German equivalent Sinngedicht, literally “poetic maxim”). A proper epigram should be concise and pithy, with a display of wit which provides the poem with a pointed conclusion. ... Helmut Humbach, Philip Huyse, Sheila S. Blair, Sussan Babaie, Ziyaud-Din A. Desai the study of inscriptions, particularly their collection, decipherment, interpretation, dating, and classification. i. Old Persian and Middle Iranian epigraphy. ii. Greek inscriptions from ancient Iran. iii. Arabic inscriptions in Persia. iv. Safavid and later inscriptions. v. Inscriptions from the Indian subcontinent. vi. Ossetic epigraphy: see OSSETIC. vii. Early Persian epigraphy: see SUPPLEMENT. Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin (b. ca. 315 [?] near Eleutheropolis, Judaea; d. 403 in Constantia, Cyprus), bishop of Constantia on Cyprus, founded on the remains of Salamis. His main work is the Panárion (Latin title, Adversus Haereses), in which he attacked eighty heresies. In this work (1.1.6; cf. Jackson, p. 188, 244) Epiphanius questioned the validity of the assertion that the Mesopotamian Nimrud (Gk. Nebrṓth) was identical with Zoroaster. The assertion was based on the following: Astrology and magic were invented by Nimrud (a corrupt form of Ninurta, the god, influenced by Nimrud, the city); the same is said of Zoroaster, hence Zoroaster was identical with Nimrud. ... Hassan B. Dehqani-Tafti (Kelīsā-ye osqofī-e Īrān) a diocese of the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, one of thirty-seven independent churches of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The Episcopal Church in Persia was established by British missionaries in the 19th century but was never part of the Church of England and is today predominantly Persian. The Anglican churches of the world, most of whose members are neither native speakers of English nor of Anglo-Saxon origin, regard themselves as being part of “the holy, catholic, and apostolic Church,” i.e., as part of the original Christian church. This belief is comparable to that held by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches. ... See MANICHEISM. See CORRESPONDENCE. Aram Arkun (Pers. Yeprem/Efrem; 1868-1912), Armenian revolutionary and important military leader of the Constitutional Revolution (q.v.). Epʿrem Dawtʿean (Asribēkean) was born of an Armenian family in Barsum newspaper. See EḤTĪĀJ. Moḥammad-Taqī Masʿudiya (EQBĀL-AL-SOLṬĀN), ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN QAZVĪNĪ (b. Alvand, near Qazvīn, ca. 1248/1869, d. Tabrīz, probably 1973), singer of Persian traditional music. After his father, Mollā Mūsā Zāreʿ Qazvīnī, a farmer and mullah, died, Abu’l-Ḥasan, then seven years old, moved to Qazvīn, where he lived until the age of twenty. He then moved to Tabrīz, where he studied traditional Persian music with Ḥājj Mollā Karīm Qazvīnī, one of the best singers of his time and highly esteemed at the court of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1264-1314/1848-96). ... Īraj Afšār (b. 1314/1896-97 in Āštīān, d. 21 Bahman 1334 Š./10 February 1956 in Rome), scholar and man of letters. He was born into a family of poor bathkeepers in Āštīān, a township near Arāk (q.v.). In order to contribute to the family’s income he started working as a carpenter’s apprentice at a very young age, but his own desire for learning and his mother’s encouragement finally made him start his primary education at the age of fourteen. ... See IQBAL, MUHAMMAD. See PUBLISHERS. Ahmad Ashraf (b. in Mašhad, 27 Ramażān 1327/14 Oct. 1909; d. in Tehran, 14 Āḏar 1356 Š./25 Nov. 1977), prime minister, minister of the Royal Court, head of National Iranian Oil Company, and professor of medicine. The fifth of eleven children of Mīrzā Abū Torāb Khan Moqbel-al-Salṭana (Eqbāl-al-Tawlīa), a landowner in Mašhad and member of the Fourth Majles (1921-23), Manūčehr completed elementary school in Mašhad and graduated from the Dār al-fonūn (q.v.). ... See EQBĀL ĀḎAR. See NEẒĀMĪ, ESKANDAR-NĀMA. SeeKERMĀNĪ, AFŻAL-AL-DĪN. Nassereddin Parvin name of two separate series of a Persian newspaper published and edited in Tehran by the journalist, poet, novelist, and translator, ʿAbbās Ḵalīlī (b. Najaf, 1311/1893, d. Tehran, 1350 Š./1971, q.v.). Ḵalīlī, a member of a prominent clerical family in Iraq, fled to Persia reportedly after being sentenced to death by the British for his anti-British activities. In Tehran, however, he worked as translator for the pro-British daily Raʿd. ... C. Edmund Bosworth a small town of medieval Fārs, now in the modern rural subdistrict of the same name (lat 30° 54′N, long 52° 40′E). It lies in the Zagros Mountains, and the mediaeval geographers placed it therefore in the sardsīr or cold zone. Administratively, it was in the kūra of Eṣṭaḵr, and is described by the early geographers as populous, with a fortress, running water, and extensive agricultural lands where wheat and fruit were grown. It does not seem to have played any historical role. ... See CLIME. A. K. S. Lambton in its various forms one of the most persistent and important tenurial, economic and social institutions of medieval Persia. It was also found in the Mamluk sultanate, the Ottoman empire, under the Omayyads of Spain, in the Delhi sultanate, and the Mughal empire. It survived in a modified form as an institution until the 20th century in Persia but under a different nomenclature. From the 14th century the term soyūrḡāl was used to designate certain types of eqṭāʿ; in the 15th century the term toyūl (or teyūl) came to be used interchangeably with soyūrḡāl, but by the 16th century the two terms designated different aspects of the institution. ... See ECONOMY. Gherardo Gnoli , ĒR MAZDĒSN (Inscr. Mid. Pers. ēr [ʾyly], plur. ērān [ʾylʾn, ʾyrʾn]), an ethnonym, like Old Persian ariya- and Avestan airya-, meaning “Aryan” or “Iranian.” There are no sufficient reasons to distinguish sing. ēr semantically from plur. ērān, the ethnic reference of which is indisputable. Middle Persian ēr may derive from an Old Iranian epenthetic form, such as Av. airya-; in the lexicon of the religious and political propaganda of the Sasanians other cases occur, possibly due to the influence of the Avestan tradition. ... Pīrāya Yaḡmāʾī (lit. national will), a pro-British political party founded on 23 Bahman 1322 Š./19 January 1944 by Sayyed Żīāʾ al-Dīn Ṭabāṭabāʾī (1891-1969), a devout anglophile politician and journalist, who had supported the aborted 1919 Anglo-Persian Treaty (q.v.) and coengineered with Brigadier Reżā Khan (later Reżā Shah) the British-supported coup d’ıtat of 1921 (q.v.). After serving 100 days as prime minister and spending over 22 years in exile in Palestine he returned home in September 1943 to mobilize the rightist factions against the pro-Soviet Tūda party. ... D. N. MacKenzie , ĒRĀNŠAHR “Iran.” The word ērān is first attested in the titles of Ardašīr I (q.v.), founder of the Sasanian dynasty. On his investiture relief at Naqš-e Rostam in Fārs, and subsequently on his coins, he is called ʾrtḥštr MLKʾn MLKʾ ʾyrʾn/Ardašīr šāhān šāh ērān, in Mid. Persian, MLKYN MLKʾ ʾryʾn/šāhān šāh aryān, in Parthian. ... See ĀMĀRGAR. Rika Gyselen (Kawād [has] made Ērān peaceful), name of a Sasanian province (šahr) created by Kawād I (r. 488-531). It was possibly the Ḥolwān region; if so, it bordered the provinces of Šahrazūr (Syārazūr) and Garmegan. Rika Gyselen name of a Sasanian town occurring in post-Sasanian sources only. Ḥamza Eṣfahānī situated this Sasanian foundation between Ḥolwān and Šahrazūr. See ĒRĀN. D. N. MacKenzie the Middle Persian designation of the territory of the Aryans. It is the development of an OIr. *aryānām waiǰah (cf. the similar Man. Sogd. and probably Parth. ʾryʾnwyjn, i.e., Aryānwēžan; Henning, pp. 55, 73). Differing only in the use of the genitive plural ‘of the Aryans’ for the adjective ‘Aryan,’ it corresponds to the Avestan airyanəm vaēǰō. This is first used in the Yašts to name the place where Zaraθuštra, ‘famed therein’ (Y. 9.14), sacrificed to Arədvī Sūrā (see ANĀHĪD) and other divinities. ... Rika Gyselen (Kawād[has] arranged Ērān), name of a Sasanian province (šahrestān) created by Kawād I (r. 488-531) in his reorganization of the empire. Ḥamza Eṣfahānī called it Īrān waṭāraṭ Kawād and mentioned that it contained rostāqs belonging to Qom (Ḥamza, pp. 25, 38). Rika Gyselen (Ērān, glory of Šāpūr), Sasanian province (šahrestān) containing Susa and probably created by Šāpūr II (r. 309-379). Though Susa was given the epithet ēr-kar “made Iranian,” the capital of the province was actually Karḵa, renamed Ērān-xwarrah-Šābūhr-šahrestān for the occasion. The toponym was often deformed in the post-Sasanian period. ... Rika Gyselen (Ērān, glory of Yazdegerd), Sasanian province probably created by Yazdegerd II (438-457). The city cannot be identified with any certainty, but it is likely that it was located in the north of the Sasanian province of Gorgān. Jean During musical mode mentioned for the first time in the 11th century by Kaykāvūs b. Eskandar (p. 196) among some ten modes; it is also listed as one of twelve frets (parda) by Nīšābūrī (p. 100) toward the end of the 12th century. According to Nīšābūrī, transposing the register of ʿErāq a half-tone downward produces Moḵālef; both modes, as well as Eṣfahān (q.v.), were played at midnight. ... C. Edmund Bosworth “Persian Iraq,” the name given in medieval times to the largely mountainous, western portion of modern Persia. The geographers (Eṣṭaḵrī, p. 195; Ebn Ḥawqal, pp. 357-58, tr. Kramers and Wiet, pp. 349-50; Moqaddasī, pp. 384-86; Ḥodūd al-ʿālam, tr. Minorsky, p. 131; Yāqūt, Boldān [Beirut], II, p. 99) describe it as bounded by Fārs and Ḵūzestān on the south, Mesopotamia (i.e., Iraq proper) on the west, Azerbaijan, Deylam and Qūmes on the north and the Kūh-e Kargas and Great Desert on the east. ... William C. Chittick , FAḴR-al-DĪN EBRĀHĪM b. Bozorgmehr Javāleqī Hamadānī (b. Komjān, a village near Hamadān, ca. 610/1213-14, d. Damascus 688/1289), Sufi poet and author. A biography that may be as late as the beginning of the 9th/15th century provides most of what is known about his life (publ. in Kollīyāt, pp. 46-65); many of the anecdotes supply context for his ḡazals and have little historical significance, though they do suggest that ʿErāqī, like Aḥmad Ḡazālī and Awḥad-al-Dīn Kermānī (qq.v.), was known as a šāhedbāz, i.e., one who gazed upon the image of the divine witness in the faces of boys. ... See ARBELA. Jens Kröger leading historian of Sasanian and Islamic art (b. 9 September 1901 in Hamburg, d. 30 September 1964 in Berlin). Erdmann’s career and numerous publications were closely connected to the Islamic Department of the Berlin State Museums, of which he was director from 1958 until his death. He also taught Islamic art at the universities of Berlin, Bonn, Cairo, and Hamburg. From 1951 to 1958, he was professor of Islamic art at the University of Istanbul. Keith Hitchins king of Kakheti, 1744-62, and king of Kartli-Kakheti in Caucasus, 1762-98 (b. 1720, or, according to Toumanoff, 7 October 1721, d. 11 January 1798). In Persian sources Erekle is referred to as Ereklī Khan, wālī of Georgia, since the shahs considered him a vassal. William W. Malandra the name of a minor goddess. One of a number of abstract deities who appear in the Avesta only in formulaic invocations of divinities, she is the hypostasis of ərəti-. Although most interpreters follow Bartholomae (AirWb, col. 350) in taking this feminine noun to mean approximately ‘energy’ on the assumption that it is etymologically identical to OInd. ṛtí- f. (“attack”; cf. Mid. Pers. ardig “battle”), there is no assurance that the two words are to be compared. ... Erich Kettenhofen, George A. Bournoutian and Robert H. Hewsen ancient city and modern capital of the Republic of Armenia (lat 40° 08′N, long 44° 10′E). i. Ancient and medieval. ii. The Persian Khanate. iii. The modern city. Erevan is located on a site that has been occupied for millennia. Today it is generally acknowledged that the name is to be traced to that of an 8th-century B.C.E. Urartian fortress, E/Ir(e)b/puni (cuneiform URU ir/er-b/pu-ni). The identification is confirmed by an Urartian cuneiform inscription found in September 1950 on the mound Arin-Berd (i.e., Ganli Tappa) on the southeastern edge of Erevan. It was already known from the annals of the Urartian king Argi_ti I carved on the cliff at Van that he had settled 6,600 warriors from the land of Ṣupa (Sophene) in the city of Erebuni, which he had founded. ... See ARZENJĀN. Gerhard Böwering (lit., knowledge), Islamic theosophy. In its generic use, the term ʿerfān as describing Islamic “theosophy,” is a broad and somewhat amorphous concept adopted by 20th century scholarship for intellectual developments that combine Sufi thought and Twelver Shiʿite philosophy. The modern use of the term (1) emphasizes the mystico-philosophical side of Sufism and Shiʿism, in contra-distinction to the organized practice of Sufism (taṣawwof) and to the rational speculation and legalistic reasoning of Shiʿite theology (kalām) and law (feqh); (2) it stresses the intuitive side of Islamic thought and wisdom (ḥekma), traced back to Šehāb-al-Dīn Yaḥyā Sohravardī and ʿEbn al-ʿArabī, as against the tradition of deductive philosophy (falsafa), associated with Ebn Rošd. ... Nassereddin Parvin title of two Persian magazines and a newspaper. Habib Borjian (Hasan Aliḵonovič Mamadḵonov; b. 3 March 1900 at Samarkand; d. 22 June 1973), Tajik translator and writer. Raised in a lower middle class family, he went to both native schools and a Russian gymnasium (probably in Baku, where his father may have worked). In 1916, he received a degree in accounting from St. Petersburg through a correspondence course. He held various positions, mostly as a translator, in Uzbekistan’s industries until 1933, when he started teaching Persian at the State University of Samarkand, a job he continued until his retirement in 1960. ... John R. Payne The most generally accepted definition of an ergative construction (Dixon) begins with the notion that languages utilize three primitive syntactic relations, referred to as S, A, and O: Gherardo Gnoli MOUNTAIN, mentioned in a chapter of the Bundahišn devoted to mountains (TD2, p. 76, l. 15; p. 78, ll. 11-12). The passage includes references to Hamadān and Ḵᵛārazm, and says that Ērič az kōf Apursēn rust ēstēd “has grown from Mount Hapōrsēn” (Bundahišn, tr. Anklesaria, p. 95, chap. 9.15). The name seems equivalent to the Pahlavi form of the Avestan hero *Airyaēca (Christensen, p. 23; Boyce, Zoroastrianism I, p. 104). ... Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh expressed in Persian by the neologism adabīyāt-e erotīk. Erotic literature is not a clearly defined genre, since the concept of what is “erotic” varies considerably from time to time and place to place. In general, it may be regarded as encompassing a variety of works in prose and poetry dealing with human love relationships, ʿešq, most particularly in their physical aspects. Nassereddin Parvin title of two Persian newspapers and a magazine. Nassereddin Parvin the first women’s periodical in Afghanistan, published weekly in Kabul from 27 Ḥūt 1299 to 19 Ṯawr 1300 (16 March-9 June 1921). The editor was Asmār Sommayya, the Syrian wife of Maḥmūd Ṭarzˊī, the famous Afghan politician, poet, and journalist. Since Somayya did not know Persian, another woman of the Ṭarzī family, Rūḥafzā, was managing editor, and both were listed on the masthead (as “A-R” and “R-A”). ... Maria E. Subtelny a Persian agricultural manual completed in Herat in 921/1515 by Qāsem b. Yūsof Abūnaṣrī, who was previously identified in the scholarly literature simply as Fāżel Heravī (e.g., Petrushevskiĭ, p. 26; Tumanovich, p. 40). It has been called the most important medieval Persian agronomic work discovered so far, and the highpoint of the development of the genre (Lambton, 1977, p. 161; Vesel, p. 101). It consists of an introduction and eight chapters (rawża), which cover the following subjects: (1) the various types of soil; (2) astrological and metereological considerations associated with times of planting, beneficial prayers on planting, measures to protect plants against pests, and the storage of cereals; (3) the cultivation of cereals, legumes, and other field crops; (4) viticulture; (5) horticulture; (6) arboriculture, floriculture, and herbiculture; (7) the grafting of trees and vines, estimating the produce of various market garden crops, the conservation of various types of produce, the preparation of such items as rosewater and confections, and apiculture; (8) the laying out and planting of a čahār bāḡ (q.v.). ... See INHERITANCE. Robert H. Hewsen (Eruand-a-šat, “Joy of Ervand”), a city in Armenia located on a rocky hill at the juncture of the Akhurean and Araxes (q.v.; Aras) rivers. Founded by King Eruand (Orontes) of the Eruanduni (Orontid) Dynasty ca. 200 B.C.E. (Moses of Khorene, 2.39; tr. Thomson, pp. 181-82), Eruandašat remained the capital of Armenia until the royal residence was moved to the new center of Artašat (Artaxata, q.v.) by its founder King Artašēs (Artaxias, ca. 189-61 B.C.E., q.v.) and Eruandašat was briefly renamed Marmēt or Artamet. ... (Arzenjān; Armenian Erēz; modern Turkish Erzincan), a town in northeastern Anatolia (lat 39° 45′N, long 39° 30′E). See ARZENJĀN. Osman G. Özgüdenli and Mustafa Uyar (b. Hasan Halik, 2 February 1923; d. Istanbul, 5 June 1990), Turkish historian who carried out major research on Persian manuscripts, historical texts, and enšā (q.v.) literature. He was born in the village of Hasan Halik, near the town of Fatih in Istanbul. His real name was Hasan Adnan. His father was Sadık Bey, an imam at the Mosque of Hagia Sophia (Aya Sofya) in Istanbul. His mother was Ulviye Hanım. He attended Kabataş Erkek Lisesi High School until 1943 and then enrolled in the Department of History of the Faculty of Literature at the University of Istanbul. ... (known in ancient times as Karen and Karnoy K’ałak’; the Byzantine Theodosiopolis; Ar. Qālīqalā and Arzan al-Rūm; Pers. Arz-e Rūm), a town in eastern Anatolia (lat 39° 50′N, long 41° 20′E); see SUPPLEMENT. Tahsın Yazici , MEHMED (Moḥammad Asʿad Dada), Turkish author and Sufi poet of the Mawlawī order (b. in Salonika, 1257/1841; d. in Istanbul, 13 Šaʿbān 1329/9 August 1911). He received his primary education in Salonika. In 1280/1863 he went to Istanbul, where he received a good traditional education and attached himself to ʿOṯmān Ṣalāḥ-al-Dīn Dede, the shaikh of the Mawlawī lodge at Yenikapi. He studied Rūmī’s Maṯnawī and Ebn al-ʿArabī’s Foṣūṣ al-ḥekam under him and obtained the license (ejāza, q.v.) to teach these books. ... Tahsın Yazici , MEHMED (Moḥammad Asʿad Efendi; b. Istanbul, 10 Moḥarram 978/14 June 1570, d. Istanbul, 14 Šaʿbān 1034/21 June 1625), Ottoman religious figure and author of both Persian and Turkish poetry. He was the second son of the famous historian Saʿd-al-Dīn Efendi (d. 1008/1599), who came from a Persian family. After completing his elementary education with his father, Esʿad Efendi studied with the well-known scholar Mollā Tawfīq Gīlānī and then taught in various madrasas in Istanbul before embarking on a judicial career. ... Peter Jackson (fl. 751/1350), Indo-Muslim poet writing in Persian. Since he gives his age as forty when he composed his Fotūḥ al-salāṭīn (p. 616), he must have been born around 711/1311-12. He tells us nothing about his father. No other source corroborates his claim that an ancestor, Faḵr-al-Molk ʿEṣāmī, had been vizier at Baghdad and had arrived at Delhi during the reign of Šams-al-Dīn Eltotmeš (607-33/1211-36; q.v.), who had entrusted him with the vizierate. ... M. E. Marmura a late work of Avicenna (q.v.; Ebn Sīnā, d. 428/1037), written sometime between 421/1030 and 425/1034, which sums up his thought in a language that is often deeply personal and expressive. A relatively short book, it is a philosophical and literary classic that exerted immense influence on subsequent Islamic thought. Stephen Lambden the branch of theology concerned with final things, i.e., the advent of the savior to defeat evil and the end of the world. i. In Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian Influence. ii. Manichean Eschatology. iii. Imami Shiʿism. iv. In Babism and Bahaism. Faith in the events beyond life on this earth is attested in the Zoroastrian scriptures from the very first, from the Gāθās. This faith developed and became central to later Zoroastrianism so that it colors almost all aspects of the religious life. It also seems to have had a deep impact on neighboring religions, notably on Judaism, and through it on Christianity and Islam, as well as on Manicheism. ... See ISFAHAN. See BAYĀT-E EṢFAHĀN. David Pingree (?) b. Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan, author of the Ketāb al-bolhān on astrology, magic, divination, and demonology, which he composed around 1400 for Ḥosayn b. Aḥmad b. Moḥammad Erbelī. His autograph copy containing numerous fascinating illustrations is preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Martin McDermott ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH b. Moḥammad b. Jaʿfar b. Ḥayyān ḤĀFEẒ ANṢĀRĪ (274-369/887-979), traditionist and Koran commentator, important principally for his Ṭabaqāt al-moḥaddeṯīn. Probably he received the laqab Abu’l-Šayḵ because of the great age (95 or 96) to which he lived. See SEPAHSĀLĀR. Mahmoud Omidsalar (sepand, sepanj, espanj < Proto-Ir. *svanta; Ar. háarmal, Lat. Peganum harmala; wild rue), a common weed found in Persia, Central Asia, and the adjacent areas. Two varieties of the plant are mentioned in the early medical texts, the white rue and the more potent black rue. The plant is considered to be hot by nature, and can be used as a diuretic, a vomitive, and an agent to facilitate menstruation in cases of amenorrhea. Although the most important use of esfand in Persia involves magical practices, its various parts were used in cures for a variety of ailments. ... Ehsan Yarshater son of Goštāsp (Av. Vīštāspa-, Mid. Pers. Wištāsp; see GOŠTĀSP), Kayanian prince of Iranian legendary history and hero of Zoroastrian holy wars, best known for his tragic combat with Rostam, the mightiest warrior of Iranian national epic. Esfandīār’s name in Avestan is Spəntōδāta- (Yt. 13.103, Vištāsp yašt 25; cf. Av. adj. spəntō-dāta- “created/given by the holy,”). ... Ehsan Yarshater one of the seven great clans of Parthian and Sasanian times. Ṭabarī attributed the establishment of these clans to the Kayanian king Goštāsp (q.v.) and applied the epithet al-fahlavī (Parthian) to three of them: Kāren with its seat in Māh Nehāvand, Sūrēn in Seistan, and Esfandīār in Ray. The last traced its lineage to Esfandīār (q.v.) son of Goštāsp. Nöldeke suggested that, as Ṭabarī did not name Mehrān, one of the seven, with its seat in Ray, it could be identical with Esfandīār. ... G. R. Garthwaite , ṢAMṢĀM-AL-SALṬANA, SARDĀR(-E) ASʿAD (b. mid-19th century, possibly in 1260/1844; d. 1320/1902), important leader of the Baḵtīārī tribe (q.v.) in southwestern Persia and grandfather of Queen Ṯorayyā. Bāqer ʿĀqelī (b. 18 Ḏu’l-ḥejja 1283/23 April 1867; d. 5 Esfand 1323 Š./24 February 1945), politician, governor, and speaker of the Majles. His grandfather, Mīrzā ʿAbd-Allāh Nūrī, was the private secretary of ʿAbbās Mīrzā and his father, Mīrzā Moḥammad Ṣadīq-al-Molk, was a ranking officer at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs under Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah. After receiving traditional education, Esfandīārī attended the Dār-al-fonūn (q.v.). ... Habib Borjian a district in the Fergana (Farḡāna, q.v.) valley south of the Jaxartes which extends to the foothills of the Turkestan (Bottamān) range. The city of the same name in Tajikistan (lat 40° 1′N, long 70° 4′E) stands 107 km east of Ḵojand on the Esfara river, which is used extensively for irrigation. C. Edmund Bosworth or ESFARĀʾĪN (Ḥodūd al-ʿālam, tr. Minorsky, pp. 64, 102, has “*Siparāyin” [Sabarāyen], possibly influenced by a popular etymology given, e.g. by Yāqūt, Boldān (Beirut), I, p. 177 “shield bearers”), a district, and in pre-modern Islamic times, a town, of northwestern Khorasan. It lay on the northern edge of the long plain stretching from Gorgān and modern Šāhrūd in the west almost to Nīšāpūr in the east, through which runs the river now known as the Rūd-e Esfarāyen; the whole valley was an important corridor for communications between the Caspian lands and northern Persia and Khorasan. ... b. Esmāʿīl. See ASFEZĀRĪ, ABŪ ḤĀTEM MOẒAFFAR b. Esmāʿīl. MARIA E. Subtelny MOḤAMMAD ZAMČĪ (or Zamačī) Heravī (ca. 850-915/1446-1510; for his nesba see Storey-Bregel, p. 1045), calligrapher specializing in the taʿlīq script (see CALLIGRAPHY), minor poet (pen name Nāmī), and master of the epistolary art (see CORRESPONDENCE), who flourished in Herat during the reign of the Timurid Solṭān-Ḥosayn Bāyqarā. He originated from a family settled in Esfezār (i.e., Sabzavār), but unlike most of its residents, was not a Shiʿite. ... See ASFĪJĀB. Mohsen Zakeri (or Ṭalīq), the secretary responsible for translating the financial dīvāns of Khorasan into Arabic in 124/741-42. Next to nothing is known about him. He was a man (mawlā?) of the Banū Nahšal, a sub-tribe of the Banū Tamīm in Khorasan. Although the change of the land records from Pahlavi into Arabic had started in Iraq in about 78/697, they had remained in Pahlavi in eastern provinces, where most of the scribes were Zoroastrians. ... Kambiz Eslami (ca. 1156-1231/1743-1816), one of the wealthiest and most powerful chieftains in Khorasan during the reigns of Āḡā Moḥammad Khan and Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qājār. The son of a shepherd, he initially served under Najafqolī Khan Tātār, the chief of the Qarā Tātār tribe. He eventually succeeded the chief when his efforts to incite rebellion in the tribe bore fruit and the chief was killed by his own men. Soon afterwards, Esḥāq Khan managed to transform Torbat-e Ḥaydarīya into a prosperous and safe district, while also making a fortune through farming, leasing camels to merchants, and developing an export/import trade. ... Everett K. Rowson prominent musician at the ʿAbbasid court in Baghdad (b. 150/767-68; d. 235/850) and the successor of his equally famous father Ebrāhīm Mawṣelī (d. 188/803-4, q.v.) as leader of the conservative school of musicians of the time. He was born in 150/767-68 in Ray, where his father, who was pursuing his musical training, had met and married his mother Šāhak (Aḡānī V, pp. 3, 50). Soon thereafter Ebrāhīm was summoned to the caliphal court, and Esḥāq grew up among the cultured elite of Baghdad, acquiring a superb education from leading literary figures. ... ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Zarrīnkūb propagandist sent by Abū Moslem Ḵorāsānī (q.v.), governor of Khorasan and leading figure in the ʿAbbasid revolution, to the Turkish people of Transoxania. He had Zoroastrian or Ḵorramdīnī inclinations (see BĀBAK ḴORRAMĪ) and, after the caliph al-Manṣūr had Abū Moslem murdered in 137/755, preached that Abū Moslem had been an apostle of Zoroaster and remained alive in the mountains of Ray, whence he would return. ... See ḠOLĀT. Daniel Balland (sometimes shortened as Sāqzī, Sākzī, or even Sāgzī; sg. Esḥāqzay), an important Pashtun tribe of Afghanistan, member of the Panjpāy section of the Dorrānī confederation. It was the Afghan tribe with the largest pastoralist nomadic component in 1357 Š./1978: 10,600 families, i.e., nearly 60,000 persons or 7.5 percent of the total estimated nomadic population of Afghanistan, out of which only 1,941 (18%) were semi–nomadic. ... Roger M. Savory (or Īšīk-āqāsī-bāšī), the title of two officials in the Safavid central administration, namely ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī-e dīvān, and ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī-e ḥaram. The jurisdiction of the latter, as his title implies, lay only within the harem, and he was of less importance than the former and subordinate to him. Their respective annual salaries indicate their relative importance; the ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī-e dīvān received 2,675 tomans and 1,503 dinars, plus a regular subvention (moqarrarī) of 975 tomans and 1,503 dinars, in addition to a sum of 1,700 tomans for the expense of the 150 retainers who accompanied him on journeys; by contrast, the salary of the ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī-e ḥaram was 300 tomans. ... J. T. P. de Bruijn Persian poet, mentioned among the court poets of Ḡazna (Čahār maqāla, ed. Qazvīnī, text, p. 44). Contemporary information about his life is provided by Bayhaqī (q.v.), who met him for the first time in 451/1059 when the latter was still a young man. Abū Ḥanīfa, to whom Bayhaqī gives the titles ostād and faqīh, had already achieved a reputation as a religious scholar and a man of letters. Impressed by his talent as a panegyrist, the historian asked him to write qaṣīdas for his Tārīḵ-e masʿūdī, four of which are contained in the extant parts of the chronicle. ... Josef van Ess b. ʿAbd-Allāh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the 9th century (d. 240/854). His family originated from Samarkand, but had moved to Eskāf Banī Jonayd in Iraq (between Baghdad and Wāseṭ), hence his nesba. He was born into a milieu of poor craftsmen, and it was apparently only thanks to the Muʿtazilite Jaʿfar b. Ḥarb (died 236/850) that he could study theology in Baghdad. But he managed to win the attention of the caliph al-Moʿtaṣem (218-27/833-42), who seems to have thought of using his talents as a preacher and missionary against the so-called Nābeta. ... See ALEXANDER THE GREAT. See ʿABD-ALLĀH KHAN B. ESKANDAR. See QĀBŪS B. VOŠMGĪR. Roger M. Savory author of Tārīḵ-e ʿālamārā-ye ʿabbāsī (q.v.), a history of the reign of Shah ʿAbbās I. Internal evidence indicates that Eskandar Beg was born in 968/1560 or 969/1561: He was twenty-six years old when he fought on the side of Ḥamza Mīrzā at the battle of Ṣāʾen Qalʿa (spring of 994/1586) and seventy years old in 1038/1628-29 when he completed his history. ... See ALEXANDER, PRINCE. Priscilla Soucek b. ʿOmar Šayḵ b. Tīmūr (786-818/1384-1415), Timurid prince who ruled a succession of cities in western Persia between 805/1403 and 817/1415 but is remembered mostly for his cultural patronage. Born at Ūzgand in Farḡāna on 3 Rabīʿ I 786/25 April 1384, he was the second of four sons of ʿOmar Šayḵ b. Tīmūr (754-96/1354-94), and Malekat Āḡā (767-844/1365-1440), daughter of the Chaghatay Khan, Ḵeżr Ḵᵛāja Oḡlān. ... William L. Hanaway the adventure tale about Alexander the Great known generically as the Alexander romance. It exists in many versions in Persian, popular and courtly, and in prose and poetry. It is based, not on historical sources, but ultimately on an account of the life and deeds of Alexander the Great written in Greek. The tale probably took shape in Alexandria between the 3rd century B.C.E. and the 3rd century C.E. Later it was ascribed to Callisthenes (q.v.) and when this ascription was shown to be incorrect, the author came to be called Pseudo-Callisthenes. ... François de Blois the poetical version of the life of Alexander by the great 12th century narrative poet Neẓāmī Ganjavī (535-605/1141-1209). It consists of two formally independent works, both in rhymed couplets and in the motaqāreb meter (see ʿARŪŻ) of the Šāh-nāma. The first part is generally known as Šaraf-nāma, the second as Eqbāl-nāma or Ḵerad-nāma, but there is no strong evidence that the author used these names to distinguish the two parts, and in quite a few manuscripts the name Šaraf-nāma is in fact applied to the second of the two poems. ... Cosroe Chaqueri (b. Tehran, 1907, d. Leipzig, 10 Ordībehešt 1372 Š./30 April 1985), prominent leader of the Tudeh Party (q.v.; see also COMMUNISM ii-iii). Raised in a family that was active in politics and strongly supported constitutional government, he was politicized from an early age. His father, Mīrzā Yaḥyā, a leading progressive deputy in the first Majles, died while Īraj was still a child, and his uncle, the social democrat Solaymān Mīrzā Eskandarī (q.v.). ... Mehrangīz Dawlatšāhī a pioneer advocate of women’s rights in Persia (1274-1303 Š./1895-1925) and the founder and leader of the first women’s association in Persia, namely Jamʿīyat-e taraqqī-e neswān, later Jamʿīyat-e neswān-e waṭanḵᵛāh (Society of Patriotic Women). She was born into a liberal family, whose members were actively involved in politics. Her father, Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā Khan Qajar, known as Šāzda ʿAlī Khan, who taught at Dār al-fonūn (q.v.). ... Cosroe Chaqueri (MOḤSEN) MĪRZĀ, constitutionalist, civil servant, statesman, and socialist leader (b. ca. 1254 Š./1875, d. 1322 Š./1944). Born to a Qajar family Solaymān Mīrzā came into prominence after his brother Yaḥyā Mīrzā died of wounds suffered during the bombardment of the Majles by Moḥammad- ʿAlī Shah in June 1908 (Hoare, p. 141; see CONSTITUTION ii). Up until then he had worked as a civil servant in the Police Department and Customs Office and as a journalist. ... See ALEXANDRIA. C. Edmund Bosworth (called Sekāšem, Sekīmešt, and Eskīmešt by early geographers), a settlement in medieval Badaḵšān in northeastern Afghanistan (q.v.), now in the modern Afghan province of Eškāšem (lat 36° 43′N., long 71° 34′E.; not to be confused with Eškameš, further to the west in the Qondoz or Qaṭaḡan district of Badaḵšān). It is situated on the left bank of the upper Oxus and is connected to the provincial capital Fayżābād by a road across the Sardāb Pass; when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, the Russians built a bridge there over the Oxus in the early 1980s in order to transport troops and matériel. ... I. M. Steblin-Kamensky (Ishkashmi), one of the so-called “Pamir group” of the Eastern Iranian languages (q.v.). It is spoken in a few villages of the region of Eškāšem straddling the upper reaches of the Panj, where the river makes a ninety-degree turn from west to north (the “Oxus bend”). On the right bank Eškāšmī is spoken by about one thousand people, mainly in the village Ryn (Ran in Wāḵī) in the former Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast of Tajikistan. ... Ali Shargi (bank note, paper currency). The word eskenās (bank note) most probably entered Persian in the early 19th century during the reign of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qajar (< Russian assignatsiya < French assignat). Some form of paper money existed in Persia well before the 19th century, as far back as the Il-khanids’ čāv (q.v.). In the mid-19th century, a kind of I.O.U. called “bījak” widely circulated among the merchants. It was a money instrument for a given amount payable on demand, duly signed and certified, issued by reputable commercial houses (see, e.g., ETTEHĀDĪYA, ŠERKAT-E). Meanwhile, merchants came to know the Russian and Ottoman bank notes in the north and the Indian rupees in the south. The history of bank notes proper falls into three periods in terms of the agency responsible for issuing it. ... Nassereddin Parvin title of six Persian-language newspapers, three of which deserve notice. See LAND REFORM. See ISLAM. Nassereddin Parvin title of two Persian newspapers first appearing in Tabrīz in 1324/1906. See NAMES; ALQĀB WA ʿANĀWĪN. See CENTRAL ASIA. (ISHMAEL). See EBRĀHĪM. See ṢĀḤEB b. ʿABBĀD. Farhad Daftary , Abū Moḥammad, the sixth Imam and the eponym of the Ismaʿilis. He also carried the epithet of Mobārak, “the blessed” (Sejestānī, p. 190; Edrīs, Zahr, p. 199; Ivanow, 1946, pp. 108-12), on the basis of which one of the earliest Ismaʿili groups became designated as the Mobārakīya. Esmāʿīl was the eldest son of Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq by his first wife Fāṭema. ... (d. 395/1004), last Samanid amir. After the Qarakhanids occupied Bokhara in 389/999, he led several attempts to expel them from Transoxania. See SAMANIDS. See MAJD-AL-DĪN ESMĀʿĪL. C. Edmund Bosworth Ghaznavid prince and briefly amir in Ḡazna in 387-88/997-98. Esmāʿīl was one of Seboktegīn’s younger sons by a daughter of his old master Alptegīn. Seboktegīn had appointed him as his successor in Ḡazna and Balḵ, so that on his death in Šaʿbān 387/August 997, Esmāʿīl was able immediately to assume power there as the vassal of the Samanid amir, Manṣūr b. Nūḥ, and of the then deposed ʿAbbasid caliph, al-Ṭāʾeʿ. ... Kevin Lacey a poet of Persian origin from Medina (d. before 132/750). He was the decendant of a Persian prisoner of war from Azerbaijan and lived in Medina, where he had been born, as a client (mawlā) of Taym b. Morra. The nesba Nesāʾī is said to derive from Arabic nesāʾ (woman) and refer to his father’s occupation, which is said to have been preparing meals or selling carpets for weddings; but this is questionable (Pellat, p. 189; Sezgin, GAS II, pp. 429-30). He supported the Zubayrid’s cause. ... Tahsin Yazıcı (or Oskodārī) b. MOṢṬAFĀ, Shaikh Abu’l-Fedāʾ; Turkish scholar, theologian, and mystic (b. Aydos near Edirne, 1063/1652; d. Bursa, 11137/1725). His two nesbas refer to his long stays in Bursa and Uskodār. At the age of eleven he was sent to Edirne, where he received traditional education under the guidance of the scholar ʿAbd-al-Bāqī. In 1084/1673 he went to Istanbul to continue his studies with Shaikh ʿOṯmān Fażlī, the head of the Jelwatīya Sufi order, which he eventually joined. ... Roger M. Savory, Ahmet T. Karamustafa , SHAH ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR b. Shaikh Ḥaydar b. Shaikh Jonayd, founder of the Safavid dynasty (b. 25 Rajab 892/17 July 1487 in Ardabīl d. 19 Rajab 930/23 May 1524 near Tabrīz). i. Biography. ii. His Poetry. The reign of Esmāʿīl is one of the most important in the history of Persia. Firstly, prior to his accession in 907/1501, Persia, since its conquest by the Arabs eight-and-a-half centuries earlier, had not existed as a separate entity but had been ruled by a succession of Arab caliphs, Turkish sultans, and Mongol khans. During the whole of this period, only under the Buyids (q.v.) did a substantial part of Persia come under Persian rule (334-447/945-1055). Secondly, one of his first acts, the promulgation of the Eṯnā-ʿašarī rite of Shiʿism to be the official religion of the newly-created state, had profound consequences for the subsequent history of Persia. ... See Supplement. John R. Perry , ABŪ TORĀB, Safavid shadow-king, (1163-87/1750-73), the third Safavid dynast of that name, even though the chroniclers generally refer to him as Esmāʿīl the second (ṯānī). His father was Mīrzā Mortażā, a former court official, and his mother was a daughter of Shah Solṭān-Ḥosayn. When ʿAlī-Mardān Khan Baḵtīārī and Karīm Khan Zand occupied Isfahan in the summer of 1163/1750, they raised Abū Torāb to the throne as a sop to pro-Safavid sentiment and as a front to legitimize their rule. ... See ALTUNTĀŠ, ḴᵛĀRAZMŠĀH. , ṢAWLAT-AL-DAWLA, SARDĀR-E ʿAŠĀYER. See ṢAWLAT-AL-DAWLA. (SEMĪTQŪ). See ṢĪMQO. C. Edmund Bosworth full name: Abu; Ebrāhīb Esmāʿīl b. Aḥmad b. Asad Sāmānī (b. 234/849, d. Ṣafar 295/November 907), the first member of the Samanid dynasty to rule over all Transoxania and Farḡāna. He served almost two decades (260-79/874-92) as governor of Bukhara (q.v. ii) on behalf of his brother Naṣr, ʿAbbasid governor of Transoxania, who resided at Samarqand. In Khorasan and Transoxania this period was one of strife among various adventurers seeking power following the fall of the Taherid governors of Nīšāpūr. ... Moḥammad-Taqī Masʿūdīya teacher and master player of the kamānča (d. 1320 Š./1941). Ḥosayn Khan was the son of Esmāʿīl Khan, also a master of the kamānča; he learned the instrument from his uncle, Qolī Khan. Esmāʿīlzāda began as a member of a group of entertainers in Tehran but later abandoned the profession to participate in the concerts of the Anjoman-e Oḵowwat (q.v.), a mystical society founded during the Constitutional era by Ṣafā-Alī Ẓahīr-al-Dawla, that included prominent reformist officials, instrumentalists, singers, and mystics. ... See ČAHĀRDAH MAʿṢŪM. Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā full name: Ḵᵛāja ʿEṢMAT-ALLĀH b. Masʿūd Boḵārī (d. 840/1436), poet and scholar of the early Timurid period, known also for his expertise in mathematics, history, prosody, riddles, and mastery of enšāʾ. His lineage is traced back to Jaʿfar b. Abī Ṭāleb. In his poetry he occasionally refers to his Shiʿite affiliation. He was born into a family of notables of Bukhara, where he was raised and received the customary education of his time. Toward the end of his life his house in Bukhara was frequented by poets and savants, including Basāṭī Samarqandī. ... See BĀṬENĪYA, ḠOLĀT, ISMAʿILIS. See TSITSIANOV. See LOVE. See ḤOSN O RŪḤ. Munibur Rahman , Shaikh, 18th-19th century author writing in Persian and Urdu. He was born in Meerut, in present day Uttar Pradesh, and later moved to Delhi where he was employed by Nawwāb Najaf Khan (d. 1169/1782; Rieu, Pers. Man. II, p. 723), Amīr-al-Omarāʾ to Shah ʿĀlam II (d. 1221/1806). His father, Neʿmat-Allāh, whose pen name was Neʿamī, is said to have composed a dīvān of poetry in Persian. ʿEšq pursued his education under the direction of his father, who also helped him develop his poetical talent. ... See ASHKABAD. Munibur Rahman , SHAIKH MOḤAMMAD WAJĪH-AL-DĪN, 18th-19th century poet and writer in Persian and Urdu (d. after 1223/1808). He was a native of ʿAẓīmābād (Patna) in Behār, and lived for some time in Ḋhāka. He came from a learned family; his father, Shaikh Ḡolām-Ḥosayn, was a poet of Persian writing under the pen name Mojrem. ʿEšqī studied until his youth with his father. He learned the art of poetry from Shah Moḥammad Wafā, a pupil of the celebrated Indo-Persian poet ʿAbd-al-Qāder Bīdel (1054-1133/1644-1721, q.v.). ... Asifa Zamani Indo-Persian poet and author (b. 1070/1659-60; d. 10 Moḥarram 1142/5 August 1729). ʿEšqī’s lineage is traced to Imam ʿAlī and Fāṭema, the daughter of the Prophet, by thirteen generations. His father was Mīr Sayyed Oways (d. 1097/1686) and his grandfather was Mīr Sayyed Shah ʿAbd-al-Jalīl (972-1057/1564-1647), a noted Sufi of his time, whose tomb is located at Marhara. ʿEšqī’s dīvān includes 96 ḡazals, 7 tarjīʿ-bands, 16 robāʿīs, one qeṭʿa, and a maṯnawī entitled “Rīāż-e ʿešq. ... Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak (b. 12 Jomādā II 1312/11 December 1894; killed 12 Tīr 1303 Š./3 July 1923), poet and journalist of post-constitution era and an important contributor to the modernization of poetry in Persia. ʿEšqī was born in Hamadān, where he attended two European-style schools, Olfat and Ālīāns (Alliance), learning French as a part of the curriculum. He did not finish his education, probably due to family tensions. At about age fifteen he left Hamadān, ostensibly to continue his education in Tehran. ... Jirí Bečka b. Hedāyat-Allāh, Central Asian poet writing in Persian. Born into a farmer’s family in 1792 in Vārū-ye Panjakent, he attended maktab in his native village and later studied in Bukhara and Samarkand. Returning to his village, he made his living as a farmer. He sometimes supplied wood to craftsmen manufacturing spindles and rolling-pins in Samarkand and Urgut. He died in his native village in 1863. Frequent themes of his poetry are spring, nature, flowers, and love as well as complaints about fate and the difficulties of life in the mountains. ... Vahid Rafati , ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD (b. Mašhad 1320/1902, d. Tehran 15 Mordād 1351 Š./6 August 1972) Bahai scholar, teacher, and author. He received a traditional Islamic clerical education and studied literature, the religious sciences, and philosophy under Adīb Nīšāpūrī (q.v.), a well-known poet and man of letters. He studied in Qom and Isfahan before settling in Malāyer, where he became a preacher and school teacher. His conversion to the Bahai faith in 1345/1927 cost him his teaching job and forced him to leave Malāyer. ... See ILLUMINATIONISM. See BĪSTGĀNĪ. Mīnū Yūsof-nežād (also Eṣṭahbānāt, or Eṣṭahbānān; colloquial Sābūnāt), town and district in Fārs, bordered in the north by the Baḵtagān lake, in the northeast and the east by Neyrīz/Nīrīz, in the south by Dārāb, in the southwest by Fasā, and in the west by Shiraz (qq.v.) The name was officially changed from Eṣṭahbānāt to Estahbān in 1972. In 1991 the district had a population of 62,541, of which 49.2 percent lived in urban areas. ... A. D. H. Bivar, Mary Boyce (ESTAḴR, STAḴR), city and district in ancient Persia (Fārs). i. History and Archaeology. ii. As a Zoroastrian Religious Center. Eṣṭaḵr is situated in the narrow valley of the Polvār River, between the north flank of the Kūh-e Raḥmat and the cliffs of Naqš-e Rostam. It stands near the point where the valley opens into the broad plain of Marvdašt (q.v.), extending before the Persepolis platform. In origin, Eṣṭaḵr was presumably a suburb of the urban settlement once surrounding the Achaemenid royal residences, but of which few traces now survive. After the death of Seleucus I (280 B.C.), when the province began to re-assert its independence, its center seems to have developed at Eṣṭaḵr, better protected than the old capital by the surrounding hills, and astride the critical “winter road” from Fārs to Isfahan via Pasargadae and Ābāda. ... Nassereddin Parvin a newspaper published in Shiraz once a week from Asad 1297 Š./August 1918 until 1311 Š. /1932 (not 1306 Š. as mentioned in some sources) and again twice a week from 1321 Š./1942 until Esfand 1341 Š/1962. Its content dealt with the news of current events, particularly those of Fārs, and social and cultural issues. ... O. G. Bolshakov b. Moḥammad Fāresī Karḵī, 10th century Muslim traveler and geographer and founder of the genre of masālek (lit. “itineraries”) literature. Biographical data are very meager. From his nesbas (attributive names) he appears to have been a native of Eṣṭaḵr in Fārs, but it is not known whether he was Persian; he must also have lived for some time in the Karḵ quarter of western Baghdad. ... Jeanette Wakin b. Aḥmad b. Yazīd, Shafiʿite jurisconsult and author (b. 244/858, d. in Baghdad, 328/939). He is usually described as the judge of Qom, but he also became the judge of Sejestān (some of his judicial decisions made there are known) at the invitation of the caliph al-Moqtader (295-320 /908-932). In addition, Eṣṭaḵrī held the important post of moḥtaseb, or supervisor of the market, in Baghdad, and although the chronology of his life is not reported in the sources, it would appear from the accounts of his exchanges of views with contemporaries in Baghdad that he spent much of his professional life in the capital. ... Daniel Balland large Persian-speaking village of the Kōhdāman, 55 km north of Kabul, built on a foothill of the Paḡmān range of the Hindu Kush between 1,875 and 1,950 m above sea-level. It has been suggested that the name of the village derives (with metathesis) from Greek staphilǰ (bunch of grapes) and would therefore testify to local Hellenistic influences (Morgenstierne). Although vine-growing is old and widespread in this area, an alternative and possibly better etymology could be Parāčī estuf (cow-parsnip, Heracleum spondylum), a spontaneous forage-plant very common at lower elevations in the Hindu Kush. ... Julie S. Meisami (< Ar. estaʿāra, to borrow), the general term for metaphor. Rhetorical manuals customarily define esteʿāra as “borrowing” a word, expression or concept to apply it in other than its literal (ḥaqīqī) sense. See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION; MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ SHAH. See ṬŪSĪ, ABŪ JAʿFAR. Mīnū Yūsof-nežād a town and district (baḵš) in the province of Tehran. The town is 63 km to the southwest of Karaj. The district, crossed by the Tehran-Hamadān and Tehran-Zanjān highways, borders in the north on the central district of Sāvojbolāḡ, in the east on the rural district (dehestān) of Moḥammadābād, in the south on the central district of Šahrīār, and in the west on the Būʾīn Zahrā district of Qazvīn. ... Gernot L. Windfuhr the easternmost of the nine Southern Tati (Tātī) dialects, described by Ehsan Yarshater (1962, 1963, 1969a, 1969b, 1970; cf. also Zhukovskiĭ, some 158 glosses, passim; Sotūda; LeCoq, passim), with which it shares most phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical features. As a group the Southern Tati dialects are part of a band of dialects extending from the Aras River to central Persia (see CENTRAL DIALECTS) and farther east, where much has disappeared in the sprawl of Tehran (see AFTARĪ). ... See DIVINATION. Nassereddin Parvin newspaper published by the constitutionalists who had taken refuge in the Ottoman consulate in Tabrīz during the Russian occupation of the city in 1327/1909. Fifty-four issues were published from 23 Jomādā I 1327 to 16 Jomādā I 1328/12 June 1909-26 May 1910. It was originally a weekly, but after the seventh issue it appeared three times a week. It was produced at first by a committee chosen from among the refugees: Moḥammad-Reżā Šīrāzī, the publisher of Mosāwāt; Mīṟza Aḥmad Qazvīnī; and Mīrzā Āqā Bolūrī, the publisher of Nāla-ye mellat. ... Nassereddin Parvin an evening daily published in Tehran from 22 Jomādā I 1328 to 22 Šaʿbān 1329 (31 May 1910-17 August 1911), the last issue being 2/59. It was the organ of the small Unity and Progress party (Ḥezb-e ettefāq o taraqqī) and was published by the party’s leader, the well-known constitutionalist Zayn-al-ʿĀbedīn Mostaʿān-al-Molk (though in the newspaper itself the publisher is identified as “Šerkat-e esteqlāl-e Īrān”). ... Amnon Netzer a Jewish shrine in the city of Hamadān, where, according to Judeo-Persian tradition, Esther and Mordechai are buried. This tradition is not supported by the Jews outside of Persia and does not appear in either Babylonian or Jerusalemite Talmuds. The earliest Jewish source on the tombs is Benjamin of Tudela, who visited Hamadān in the year 1067. According to him, there were 50,000 Jews living in Hamadān, where Esther and Mordechai were buried in front of a synagogue. Šāhīn, the earliest Judeo-Persian source on this tradition, describes the dreams of Esther and Mordechai and their departure to Hamadān, where they died inside the synagogue, first Mordechai, and then Esther, an hour later. ... Shaul Shaked a short book of the Old Testament, written in Hebrew. It recounts events supposed to have taken place in the court of an Achaemenian king, called in the Hebrew text Aḥašweroš (the usual English form is Ahasuerus, q.v.), a name which has been plausibly interpreted as a transcription of the name Xšayārša (=Xerxes). The date of composition of the book is unknown, but most scholars tend towards a date not much after the fall of the Achaemenid kingdom, during the Parthian era, perhaps in the third or second century B.C.E. ... See ASTARĀBĀD. See EJTEMĀʿĪYŪN. (lit. “Confidant of the State”), an important title given to people in the administration favored by the court. Under the Safavids it was a title of the prime minister, and under the Qajars it was the highest administrative (dīvānī) title. See below and ALQĀB VA ʿANĀWĪN; see also SAFAVIDS. Abbas Amanat (originally Naṣr-Allāh) NŪRĪ, MĪRZĀ (1222-81/1807-65), prime minister (ṣadr-e aʿẓam) of Persia under Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qajar (1268-75/1851-58). See EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR. See GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD BEG TEHRĀNĪ. Abbas Amanat also known by his earlier title, ṢANĪʿ-AL-DAWLA, Qajar statesman, scholar, and author (1259-1313/1843-96). Heshmat Moayyad , EʿTEṢĀM-AL-MOLK (b. Tabrīz, 1291/1874; d. Tehran, 12 Dey 1316 Š./2 January 1938), Persian writer and journalist. His father, Mīrzā Ebrāhīm Khan Mostawfī Eʿteṣām-al-Molk, like many secretaries and accountants in the Qajar administration, came from Āštīān; he was appointed financial controller (mostawfī) of Azerbaijan and remained in Tabrīz until his death. Heshmat Moayyad 20th century female poet (b. 25 Esfand 1285 Š./16 March 1907 in Tabrīz, d. 16 Farvardīn 1320 Š./5 April 1941 in Tehran), daughter of the journalist and man of letters Yūsof Eʿteṣāmī (q.v.). According to Dehḵodā (Loḡat-nāma, s.v. “Parvīn”), her given name was Raḵšanda. Early in her life the family moved to Tehran, where, in addition to formal schooling, she received solid training in Arabic and classical Persian literature from her father. ... See SOLAYMĀN KHAN QĀJĀR QOVĀNLŪ. Abbas Amanat first minister of sciences (ʿolūm, meaning education) of the Qajar period and a scholar (b. 23 Rabīʿ I 1238/7 December 1822; d. 10 Moharram 1298/14 December 1880). He was the forty-seventh son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah by Gol-pīrahan Ḵānom, an Armenian kanīz from Tbilisi (Eʿteżād-al-Salṭāna, Eksīr, p. 228). ... J. T. P. de Bruijn (b. Stralsund, Prussia, 13 February 1844, d. Bristol, England, 7 June 1917), German orientalist best known for his catalogues of Islamic manuscripts and his studies and German translations of Persian poetry. The son of a government surveyor, he went to the nearby University of Greifswald in 1862 to study classics and oriental philology. The next year he continued his oriental studies in Leipzig with Heinrich Fleischer, who edited several important Arabic texts in addition to writing works dealing with Persian, Hebrew, and Aramaic. ... C.-H. de Fouchıcour (aḵlāq, q.v.). For ten centuries authors writing in Persian have engaged their readers with moral and ethical questions. A body of practical moral doctrine was elaborated as part of the earliest development of Persian literature, at which time considerable reflection was devoted to topics ranging from morals to ethics, from the exhortation not to harm one’s fellow creature to the search for the meaning of life. Some modern scholars (e.g., Aḥmad Karīmī Ḥakkāk) have questioned whether or not there was a Persian ethics, in the sense that there was a Greek ethics. ... E. van Donzel RELATIONS WITH PERSIA i. Pre-Islamic period. ii. Islamic period. Ethiopia (OPers. Kuša-) was located on the western fringe of the Achaemenid Empire. The Ethiopians (OPers. Kušiyā; Gr. Aithí-opes “with [sun]burnt faces”) are named among the peoples of the Persian Empire (DNa 30, DSe 30, XPh 28) and are included at the end of Herodotus’ satrapy list (3.97, 2f.). ... Brian Spooner the basic field research method in anthropology. This article, which treats the corpus of ethnographic data, complements the article on anthropology (q.v.) which treats the history of ideas underlying the research. It is divided into four sections: (1) Introduction, which discusses the objectives and limitations of the ethnographic enterprise; (2) Guide to available material, which surveys the types of data that ethnography has produced in Iran; (3) Index of localities, communities, and topics described, and (4) Bibliography, which gives full references to available sources. ... Nancy H. Dupree (Pers. nazākat, ādāb-e moʿāšarat), defined as the observance of conventional decorum particularly among the elite, is itself part of the wider topic of adab (q.v.). i. Etiquette in the Sasanian Period. ii. Etiquette in Persia in the Islamic Period. iii. Etiquette in Afghanistan. The lack of sources drives us to use, alongside the few allusions found in the Pahlavi texts, early Arabic and Persian texts that contain materials probably derived directly or indirectly from Sasanian literature. It is, however, often impossible to make a clear distinction in post-Sasanian literature between genuine reports of Sasanian practices and fictionalized accounts of customs and norms which were projected back to the Sasanian era as an idealized golden age of fine ceremonies and perfect decorum. ... See SHIʿISM. See ʿAṬR. Nassereddin Parvin title of five Persian newspapers. Nassereddin Parvin “Islamic Solidarity,” a weekly government newspaper which began publication in Herat as of 1 Sonbola 1299 Š./24 August 1920; renamed Faryād in ʿAqrab 1301 Š./November 1922. After being suspended for a month and a half by the government of Ḥabīb-Allāh Khan (Bačča-ye Saqqā), it resumed publication under original name on 15 Ṯawr 1308 Š./5 May 1929, issue no. 7/20. It became a daily on 1 Mīzān 1322 Š. ... Nassereddin Parvin a daily newspaper published by the striking print-workers union in Tehran in 1328/1910, one of the first labor or socialist newspaper published in Persia. The masthead bore the motto “supporter of the workers” (ḥāmī-e kārgarān). Since no other newspapers were being published in the capital, it carried domestic and international news. The first two issues, the only ones preserved, were published on 18-19 Jomādā II/26-27 June 1910. Since the strike lasted fourteen days, it seems likely that there were additional issues. ... Nassereddin Parvin title of eleven Persian language newspapers. See KUČEK KHAN. Mansoureh Ettehadiyeh Nezam-Mafi an exchange company (ṣarrāfī) founded in Tabrīz in 1305/1887 (Jamālzāda, p. 98) by the brothers Ḥājī ʿAlī and Ḥājī Mahdī Kūzakanānī in partnership with two local money changers (ṣarrāfs), Sayed Mortażā and Ḥājī Loṭf-ʿAlī, and other Tabrīzī merchants. Traditionally, money changers provided loans to the government, dealt in bills of exchange (barāts), and speculated in foreign currencies. Šerkat-e Etteḥādīya conducted this kind of business on a larger scale than was possible for individual merchants. In 1315/1897 its operating capital amounted to 100,000 tomans (Ašraf, p. 76). It had representatives in cities all over the country, including Tehran, Tabrīz, Mašhad, and Shiraz, as well as in Herāt, Mecca, Medina, Najaf, Baghdad, London and Moscow. ... Nassereddin Parvin title of a Persian newspaper and a magazine. Nasserddin Parvin (lit. “information, knowledge”), the oldest running Tehran afternoon daily newspaper and the oldest running Persian daily in the world. It was first published on 19 Tīr 1305 Š./10 July 1926 as the organ of Markaz-e Eṭṭelāʿāt-e Īrān, the first Persian news agency, founded in Asad 1302 Š./August 1923 by five young Persian journalists. ... Priscilla P. Soucek (1906-79), a German-born and educated scholar specializing in the study of Islamic art. His career was largely in the United States, where he held both curatorial and professorial appointments. Although his interests and publications ranged from Spain to India, he made especially important contributions to the study of Iran’s artistic heritage, with a strong emphasis on the portable arts and on artistic and cultural links between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. Paul Bernard name of two Greco-Bactrian kings. (1) Eucratides I (r. 170-145 B.C.E.), one of the last and most powerful of the Greco-Bactrian kings. After taking Bactria (q.v.) from the Euthydemid Demetrius II (q.v.), he subjugated the Indo-Greek kingdoms south of the Hindu Kush and seized northwest India as far as the Jhelum from his rival, Menander (q.v.). Upon his return from one of his Indian campaigns, Eucratides was ignominiously assassinated by his own son (Heliocles I?). After his death, the Greco-Bactrian empire began to collapse. Already robbed of its western marches by Mithridates I of Parthia, Bactria lost its northern territories and its eastern frontier to nomad invaders. ... Nicholas Sims-Williams (MĀRAWGEN), legendary Christian saint traditionally credited with the introduction of Egyptian monasticism into Mesopotamia and Persia. Part of a Sogdian version of his legend, translated from the Syriac, has been identified by Sundermann (pp. 263-64) in a group of unpublished fragments preserved in the Turfan collection of the Berlin-Brandenburgische Academie der Wissenschaften, the largest of which (bearing the signatures C6 and T ii B 6c) was previously inaccurately characterized by Hansen (p. 96) as belonging to the martyrdom of Bishop Miles. ... See KARḴA. Monsutti castrated males who were in charge of the concubines of royal harems, served in the daily life of the court, and sometimes carried out administrative functions. i. The Achaemenid period. ii. The Sasanian period. iii. The Early Islamic period. iv. The Safavid period. v. The Qajar period. According to Herodotus (8.105), the Persians, like other Oriental peoples, valued eunuchs highly for their trustworthiness. Ctesias and Xenophon date the appearance of eunuchs in Persia to the time of Cyrus the Great. It is possible that the Persians adopted the practice of castration from the Babylonians or Assyrians. According to Xenophon, Cyrus the Great included eunuchs among his guards (Cyropædia 7.5.60-64). The most influential eunuch under Cyrus was Petisakas, who was sent to bring the former Median ruler Astyages to the Persian king. ... Samuel N. C. Lieu together with the Tigris, (2,700 km in total length), historically and geographically constituting one of the most important river-systems in the Near East. Its significance to the history of Persia lies in it being one of the main trade and invasion routes between Persia and the Graeco-Roman world. Along its bank marched the Greek mercenaries who fought unsuccessfully for Cyrus (see CYRUS vi) in 401 B.C.E. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4-5). The Parthians created the province of Parapotamia with Dura Europos (q.v.). ... Rudi Matthee , PERSIAN IMAGE OF To Persians, as to other Muslim peoples, Europe was long synonymous with Christendom and was thus closely associated with Rūm, the realm of Byzantium or eastern Christianity. Prior to the Mongol era, information available to Persians about Europe beyond the Byzantine frontier was scanty and consisted largely of fixed and formulaic wisdom. Persian geographers, like their Arab colleagues, subscribed to a Ptolemaic world view, which divided the world into seven latitudinal zones (eqlīms “climes”) and three regions, Asia, Libya (Africa), and Europe. ... Philip Huyse (b. around 260 or shortly thereafter; d. 30 May 339 [or, less probably, 340]), Greek ecclesiastical historian and theologian. His parentage and exact place of birth are unknown; since no contemporary biography is extant, we are largely dependent on the evidence of his own writings for information on his life. Eusebius was imprisoned in 309 during the Diocletian persecution of Christians (303-313), after the end of which he became bishop of Caesarea in Palestine. At the Council of Nicaea (325) he played a prominent role at the right hand of the Emperor Constantine the Great, whose chief theological adviser he appears to have been; at the Council of Antioch (331) he deposed Eusthatius as one of the leaders of the Anti-Arian party. ... Nicholas Sims-Williams Christian martyrological text, of which versions survive in many languages, including Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Armenian. Several fragments of the manuscript C2 (preserved in Berlin, in the Turfan collection of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Orientabteilung, and in the Museum für Indische Kunst) have been identified by Schwartz and Sims-Williams as belonging to a Sogdian version of the legend, translated from the Syriac. The story is set in the Roman empire during the reigns of Trajan (98-117 C.E.). ... A. D. H. Bivar name of two Greek kings of Bactria. (1) Euthydemus I (ca. 230-200 B.C.E.), considered the real founder of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. When Antiochus III (q.v.) invaded Bactria in 208 B.C.E. as part of his attempt to reconquer the eastern satrapies, Euthydemus was defeated and was beseiged in Zariaspa-Bactra (Balḵ) until 206. In negotiations, he denied that he was a rebel against the Seleucids, saying he “had eliminated the descendants of rebels” (that is, the younger Diodotus). Then, threatening to withdraw his defences on the Jaxartes (Syr Daryā) and admit Scythian invaders, he obtained recognition from Antiochus after surrendering his elephants. Samuel N. C. Lieu Roman administrator and historian, probably from Bordeaux, who accompanied the emperor Julian the Apostate on his ill-fated Persian expedition in 363. He later rose to the rank of praefectus praetorio (Illyrici) under Gratian and Theodosius (380-81) and was consul (posterior) with Valentinian II in 387 despite the fact that he was almost certainly a pagan and remained so under the successors of Julian. Sidney H. Griffith and EIr of Alexandria (Saʿīd b. Beṭrīq), Christian physician and historian whose Annales (written in Arabic and called Ketāb al-tārīḵ al-majmūʿ ʿalā’l-taḥqīq wa’l-taṣdīq or Naẓm al-jawhar) is a rich repository of much otherwise unobtainable information about the history of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, especially in the periods of Persian occupation in the seventh century and in Islamic times up to the early tenth century. ... Kathryn Babayan (or Īv-ōḡlī), name of a family that served three Safavid kings (ʿAbbās I, Ṣafī, and ʿAbbās II) as ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī (q.v.) of the harem, for a period of twenty-seven years (1026-53/1617-43). They first appear at the court of ʿAbbās I in 1006/1598, shortly after the transfer of the capital from Qazvīn to Isfahan that allowed Shah ʿAbbās I to break the power of the qezelbāš. ... K. Allin Luther b. Abu’l-Qāsem (or Īv-ōḡlī), a court official of the later Safavid period. His father had done secretarial work in government service (Navāʾī, p. 24). Ḥaydar Beg was an ešīk-āqāsī (q.v.) under ʿAbbās I (996-1038/1588-1629), then doorkeeper (darbān ) of the royal harem under Ṣafī I (1038-52/1629-42), then was appointed ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī of the harem by the same ruler in 1046/1636-37. ... Nicholas Sims-Williams (346-399 C.E.), prolific author of Christian literature in Greek. After passing the first part of his career as a preacher in Constantinople, Evagrius took up abode in the Egyptian desert and became one of the most renowned of its many ascetics. Evagrius’ theoretical mysticism had a strong influence on Syrian as well as on Byzantine spirituality and most of his writings were translated into Syriac (see Frankenberg and Muyldermans). His Antirrheticus, a collection of scriptural quotations arranged in eight books corresponding to the “eight evil thoughts” which they are intended to counter, is one of several of his works of which the original text is lost. ... See PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. See ANGALYŪN, MĀNĪ, MANICHEISM. Etan Kohlberg wickedness, harm, ill fortune. i. In ancient Iranian religions. ii. In Shiʿism In the eminently dualistic Zoroastrian religion the need to defeat evil was emphasized, and it was not by chance that Ahriman (q.v.) was one of the prototypes of the enemy (see DUALISM). In the ancient Iranian religious world evil was a fact, a condition of existence, as is apparent not only in so-called “orthodox Zoro astrianism” but also in Zurvanism and the various mystery religions and gnostic tendencies connected with it, notably Mithraism and Manicheism. ... See ČAŠM-ZAḴM. See AKŌMAN. See Supplement. based on a longer article by ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn ZarrĪnkūb (takāmol, taḥawwol), a family of ideas embodying the belief that the physical universe and living organisms have developed in a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler to a higher, more complex state. A variety of mythological and speculative ideas of evolution appear in ancient Chinese, Indian, and Iranian cultures, in Greek philosophy, and in Islamic and Persian philosophy and mysticism. The Darwinian theory has been challenged, inter alia, by Christian and Muslim theologians believing in the creation theory of the universe. In the present article some of the mystical and philosophical ideas of evolution in Islamic and Persian thought and the dissemination of the modern theory of biological evolution in Persia will be discussed. ... See ĀʾĪN-NĀMA. Philippe Gignoux (master of manners; ʾdwynpty: KKZ 8, KNRm 25; cf. Gignoux, 1972, p. 15; also read āyēnbed), Pahlavi title attested from the 3rd century C.E. It was conferred by Bahrām II (274-93, q.v.) upon the magus Kirdēr (Gignoux, 1991, pp. 49, 69 n. 132) in connection with the charge of the fire temple of Anāhīd-Ardašīr and the lady Anāhīd at Eṣṭaḵr. As the title is rarely mentioned, the function it represented is difficult to define. ... David Stronach, Warwick Ball, B. A. LitvinskiĬ i. In Persia. ii. In Afghanistan. iii. In Central Asia. iv. In Chinese Turkestan. The role of the Persian government and its relevant agencies, that of certain early pioneers in the field, and the impact of the main scientific expeditions to have worked in Persia since the early l930s, will each be touched on in turn. In addition, periodic reference will be made to illicit digging, an activity which still remains, for all the efforts that have been made to address the problem, a source of signal concern. See JALLĀD. Philip G. Kreyenbroek, Todd Lawson (Ar. tafsīr), commentary on or interpretation of sacred texts. i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Shiʿism. iii. In Persian. iv. In Sufism: see Supplement. v. In Ismaʿili Shiʿism: see TAʾWĪL. vi. In Aḵbārī and Post-Safavid Esoteric Shiʿism: vii. In Bahaism. Zoroastrian exegesis consists basically of the interpretation of the Avesta (q.v.). However, the closest equivalent Iranian concept, zand, generally includes Pahlavi texts which were believed to derive from commentaries upon Avestan scripture, but whose extant form contains no Avestan passages. Zoroastrian exegesis differs from similar phenomena in many other religions in that it developed as part of a religious tradition which made little or no use of writing until well into the Sasanian era. This lengthy period of oral transmission has clearly helped to give the Middle Persian Zand its characteristic shape and has, in a sense, limited its scope. ... Isaiah M. Gafni (Hebrew resh galuta), the leading authority in the Jewish community in Babylonia. The Babylonian Talmud is the major source of information on the office up to the 6th century, supplemented by contemporary Palestinian sources, later medieval chronicles, and 9th-century Pahlavi texts (see, e.g., Markwart, Provincial Capitals, p. 19). See DEPORTATIONS, DIASPORA. See JUDICIAL SYSTEM. See ḠOLĀT. See COURTS AND COURTIERS. See AYVĀN. John R. Perry and Ali Ashraf Sadeghi (annexation, suppletion), a grammatical term embracing several types of Persian noun phrase in which the constituents are connected by the enclitic -e/-ye (kasra-ye eżāfa “the eżāfa particle”). The enclitic, pronounced /e/ in standard Persian, /i/ in earlier New Persian (see below) and in eastern dialects such as Kabolī and Tajik, is written optionally with the subscript vowel diacritic kasra; the variant /ye/, /yi/ following a vowel is generally written with final yā (after vocalic h, it has also been represented by a superposed miniature yā or, in printing, a hamza). ... (AZGĪL). See MEDLAR. Sheila S. Blair a village 32 km. southeast of Isfahan on the south bank of the river Zāyandarūd. The major surviving monument is a single-domed mosque with a well-preserved dome and two lateral corridors. The interior has a traditional tripartite elevation of square chamber (interior diameter 8 meters), octagonal zone of transition (with stalactite-filled squinches), and dome supported on a sixteen-sided zone. The meḥrāb recess—from which the original meḥrāb, perhaps of lustre tiles, has been removed—is surrounded on three sides by a plaster inscription containing a Koranic text. ... James R. Russell (KOŁBACʿI), Armenian Christian theologian and cleric. He was born ca. 374-80 in the province of Taykʿ. His work contains a refutation of the Zoroastrian religion. One of the students of the inventor of the Armenian alphabet, Maštocʿ, he was sent to Edessa (according to Koriwn, with Yovsēpʿ) and then Byzantium, where he became proficient in Syriac and Greek. He wrote a letter to Maštocʿ on the Council of Ephesus (431; preserved in the Knikʿ hawatoy, “Seal of Faith” of Catholicos Komitas, 7th cent.). ... See BIBLE. J.C. Reeves canonical biblical book emanating from the early portion of the Second Temple period (515 B.C.E.-70 C.E.) of Jewish history. Despite bearing the name of “ʿEzrā,” the title character only figures in the final chapters (7-10) of the book. Therein ʿEzrā is portrayed as an emissary of the Achaemenian monarch Artaxerxes I charged with restoring the Temple cultus at Jerusalem for the benefit of both the citizenry of the province of Yehud and the royal family. The preceding six chapters of the book introduce the mission of ʿEzrā by describing previous failed attempts to reconstitute the Temple service during the reigns of Cyrus, Darius I, and Xerxes. ... Amnon Netzer ,paraphrased versification of the Book of ʿEzrā (q.v.) containing midrashic and Iranian legends. It was composed by Šāhīn (q.v.), the leading Judeo-Persian poet of the 14th century. ʿEzrā-nāma, which includes about 500 distichs, is generally found at the end of Šāhīn’s Ardašīr-nāma (q.v.) and is composed in the same meter; the date of its composition was thus probably the same as that of the latter work, Šawwāl 773/April-May 1372. ... See Angel of Death. See Supplement (ANGELS). b. Maḥ mūd. See ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD, ABŪ MANṢŪR. Kambiz Eslami (b. Rabīʿ I 1260/March-April 1844, d. 30 Mehr 1308 Š./21 October 1929), half-brother of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah and governor of Qazvīn; Borūjerd and Baḵtīārī; Hamadān; Zanjān; and Malāyer, Tūyserkān and Nehāvand. His mother, Oḡol Beyga Ḵānom, was a Sālūr Turkman taken prisoner by ʿAbbās Mīrzā (q.v.) after he captured Saraḵs in 1248/ 1832. ... Māšā-Allāh Ajūdānī , MAḤMŪD b. ʿAlī Naṭanzī, an author and Sufi of the early 8th century (d. 735/1334-35). All that is known about ʿEzz-al-Dīn’s life is that he was a Shafiʿite of Ashʿarite persuasion, studied under Ẓahīr-al-Dīn ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. Shaikh Najīb-al-Dīn ʿAlī Bozḡoš Šīrāzī, and received his mystic training from Nūr-al-Dīn ʿAbd-al-Ṣamad Eṣfahānī in Naṭanz (hence his nesba Naṭanzī in some sources). ... Tahsın Yazici , MOḤAMMAD (Mehmet İzzet Paşa; b. Kayseri, 1 Ḏu’l-ḥejja 1258/5 January, 1843, d. Istanbul 1332/1914), author of a Persian-Turkish dictionary and translator of Persian literary works. He received his earliest education from his grandfather, Ātešzāda Moḥammad Efendī (Ateşzade Mehmet Efendi). He accompanied his father to Istanbul, where he completed his prepatory education and entered the military secondary school Ḥarbīya. In 1284/1867 he was assigned as staff officer to the commission on fortifications in Erzurum, where for seven years he mapped out road systems. ... Kambiz Eslami , MALEKAZĀDA ḴĀNOM (b. 1250/1834-35, d. 23 Rabīʿ II 1323/27 June 1905), the only full sister of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1264-313/1848-96), second wife of Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr[–e] Kabīr (q.v.), and grandmother of Moḥammad-ʿAlī Shah (r. 1324-27/1907-09). In 1265/January-February 1849, Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah decided to marry her off to his grand vizier, Mīrzā Taqī Khan. Despite the efforts of the king’s mother, Mahd-e ʿOlyā, who feared that the union would increase Mīrzā Taqī Khan’s power and diminish hers in the royal court as well as that of her close ally, Mīrzā Āqā Khan Eʿtemād-al-Dawla Nūrī (q.v.). ... |