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Steven C. Anderson, William L. Hanaway, Jr. (Ar. and Pers. ʿoqāb; also obsolete Pers. dāl < Mid. Pers. dālman; also obsolete Pers. and Mid. Pers. āloh), large, diurnal, raptorial birds of the family Accipitridae in several genera (45-90 cm long, wingspan 110-250 cm). Ten species of eagles occur at least seasonally in Persia, nine of which also occur in Afghanistan. i. Species in Persia and Afghanistan. ii. The eagle in Persian literature. in Zoroastrianism. See ELEMENTS i. Daniel Balland, Habib Borjian, Xavier de Planhol, Manuel Berberian Persia and Afghanistan lie on the great alpine belt that extends from the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean through the Indonesian archipelago and forms the world’s longest collision boundary, between the Eurasian plate in the north and several former Gondwanan blocks in the south, including the so-called “Iranian plates” and “Afghan plates” (Schöler, pp. 29f.). Hence, it is not surprising that they are regions of high seismic activity. i. In Afghanistan. ii. In Central Asia. iii. In Persia. iv. The historical record of earthquakes in Persia. Mark Horton, Derek Nurse, Farouk Topan, Will. C. van den Hoonard : Persian relations with the lands of the East African coast, particularly Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. i. Economic, political, and cultural relations through 1900. ii. Persian loanwords in Swahili. iii. Baluchi and Parsi communities. iv. Bahai communities. Antonio Panaino an English language quarterly published since 1950 by IsMEO (q.v.; Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente [Italian Institute for Middle and Far East]) and now by the IsIAO (Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente [Italian Institute for Africa and the Orient]). To date (2003) 52 volumes have been published. East and West was founded and edited until 1978 by Giuseppe Tucci. From 1978 to 1997 it was under the editorship of Gherardo Gnoli and, from 1997 to 2000, by Maurizio Taddei. After the sudden death of Professor Taddei (5th February 2000), Professor Gnoli once again took over the editorship in his capacity as president of the IsIAO. ... R. W. Ferrier, John R. Perry a trading company incorporated on 31 December 1600 for fifteen years with the primary purpose of exporting the staple production of English woolen cloths and importing the products of the East Indies. i. The Safavid period. ii. The Afsharid, Zand, and Qajar periods. While Portugal was politically united with Spain, from 1580 to 1640, the company encountered opposition from Portuguese trading interests, which were already established on the Indian mainland, islands in the Indian Ocean, and particularly in the Persian Gulf area. There the Portuguese controlled the small island Hormoz (q.v.), off the southwest coast of Persia. See DUTCH-PERSIAN RELATIONS. Anne Kroell a company established in 1664 to conduct all French commercial operations with the Orient. Colbert, minister of Louis XIV, had been aware of the great profits earned by the Dutch and English merchants in importing and selling Asian goods to the French (Kaepplin, p. 3). He wanted to deprive foreigners of such a profitable market and, therefore, founded a chartered company modeled on the Dutch company, which could, with the support of a reviving merchant marine and the protection of the king’s vessels, carry on trade with countries east of the Cape of Good Hope. ... Nicholas Sims-Williams term used to refer to a group of Iranian languages most of which are or were spoken in lands to the east of the present state of Persia. In terms of both historical and typological linguistics, the distinction between Western and Eastern Iranian is generally regarded as the most fundamental division in Iranian dialectology. Each of these two major groups is sometimes subdivided along the opposite axis, giving a potential four-way distinction between South-Western, North-Western, South-Eastern, and North-Eastern Iranian. ... Jean During (b. Tehran, 1305/1906, d. 1371 Š./1993), one of the outstanding modern masters of Persian music. He was a grandson of ʿAlī-Akbar Farāhānī (d. ca. 1275/1858) and a son of Mīrzā ʿAbd-Allāh (1261-1336/1845-1918), the great masters of their own times. ʿEbādī began accompanying his father on the żarb (see DRUMS) at the age of seven years, then took lessons on the setār from his two sisters Mawlūd Ḵānom and Molūk Ḵānom before studying briefly with his father. ... Hamid Algar (or EBĀḤATĪYA), a polemical term denoting either antinomianism or groups and individuals accused thereof. It occurs generally in the context of condemning pseudo-Sufis, although it is sometimes used in connection with a variety of other religious deviants. The word is derived from ebāḥat, which in the terminology of Islamic jurisprudence means the permissibility which is inherent in all things unless canceled or modified by specific provisions of the law; the error of the antinomians lies in their rejection of all such provisions. ... Muhammad A. Dandamayev (Aram. Abar Naharā, “Beyond/Across the river”), the Akkadian name used in Assyrian and Babylonian records of the 8th-5th centuries B.C.E. for the lands to the west of the Euphrates—i.e., Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine (Parpola, p. 116; Zadok, p. 129; see ASSYRIA ii). These regions apparently passed from Neo-Babylonian to Persian control in 539 B.C.E. when Cyrus the Great conquered Mesopotamia. A. B. Khaledov (b. St. Petersburg, 1899, d. Orel, 1937), scholar of early Persian poets writing in Arabic. Born in the family of a surgeon of German origin, Eberman studied Arabic and Persian in 1917-21 at the Department of Oriental Languages at the University of Petrograd. As a researcher he was active only from 1919 to 1930, working at the Asiatic Museum of the Academy of Sciences (researcher, first rank, 1919-20) and the State Academy of the History of Material Culture (researcher, second rank, 1920-30). In 1924-29 he taught Arabic at Leningrad University (docent, 1925-29). ... See EBER-NĀRI. Nassereddin Parvin (lit., “communication”), title of five Persian language newspapers. Hamid Algar in Persian Sufi Tradition. The word Eblīs, a Koranic designation for the devil, appears to derive ultimately from the Greek diabolos. Some authorities have nonetheless imaginatively connected it with Arabic ublisa (“he was rendered hopeless”), with reference to the accursedness that befell Eblīs as a result of his rebellion (Maybodī, I, p. 145). Of the eleven Koranic verses in which the name Eblīs occurs (2:34, 7:11, 15:31-32, 17:61, 18:50, 20:116, 26:95, 34:20, 38:74-75), ten refer to this rebellion and the events immediately preceding and following it; the exception, 26:95, speaks of “the hosts of Eblīs” (jonūd Eblīs) being cast into Hellfire on the Day of Judgement. ... See ṢĀḤEB B. ʿABBĀD. Stephen Lambden (1270-1337/1854-1919), Bahai teacher and one of the “hands of the cause” (see AYĀDĪ-E AMR-ALLĀH). He was one of two Bahai sons of Mirza ʿAbd-al-Raḥīm Eṣfahānī (d. 1290/1872), the Shiʿite mojtahed, a crypto-Babi and Bahai, and Belqīs Ḵānom. His zealous Bahai teaching in Zanjān, Qazvīn, Tehran, Yazd, Kermān, and elsewhere led to his frequent imprisonment, for the first time in 1295/1878. ... Todd Lawson , Moḥammad b. Zayn-al-Dīn Abi’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Ḥosām-al-Dīn Ebrāhīm (b. ca. 837/1433-34; d. after 25 Ḏu ʾl-Qaʿda 904/4 July 1499). Shiʿite thinker. He lived and taught in his home town of Aḥsā in Baḥrayn, Najaf, and Mašhad during the last half of the 15th century. His best known work, the al-Mojlī, which is actually his commentary and super-commentary on a kalām treatise by himself, is important as an example of the immediate scholastic precursor to the kind of Shiʿite intellectual synthesis which would flower during the Safavid period and come to be called ḥekmat-e elāhī and whose most famous exponent was Mollā Ṣadrā. ... Lutz Richter-Bernburg , ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿABD-al-RAḤMĀN b. ʿAlī b. Aḥmad NAYŠĀBŪRĪ (Nīšāpūr, 5th/11th century), medical author known in the century after his death, at least in Khorasan, as “the second Hippocrates” (Bayhaqī, p. 107), and reportedly a student of Avicenna (q.v.; Ebn Abī Oṣaybeʿa, II, p. 22). He wrote commentaries on Hippocrates’ Aphorisms (Foṣūl) and Prognostics (Taqdemat al-maʿrefa) Galen’s De usu partium (Manāfeʿ al aʿżāʾ) and others.... C. Edmund Bosworth (204-80/819-93), littérateur (adīb) and historian of Baghdad, of a Khorasani family. His extensive adab (q.v.) works include treatises on poets and singing, praised by Abu’l-Faraj Eṣfahānī in his Ketāb al-aḡānī, and the partially extant literary anthology Ketāb al-manṯūr wa’l-manẓūm (Cairo, 1326/1908), used by, among others, Abū Ḥayyān Tawḥīdī (q.v.) in his al-Baṣāʾer wa’l-ḏaḵāʾer ... See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. ABU’L ḤADĪD. Ihsan Abbas cognomen of two famous viziers of the 4th/10th century: Abu’l-Fażl and his son Abu’l-Fatḥ. The father of the first was called Ḥoseyn. Tawḥīdī claims that this Ḥoseyn was of humble origin, a naḵḵāl (wheat-sifter) in the grain market of Qom (Aḵlāq al-wazīrayn, p. 82). This, however, is probably not true. After occupying major administrative posts, Ḥosayn was appointed chief of the chancery (dīwān al-rasāʾel) at the court of the Sāmānid amir Nūḥ. ... William C. Chittick , MOḤYĪ-al-DĪN Abū ʿAbd-Allāh Moḥammad Ṭāʾī Ḥātemī (b. 17 Ramażān 560/28 July 1165; d. 22 Rabīʿ II 638/10 November 1240), the most influential Sufi author of later Islamic history, known to his supporters as al-Šayḵ al-akbar, “the Greatest Master.” Although the form “Ebn al-ʿArabī,” with the definite article, is found in his autographs and in the writings of his immediate followers, many later authors referred to him as ‘Ebn ʿArabī’, without the article, to differentiate him from Qāżī Abū Bakr Ebn al-ʿArabī. ... D. S. Richards , ʿEZZ-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ b. Moḥammad Jazarī (b. Jazīrat Ebn ʿOmar [modern Cizre, in eastern Turkey] 4 Jomādā I 555/13 May 1160; d. Mosul, Šaʿbān 630/June 1233), major Islamic historian and important source for the history of Persia and adjacent areas from the Samanids to the first Mongol invasion. C. Edmund Bosworth conventional name for an otherwise unknown author of Fārs-nāma, a local history and geography of the province of Fārs written in Persian during the Saljuq period, so-called because his ancestors came from Balḵ in eastern Khorasan (Balḵī-nežād, p. 3; the form “Ebn al-Balḵī” is used in Kašf al-ẓonūn, ed. Flügel, IV, p. 344, no. 8681). His grandfather was mostawfī (chief accountant) for the taxation of Fārs around 492/1099 under Atābak Rokn-al-Dawla or Najm-al-Dawla Ḵomārtegīn, who had been appointed governor there by Sultan Barkīāroq (q.v.). ... Hūšang Aʿlam , ŻĪĀʾ-AL-DĪN ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH b. Aḥmad (not Aḥmad-al-Dīn as in EI2 III, p. 737), Andalusian botanist and pharmacologist. He was born in Malaga (Ar. Mālaqa; hence his nesba Mālaqī) in the second half of the 6th/12th century, and died in Damascus in 646/1248. He is best known for his encyclopedic Jāmeʿ. ... See ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH B. AL-BAYYEʿ. Herman G. B. Teule (Syr. bar ʿEbrāyā, Lat. Bar Hebraeus), ABU’L-FARAJ (b. Malaṭīa, 622/1225; d. Marāḡa, 685/1286), Syriac historian and polymath. His laqab Ebn al-ʿEbrī alludes to the place of origin of his family—ʿEbra on the Euphrates, near Malaṭīa (Malitene)—not to a Jewish origin. Baptized as Yoḥannōn, he was ordained a bishop of the West Syrian or Jacobite Church at the age of twenty and took the name Gregory. ... Daniel Gimaret , ABŪ BAKR AḤMAD b. ʿAlī b. Beḡčor (270-326/884-938), Muʿtazilite theologian. According to Ḵaṭīb Baḡdādī (IV, p. 309), he was of Turkish descent, which appears to be confirmed by the “name” (in fact a title) of his grandfather, if read as such. His surname, Ebn al-Eḵšīd (also read Eḵšīḏ, Eḵšād, or Eḵšāḏ) probably indicates that he was descended from a princely family of Sogdia or Farḡāna (q.v.). ... Anas B. Khalidov , ABŪ BAKR (or Abū ʿAbd-Allāh) AḤMAD b. Moḥammad b. Esḥāq b. Ebrāhīm HAMADĀNĪ HAMADĀNĪAḵbārī (fl. second half of the 3rd/9th century), man of letters, who wrote in Arabic Ketāb aḵbār al- boldān, a geographic work, in which primarily the Islamic world with its centers in Arabia, Persia, and Iraq are described. ... Charles Melville , KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ b. Aḥmad, librarian and historian (b. 642/1244; d. Baghdad, 723/1323). His family originated in Marv-al-Rūd in Khorasan; the name Fowaṭī derives from the occupation either of his or his father’s mother as a seller of waist wraps (Ar. fūṭa, pl. fowaṭ). He was enslaved by the Mongols at the siege of Baghdad (656/1258) and taken to Azerbaijan. Two years later Naṣīr-al-Dīn Ṭūsī appointed him librarian of the Marāḡa observatory. ... Wilferd Madelung , ABŪ BAKR MOḤAMMAD b. ʿOmar Tamīmī Ḥāfeẓ, traditionist with Shiʿite leanings (b. Baghdad 23 or 24 Ṣafar 284/1 or 2 April 897, d. Baghdad 15 Rajab 355/7 July 966). A student of Ebn ʿOqda (d. 332/943; q.v.), the foremost Kufan traditionist of his time, he transmitted from a large number of other traditionists and traveled to Egypt, Syria, and Persia to study and teach. For some time he was associated with the Buyid vizier Ebn al-ʿAmīd. Ebn al-Jeʿābī had a prodigious memory, even by the standards of traditionists. ... Wilferd Madelung (or al-Jonaydī), ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD b. Aḥmad Kāteb Eskāfī, Imami jurist. His nesba indicates that he came from Eskāf, or Eskāf Bani’l-Jonayd, a district of Nahrawān between Baghdad and Wāseṭ east of the Tigris (Yāqūt, Boldān I, p. 252). He could not have been born much later than 290/903, since he transmitted from the Wāqefī scholar Ḥomayd b. Zīād, who died in 310/922. ... J. Derek Latham , ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH b. Dādūya/Dādōē (b. Gōr, the present Fīrūzābād, Fārs, ca. 103/721, d. Baṣra ca. 139/757), chancery secretary (kāteb) and major Arabic prose writer. Ebn al-Moqaffaʿ was of noble Persian stock and bore the name Rōzbeh/Rūzbeh before his comparatively late conversion to Islam from Manicheism. He was the son of an Omayyad tax-collector named Dādūya, named Mobārak on conversion and nicknamed “the cripple-handed” (al-moqaffaʿ), whose disability was said to have resulted from torture for embezzlement. ... See ḤELLĪ, ʿALLĀMA. See FEHREST, AL-. Charles Melville , ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAlī b. Ṭabāṭabā, historian and naqīb of the ʿAlids in Ḥella (b. 660/1262 ?; d. after 709/1309 ?). In the winter of 701/1302 he wrote al-Faḵrī for Faḵr-al-Dīn ʿĪsā, governor of Mosul (Ebn al-Fowaṭī, IV/3, p. 277). The work is in two parts. The first, in the “mirror for princes” genre, uses anecdotes to explain the collapse of the ʿAbbasid caliphate in terms of their unfitting qualities as rulers. He commends the Mongol rulers for their justice, discipline, and attention to such practical skills as accountancy and medicine. Part II surveys the Islamic dynasties from the four Orthodox Caliphs to the fall of the ʿAbbasids in 656/1258. ... See BANŪ AMĀJŪR. See ʿABD-ALLĀH B. ʿĀMER. John E. Woods , ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ʿABBĀS AḤMAD b. Moḥammad ... Ḥanafī ʿAjamī (b. Damascus, 791/1389, d. Cairo, 854/1450), literary scholar and biographer of Tamerlane (Tīmūr). According to the autobiography quoted by Ebn Taḡrīberdī, when Tīmūr conquered Damascus in 803/1401, Ebn ʿArabšāh and his family were transported to Tīmūr’s capital, Samarkand. He spent the next eight years in Transoxiana and Chinese Turkestan, where he learned Persian and Mongolian and studied with Sayyed Šarīf Moḥammad Jorjānī, Saʿd-al-Dīn Masʿūd Taftāzānī, and Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad Jazarī. ... Stephen Lambden , MĪRZĀ ʿALĪ-MOḤAMMAD (b. Mašhad 1267/1850; d. Tehran, 1347/1928), prominent Bahai missionary. He was given the honorific designation Ebn(-e) Aṣdaq in certain Bahai scriptural writings. Toward the end of his life Bahāʾ-Allāh counted him a living martyr and referred to him as Šahīd ebn-e Šahīd (“martyr, son of a martyr”). He was a son of the Šayḵī, Bābī and Baha’i Mollā Ṣādeq Moqaddas-e Ḵorāsānī. ... D.M. Dunlop the name usually given to Abu Noʿmān Ebrāhim b. Mālek al-Aštar b. al-Hāreṯ al-Naḵaʿi. His prominence is due to his association with Moḵtār, and his active career is confined to a few years subsequent to the death of al-Ḥosayn b. ʿAli (61/680, q.v.). He was head of the latter’s partisans in Kufa (al-Ḥosayniya). ... See ʿAṬṬĀŠ. Daniel Gimaret , ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM b. Moḥammad Baṣrī, Muʿtazilite theologian (d. late 10th century), member of the so-called School of Baṣra and a partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī. Although it has been said that in his youth he had met Abū Hāšem, his main teachers were two eminent disciples of the latter, Abū ʿAlī b. Ḵallād and later Abū ʿAbd-Allāh Baṣrī. He was himself the first teacher of the Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār. ... Richard W. Bulliet , ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR MOʾAYYAD-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAlī, Shiʿite vizier of the caliph al-Nāṣer from 590/1194 to 592/1195 (b. ca 522/1128). A Persian born in Shiraz, Ebn al-Qaṣṣāb went at a young age to Baghdad where his father was a butcher (whence his name) in Darb al-Baṣrīya. Entering government service, he became an expert on finance and taxation and in 578/1182-83 a protege of the powerful Shiʿite superintendant of palace affairs (ostāḏ al-dār) Ebn al-Ṣāḥeb. ... C. Edmund Bosworth (Qāšānī), ABU’L-ʿABBĀS (d. Marv, 510/1116-17), Persian writer and boon-companion (nadīm), whose manual for courtiers preserves otherwise lost information on the later Ghaznavids. Presumably a native of Kāšān, Ebn Bābā worked in western Persia, Baghdad, and finally Khorasan, probably at the court of the Saljuqid Sultan Sanjar. His main fame is as author of the Ketāb raʾs māl al-nadīm, written for one Amir Raʾīs Saʿd-al-Molk Abu’l-Fatḥ Moḥammad. ... Sheila S. Blair (Bābūya), family of Persian builders, luster potters, and tile makers, descended from the Shiʿite scholar Ebn Bābūya al-Ṣadūq (d. 382/991; q.v.) and active in the 6th to 8th/12th to 14th centuries in central Persia. Several members are known. Martin McDermott (Bābūya), SHAIKH ṢADŪQ ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD b. Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī... Mūsā Qomī (b. Qom after 305, probably about 311/923; d. Ray, 381/991), author of one of the authoritative four books of Imami Shiʿite Hadith, Man lā yaḥżoroho’l-faqīh. See BĀBĀ KŪHĪ. Charles F. Beckingham , ŠAMS-AL-DĪN ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH MOḤAMMAD (b. Tangier, 17 Rajab 703 /25 February 1304; d. Morocco, 770/1368-9), the most famous Muslim traveler. A Berber from Tangier, he claims to have traveled extensively in Africa, the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, and China. His Toḥfat al-noẓẓār fī ḡarāʾeb al-amṣār wa ʿajāʾeb al-asfār, known as the Reḥla (Journey), professes to be a chronological narrative of his journeys from his departure from Tangier as a pilgrim in Rajab 725/June 1324 to his arrival in Fez, Morocco, after a journey to Mali in Ḏu’l-qaʿda 754/December 1353. ... Roger Savory , DARVĪŠ TAWAKKOLĪ b. Esmāʿīl b. Ḥājī Ardabīlī author of the Ṣafwat al-ṣafāʾ, a biography of Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn Esḥāq Ardabīlī (d. 935/1334), founder of the Safavid order of Sufis and the eponym of the Safavid dynasty. Ebn Bazzāz was a desciple of Shaikh Ṣadr-al-Dīn Ardabīlī (d. 794/1391-92), the son and successor of Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn. The work, also entitled al-Mawāheb al-sanīya fī manāqeb al-Ṣafawīya, deals mainly with Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn’s miracles and sayings and contains little of a biographical nature. ... Tahsin Yazici , NĀṢER-AL-DĪN ḤOSAYN b. Moḥammad b. ʿAlī Jaʿfarī Roḡadī, Persian historian and man of letters. He was the son of the scribe (monšī) Majd-al-Dīn Moḥammad, who had worked under Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad, grandfather of ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn Jovaynī. His mother Bībī Monajjema was the daughter of Kamāl-al-Dīn Semnānī and granddaughter of the faqīh Moḥammad b. Yaḥyā. Judging from an endowment record (waqfīya; Turan, p. 87), the name of his grandfather was Ḥasan. ... Lutz Richter-Bernburg prominent family of physicians of Gondēšāpūr at court during the early ʿAbbasid period. Notwithstanding their continued oral competence in Persian and the Persian aspects of their identity, the Boḵtīšūʿ family used Syriac and Arabic in their medical writings. Marco Salami , ABŪ TORĀB ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MORTAŻĀ b. Dāʿī b. Qāsem Rāzī Ḥosaynī (or Ḥasanī), known as ʿAlam-al-Hodā (d. after 525/1132), Imami traditionist and author of a heresiography in Persian. He and his brother Mojtabā transmitted Hadith directly from Jaʿfar b. Moḥammad Dūryastī and, through ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. Aḥmad Nīšābūrī, from Shaikh Ṭūsī, Sayyed Rażī, and Sayyed Mortażā. The famous traditionist and biographer Montajab-al-Dīn Qomī (504-85/1110-80) studied with and transmitted from him and from his brother. ... C. Edmund Bosworth , TĀJ-AL-MOLK ABU’L-ḠANĀʾEM MARZBĀN b. Ḵosrow-Fīrūz Šīrāzī (438-86/1046-93), last vizier of the Great Saljuq Sultan Malekšāh (r. 465-85/1072-92). Born of a secretarial family in Fārs, he served the Saljuq slave amir Qoṭb-al-Dīn Sāvtegīn in southern Persia and Iraq during the early part of Malekšāh’s reign. Sāvtegīn commended him to the sultan, who first made him intendant of the harems and private property of various of his sons, then treasurer and overseer of the palace buildings, and finally, when his capabilities had been amply demonstrated, head of the chancery (Dīvān al-enšāʾ wa’l-ṭoḡrā) in succession to Kamāl-al-Molk Abu’l-Moḵtār Zawzanī. ... C. Edmund Bosworth b. Manṣūr (d. Ahvāz 467/1074), vizier to the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Qāʾem from 15 Rabīʿ II 453/9 May 1061 to 4 Ḏu’l-ḥejja 454/9 December 1062. He seems to have been a native of Fārs, where he had been a wealthy merchant connected with the Buyid Abū Kālījār Marzbān (q.v.). With the arrival of the Saljuqs in Iraq, the caliph was once more able to choose his own vizier, and Ebn Dārost wrote to al-Qāʾem from Shiraz asking for the vizierate, offering a large sum of money and stating that he required no eqṭāʿ (q.v.). ... See BARDESANES. Seeger A. Bonebakker (Dorostūya), ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH b. Jaʿfar b. Dorostawayh b. Marzbān (b. Fasā, 258/871; d. Baghdad, Ṣafar 347/May 958), grammarian and lexicographer of Persian origin. Though he shared his father’s interest in Hadith (Taʾrīḵ Baḡdād IX, p. 429), his main pursuits were philological. ... Gul A. Russell , MANṢŪR b. Moḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Faqīh Yūsof (fl. late 14th-early 15th cent.), a descendent of a Shirazi family of jurists and physicians, is the author of two extant Persian works: a medical compilation entitled the Kefāya-ye mojāhedīya and an illustrated anatomy text known as the Tašrīḥ-e manṣūrī. Charles Melville , BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD b. Ḥasan, historian, probably from Āmol, who flourished around the turn of the 7th/13th century. He is the author of the earliest surviving history of Ṭabarestān, on which he was engaged around 603/1206 (400 years after the martyrdom of Imam ʿAlī al-Reżā, q.v.; Ebn Esfandīār, I, p. 203) and which he was still writing ten years later (I, p. 82). According to his own account, Ebn Esfandīār was in the service of the Bavandid (see ĀL-E BĀVAND) ruler Ḥosām-al-Dawla Ardašīr. ... Marco Salami , ABU’L-ʿABBĀS JAMĀL-AL-DĪN AḤMAD b. Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad (756 or 757-841/1355-1437), Imami scholar and jurist. A native of Ḥella, he spent most of his life there, where he taught at the Zaynīya school, and in Karbalāʾ, where he died and was buried. His teachers included ʿAlī b. Ḵāzen Ḥāʾerī, Meqdād Soyūrī, Ebn al-Motawwaj Baḥrānī, all former students of Moḥammad b. Makkī Šahīd-e Awwal. ... See ĀL-E FARĪḠŪN. See AḤMAD B. FAŻLĀN. See BAYHAQĪ, ẒAHĪR-AL-DĪN. C. Edmund Bosworth (or Ebn Pūlād), military adventurer, probably of Daylamī origin, active in northern Persia during the Buyid period (early 5th/11th century) and typical of the soldiers of fortune characterizing the “Daylamī intermezzo” of medieval Persian history. In 407/1016, he revolted against the Buyids (Ebn al-Aṯīr, IX, pp. 268-69). He is described as base-born; but he collected a following of soldiers and demanded the governorship of Qazvīn from Majd-al-Dawla Rostam, the feeble Buyid ruler of Ray and Jebāl, and his mother Sayyeda. ... See Supplement. Anas B. Khalidov , ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAlī Naṣībī, traveler and geographer of the 4th/10th century. Biographical data on him are exclusively derived from his single extant work on geography, which bears the title Ṣūrat al-arż (Configurations of the earth) in the oldest manuscript, dated 479/1086, of its last version. Years of his birth and death are not known. His nesba points to a descent from Naṣībīn in Upper Mesopotamia. The earliest dates given by him about himself indicate he stayed also in Lower Mesopotamia: soon after 320/932 at Tekrīt and in 325/936 at Baghdad. ... Heinz Halm , ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤASAN b. Faraj (or Faraḥ) b. Ḥawšab b. Zāḏān Najjār Kūfī, known also as Manṣūr al-Yaman (d. 302/914), Ismaʿili dāʿī (q.v.) and founder of the Ismaʿili community in northern Yemen. He came from the neighborhood of the Narses canal (Nahr Nars) in the countryside (sawād) of Kūfa south of present-day Ḥella in Iraq, where he was occupied as a linen weaver and manufacturer of narsī cloth. According to other sources, he was a carpenter or a joiner. ... Lutz Richter-Bernburg , ABU’L-FARAJ ʿALĪ b. Ḥosayn, also known as Ostāḏ (b. in Ṭabarestān, no later than the early 350s/960s; d. in or after 422/1031), author of, inter alia, propaedeutic epistles on philosophy and medicine and of a gnomology of Greek wisdom, and generally renowned as a litterateur. Of Qomī origin (Ebn Esfandīār, p. 125, tr. Browne, pp. 54, 77f., n. 5) or of “ancient” Rāzī stock (Yāqūt, Odabāʾ V, pp. 168 f.), Ebn Hendū came from a family in the secretarial profession; he can be said to be a representative of the well-educated scribal class so prominent during the ʿAbbasid period. ... Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā (or Ḵūsfī), MOḤAMMAD, a poet of the 9th/15th century. Living in the village of Ḵūsf, near Bīrjand, Ebn Ḥosām was a farmer by trade and remained unattached to any of the rulers and powerful men of his time. It appears from his works that he was a learned Shiʿite, well versed in literature, jurisprudence, and the biographies and traditions relating to major figures in Islam—an expertise that he put to good use in his qaṣīdas dedicated to them. ... See Supplement. Michael G. Carter (Ḵālūya), ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH ḤOSAYN b. Aḥmad b. Ḥamdān Hamaḏānī, philologist and Koran scholar. He was born in Hamadān and traveled in 314/926 to Baghdad while still a young man, where he studied the linguistic sciences under both Basran and Kufan masters, principally the Basrans Ebn Dorayd and Abū Saʿīd Sīrāfī, the Kufans Abū Bakr Anbārī and Abū ʿOmar Zāhed Ḡolām Ṯaʿlab, and Nefṭawayh of the mixed school. ... Franz Rosenthal , ABŪ ZAYD ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN b. Moḥammad (b. 1 Ramażān 732/27 May 1332; d. 26 Ramażān 808/17 March 1406), the historian famous for the general theory of history and civilization brilliantly expounded in his Moqaddema. The world history, Ketāb al-ʿebar wa dīwān al-mobtadaʾ wa’l-ḵabar fī ayyām al-ʿArab wa’l-ʿAjam wa’l-Barbar, has a first chapter and an added appendix, both of which were already treated by Ebn Ḵaldūn himself as independent works, the first known as Moqaddema (Introduction) and the second as Taʿrīf... (Autobiography). There is no satisfactory modern edition of either the ʿEbar or even the Moqaddema. The former is to be quoted according to the seven-volume Būlāq printing of 1284/1867 (tr. of the Berber history by de Slane, P. Casanova, and H. Perès, Paris, 1925-34, 1956; recent tr. of large excerpts by A. Cheddadi, Paris, 1986), and the Moqaddema according to the edition of E. M. Quatremère (Paris, 1858). The Moqaddema, in its entirety or partially, has been printed innumerable times, and there are translations in many languages. ... Daniel Gimaret , ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD BAṢRĪ (d. 2nd half of 3rd/10th century), Muʿtazilite theologian of the so-called “school of Baṣra,” partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī. He had been Abū Hāšem’s first disciple at ʿAskar Mokram, then at Baghdad. His own followers included the two future teachers of Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār, Abū ʿAbd-Allah Baṣrī and Abū Esḥāq b. ʿAyyāš (q.v.). ... W. Montgomery Watt , ABU’L-ḴAYR ḤASAN b. Savār (or Sovār) b. Bābā b. Bahrām (or Behnām) Ḵᵛārazmī, philosopher. He was born in 331/942, presumably in Baghdad; his father, a Nestorian Christian, was apparently a wineseller (ḵammār). He studied logic and other philosophical subjects under the noted philosopher Yaḥyā b. ʿAdī, and medicine under Jebrāʾīl b. ʿObayd-Allāh b. Boḵtīšūʿ (q.v.). The names of his books have long been known from the Fehrest of Ebn al-Nadīm and other bio-bibliographical works, but it is only in recent decades that mss. of some of these have come to light. ... See Supplement. See FATḤ B. ḴĀQĀN. C. Edmund Bosworth military commander of the Ghurids, and connected, according to Jūzjānī, with the district of Gorzevān on the headwaters of the Morḡāb in the province of Gūzgān in northern Afghanistan. ee ʿABDALLĀH B. ḴĀZEM. See Supplement. C. Edmund Bosworth (or Ḵorradāḏbeh), ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH b. ʿAbd-Allāh (fl. 3rd/9th century), author of the earliest surviving Arabic book of administrative geography. He was not, apparently, the first geographer to write in Arabic, but he is the first whose book has survived in anything like its original form. His grandfather Ḵorradāḏbeh was a Zoroastrian who converted to Islam at the urging of the Barmakids (q.v.). His father ʿAbd-Allāh was by 201/816-17 al-Maʾmūn’s governor in Ṭabarestān, where he campaigned in the mountains and dislodged the local ruler. ... See ʿALĪ B. ʿĪSĀ B. MĀHĀN. See BANŪ MĀJŪR. See ĀL-E MĀKŪLĀ. C. Edmund Bosworth (Mardūya), AHMAD b. Mūsā b. Mardawayh b. Fūrak Eṣfahānī, scholar of Isfahan in the Buyid period (323-410/935-1019), who wrote in the fields of tradition, tafsīr (Koranic exegsis), history, and geography. He studied Hadith in Iraq and in his native town and was the pupil of such leading traditionists as Ebn Manda and Abū Sahl Qaṭṭān. His Koran commentary is lost but is quoted in Ebn Ḥajar’s Eṣāba; his selections from the Ṣaḥīhṟ of Boḵārī appear likewise to be lost. ... D. M. Dunlop (Marzbān), ABŪ AḤMAD ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN. b. ʿAlī b. Marzbān Ṭabīb Marzbānī (d. Tostar, Jomādā I 396/February-March 1006), administrative official under the Buyids. Martin McDermott (Mattūya), ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ḤASAN b. Aḥmad b. Mattawayh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the Basran school, a student of Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār (d. 415/1025). Where Ebn Mattawayh lived and the date of his death are not known. Wilferd Madelung has established that his Majmūʿ was written rather soon after ʿAbd-al-Jabbār’s death and that the late date sometimes given for Ebn Mattawayh’s death as 468/1075 or 469/1076 has no foundation. ... See MESKAWAYH. ee ʿABDALLAHÚ B. MOʿĀWĪA. ee ʿABDALLAH B. MOBĀRAK. ee ABŪ DOLAF YANBŪʿĪ. See Supplement. C. Edmund Bosworth , LAYṮ b. Fażl, a client (mawlā) and governor of Sīstān 199-204/815-19. Previously governor of Egypt in 182-87/798-803 (Kendī, pp. 139-41), he was appointed governor of Sīstān by the caliph Maʾmūn in place of the discredited Moḥammad b. Ašʿaṯ. ... Ihsan Abbas , ABU’L BARAKĀT ŠARAF-AL-DĪN MOBĀRAK b. Aḥmad b. Mobārak Erbelī (564-637/1168-1239), historian of Erbel. Both his father and his uncle, Ṣafī-al-Dīn ʿAlī, who translated Ḡazālī’s Naṣīḥat al-molūk from Persian into Arabic, were also financial administrator (mostawfī). Abu’l-Barakāt did not limit himself to arithmetical knowledge, which was essential for such an office, but was also well versed in rhetoric, prosody, grammar, and Hadith. Erbel in his days was an independent and prosperous city-state. ... See ABU’L-WAZĪR MARVAZĪ. See NAWBAḴTĪ FAMILY. See ABŪ SAHL NAWBAḴTĪ. See NAWBAḴTĪ, ḤASAN B. MŪSĀ. Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā , AMIR BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN BARANDAQ ḴOJANDĪ, Timurid poet (b. 757/1356; d. ca. 837/1433). Son of Amir Noṣratšāh, governor of Ḵojand under Tīmūr, he pursued a career as a poet, despite retaining the title amir. After a period of travel in Persia and India, he settled in Samarkand. He wrote panegyrics for a number of rulers and high officials including the Delhi Sultan Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Toḡloqšāh II (r. 790-91/1388). ... Martin McDermott , ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Rāzī (d. Ray, before 319/931), one of the most prominent and active Imami theologians. He had a major role in the development of Shiʿite Islam in its formative period during the first century of the occultation of the Twelfth Imam. Little biographical information is available about Ebn Qeba. Starting out as a Muʿtazilite master of theology (kalām), he converted to Shiʿism and contributed to an early stage of Muʿtazilite influence in Imami theology. Ebn Qeba was actively engaged in continuous oral and written debates with scholars belonging to other schools of Shiʿism, particularly Zaydis. ... Franz Rosenthal , ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH b. Moslem DĪNAVARĪ (213-276/828-889), important early philologist in the widest sense of the term and author of numerous works on what is known as the “Arab sciences,” including the religious sciences dealing with the Koran and Hadith. Martin McDermott (Qūlūya), ABU’L-QĀSEM JAʿFAR b. Moḥammad b. Jaʿfar b. Mūsā b. Qūlawayh Qomī Baḡdādī (d. Baghdad, 368/978 or 369/979), Imami traditionist and jurist, a disciple of Abū Jaʿfar Kolaynī and teacher of Shaikh Mofīd. He apparently first studied in Qom and later traveled as far as Egypt in search of traditions. He also recounted traditions from his father, who was a companion of Saʿd b. ʿAbd-Allāh Ašʿarī Qomī. ... See Supplement. See ʿABDĀN B. RABĪṬ. Josef van Ess (or Rēvandī), ABU’l-ḤOSAYN AḤMAD b. Yaḥyā (d. 298/910?), Muʿtazilite theologian and “heretic” of Ḵorāsānī origin. While still young, he went to Baghdad, where he had relatives. Apparently, he was already an accomplished theologian by then, for in the capital he studied not kalām but grammar. He attended the courses of the philologian Abu’l-ʿAbbās Moḥammad Mobarrad (d. 286/900) and transmitted his Ketāb al-moqtażab (Aʿsam, 1975, p. 181; 1978-79, pp. 464, 468). He joined the ascetic wing of the Muʿtazilites. ... See EBN RĀVANDĪ. C. Edmund Bosworth , ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD b. ʿOmar (d. after 290/903), Persian author of a geographical compendium. He was from Isfahan, where the name Rosta is attested in this period (Ebn Rosta, I, p. 151; Abū Noʿaym Eṣfahānī, pp. 162, 316), and it was probably there that the book was written. He himself mentions in his book that he had been in Medina—apparently his only significant journey outside his native Persia—in 290/903 (pp. 73, 75; tr. Wiet, pp. 79, 81). His book is extant in two manuscripts. ... , ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤOSAYN. See ḤOSAYN B. RŪḤ. Jean Calmard , ʿOMAR (k. Kūfa 66/686), commander of the Omayyad troops at Karbalāʾ. Son of the famous Arab general Saʿd b. Abī Waqqāṣ, he had just been made deputy-governor (nāʾeb) of Ray by ʿObayd-Allāh b. Zīād (see EBN ZĪĀD) and was to go to Dastabā to quell a Daylamite rising when he was called back to check Ḥosayn b. ʿAlī’s insurrection. It was only under the threat of losing his post that he finally obeyed and marched at the head of 4,000 men, reaching Karbalāʾ on 3 Moḥarram 61/3 October 680. ... Wilferd Madelung family name of two Imami traditionists: Abu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan (or Ḥosayn) Fāmī Qomī (4th/10th century) and his son. See ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD. Wilferd Madelung (Šāhūya), ABŪ BAKR MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAlī, a leader and envoy of the Carmatians (q.v.). In Šawwāl 366/May-June 977 he occupied Kūfa at the head of 1,000 Carmatians supporting the claim of the Buyid Ażod-al-Dawla to the rule of Iraq against that of his cousin ʿEzz-al-Dawla. Later he became the permanent representative of the Bahrain Qarmaṭīs to the court of Ażod-al-Dawla (q.v.). In 369/979-80 he was sent by ʿAżod-al-Dawla from Hamadān on a mission to Baṣra but soon returned to his court. ... Hossein Ziai , Qāżī ZAYN-AL-DĪN ʿOMAR (b. Sāva, fl. early 12th century), Persian philosopher and logician. After serving as a judge in his native city, he became disillusioned with public life and moved to Nīšāpūr, where he had more contact with other scholars. He earned his living by copying philosophical texts. He was often cited in the later Persian philosophical tradition, though he has remained almost unknown to Western historians of philosophy and logic. His works on logic, in which he made innovative proposals for the use of Persian in place of Arabic terms, were especially influential. ... Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi , ABŪ JAʿFAR (or Abū ʿAbd-Allāh) ZAYN-AL-DĪN (or ʿEzz-al-Dīn, Rašīd-al-Dīn) MOḤAMMAD b. ʿALī b. Šahrāšūb b. Abī Naṣr b. Abi’l-Jayš (b. Sārī, Māzandarān; d. Aleppo, 22 Šaʿbān 588/2 September 1192), the most illustrious Imami scholar of the 12th century. He was also called, though rarely, Ebn Kīā-Kay from the Persian name of his ancestor Abū Naṣr meaning “great sovereign.” ... See AVICENNA. See AḤMAD B. ʿOMAR B. SORAYJ. Ihsan Abbas , ABU’L-ḤASAN MOḤAMMAD b. Aḥmad b. Moḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Ebrāhīm Eṣfahānī (d. 322/933), poet and critic. An ʿAlawid from the Hasanid line, he was born, brought up, and educated in Isfahan, which, in his days, was a great center of learning. Very little is known about him. It seems that he did not travel abroad to meet learned shaikhs but was content with the local masters he met. The remaining fragments of his poetry contain some information about his activities in his native town. His dīvān was known to Ebn Ḵallekān (d. 681/282), who quotes it, acknowledging that he knows nothing about the poet himself. ... Wilferd Madelung ABU’l-FAŻĀʾEL AḤMAD b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar b. Moḥammad Ḥasanī, Imami scholar. The Banū Ṭāwūs, named after their ancestor Moḥammad Ṭāwūs, were a family of Hasanid šarīfs well established in Ḥella in the 6th/12th century. Aḥmad’s mother was a daughter of the Imami scholar Warrām b. Abu’l-Ferās (d. 605/1208-09); through his father, he was descended from a daughter of the Shaikh Abū Jaʿfar Moḥammad b. Ḥasan Ṭūsī. ... Etan Kohlberg b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar (b. Ḥella, 15 Moḥarram 589/21 January 1193; d. Baghdad, 5 Ḏu’l-qaʿda 664/8 August 1266), Imami author, scholar, and bibliophile, called Ḏu’l-ḥasabayn “possessing two distinctions” because he was descended from both Ḥasan and Ḥosayn b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭāleb. See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. WĀSEʿ. See ṢĀʾN-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ EṢFAHĀNĪ. Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak , AMĪR FAḴR-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD b. Amir Yamīn-al-Dīn Ṭoḡrāʾī, a poet of the 8th/14th century. He was born in 685/1286-87 (Rypka, p. 261; Bāstānī Rād, p. yd) in Faryūmad, a center of culture in western Khorasan, into a family of landed gentry; he died on 8 Jomādā II 769/30 January 1368 (ʿAbd-al-Razzāq Ḵᵛāfī, II, p. 101). Jean Calmard , ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH (b. ca. 28/648), Omayyad governor responsible for the death of the Imam Ḥosayn b. ʿAlī. He was the son of Zīād b. Abīh, a favorite of Moʿāwīa, and a Persian slave called Marjāna. He was given the governorship of Khorasan in 54/673 at the age of twenty-five, and soon afterward, he was appointed governor of Baṣra, where he subdued Kharijite unrest (Ṭabarī, II, pp. 168, 172, 185-87). ... Amnon Netzer (Abraham), the name of the first patriarch of the Hebrew people. He was known to Moḥammad as one of the earliest prophets to profess monotheistic belief. He is venerated in the Koran as the father of the Arabs and the first who professed Islam (3:110, 106). A large number of stories of the prophets in the Koran are devoted to the life, deeds, and beliefs of Ebrāhīm; he is mentioned in twenty-five different suras, with information mostly based on Talmudic and midrashic legends. ... See ʿAKKĀS-BĀŠĪ. See AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN. EIr b. Manṣūr b. Yazīd b. Jāber ʿEjlī (d. 166/777-78), prominent Sufi and ascetic of 2nd/8th century. Ebrāhīm was born to a notable Kufan family in Balḵ, migrated with his tribe from Khorasan to Syria before 137/754, and was killed in a military expedition against Byzantium in about 160-66/777-83. In Sufi legends various glamorous tales are attributed to Ebrāhīm’s repentance and abdication from the governorship of Balḵ and his conversion to asceticism. ... See ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM. Sheila S. Blair Safavid architect mentioned on two tiles: one in the dome of the tomb of Shaikh ʿAbd-al-Ṣamad at Naṭanz and another, dated 1072/1661-62, in the south wall of the south ayvān of the congregational mosque at Isfahan (Godard, p. 261). The latter inscription does not specify what work was involved, but the only restoration known to have been carried out in the mosque during the reign of Shah ʿAbbās II (1052-77/1642-67) was the addition to the horizontal part of the facade’s rectangular inscription of the south ayvān. ... See TAHERIDS. Munibur Rahman (or Ḥarīr?), author of a general history called Tārīḵ-e ebrāhīmī or Tārīḵ-e homāyūnī. Nothing is known about his life. According to Saʿīd Nafīsī (Naẓm o naṯr I, p. 355), he lived at the court of the Mughal emperor Homāyūn (r. 937-64/1530-56), where he compiled his history around 957/1550. The book begins with the story of Adam and comes down to the events of Homāyūn’s reign until 956/1549 (or 957/1550). ... C. Edmund Bosworth (I) b. Maḥmūd b. Sebüktegīn, Abu’l-Moẓaffar, Ẓahīr-al-Dawla, Rażī-al-Dī, Ghaznavid sultan (r. 451-92/1059-99). Ebrāhīm succeeded his brother Farroḵzād in Ḡazna on 19 Ṣafar 451/April 6, 1059 (Bayhaqī, ed. Fayyāż, p. 483) at the age of twenty-seven; he and Farroḵzād were virtually the only survivors from the general massacre of Ghaznavid princes perpetrated by the usurping Turkish ḡolām commander Ṭoḡrïl in 443/1051-52. All subsequent Ghaznavid sultans were from the progeny of Ebrāhīm alone. ... See BÖRĪ. Sheila S. Blair Persian metalworker named in the inscription in Kufic script on the copper door knockers removed from a city gate in medieval Ganja (Soviet Kirovabad, Republic of Azerbaijan) and taken to the convent of Gelatʿi in Imeretiya, just east of Kutaisi in Georgia. According to the inscription, the gate was erected in 455/1063 during the reign of the Shaddadid Šāvūr b. Fażl under the supervision of a local judge named Abu’l-Faraj Moḥammad b. ʿAbd-Allāh. ... See ZAYN-AL-ʿĀBEDĪN MARĀḠAʾĪ. Tahsin Yazici Turkish poet and lexicographer. His father Hodāyī Ṣāleḥ, who had been educated in Persia, was appointed by the Ottoman Sultan Moḥammad II as shaikh of a zāwīa in Moḡla in southwestern Turkey. Šāhedī was born there; since he was seventy-six years old when in 951/1544 he composed his Golšan-e asrār, the year of his birth must have been 875/1470. His father died when he was only ten years old and he had to work as an apprentice to a silk merchant (ḵazzāz). ... See FĀRŪQĪ. C. Edmund Bosworth (or Yenāl; d. 451/1059), early Saljuq leader. The name Īnāl/Yenāl comes originally from an old Turkish title already attested in the early 4th/10th century by the traveler Aḥmad b. Fażlān (q.v.), confirmed by Moḥammad Ḵᵛārazmī’s mention (p. 120) of yenāl-tigin as a title of the Oḡuz (Bosworth and Clauson, pp. 6, 10-11; Doerfer, Elemente IV, pp. 196-99). Ebrāhīm Īnāl is described as a uterine half-brother of Ṭoḡrel and Čaḡrī Beg (q.v.). ... Abbas Amanat , Ḥājī Mīrzā MOḤAMMAD Kalāntar and Eʿtemād-al-Dawla (b. 1158/1745, d. 1215/1800 or 1216/1801), lord mayor (kalāntar) of Shiraz during the late Zand era, the first grand vizier (ṣadr-e aʿẓam), and a major political figure of the Qajar period. GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN Khan of Qarābāḡ in late 18th century. Born in 1730, he was the son of Panāh Khan of the Javānšīr tribe, which lived in the plains of Qarābāḡ (Bāmdād, I, p. 10). Nāder Shah Afšār (q.v.) had forced the tribe and its khans to submit to him and to accompany him to Khorasan. After Nāder’s death, Panāh Khan returned to Qarābāḡ and managed to penetrate the eastern sector of the Armenian enclave of mountainous Qarābāḡ. ... See AFSHARIDS. See ḠAFFĀRĪ. See ẒAHĪR-AL-DAWLA. See LODĪ DYNASTY. Everett Rowson , ABŪ ESḤĀQ, the most celebrated musician at the court of Hārūn al-Rašīd and a central figure in the development of the Iraqi school of music under the early ʿAbbasids. He was born in Kūfa in 125/742-43 to Persian parents who had recently moved there from Arrajān in Fārs, reportedly to escape the exactions of a tyrannical Omayyad governor (Aḡānī V, p. 2). ... Marianna S. Simpson Safavid prince, patron, artist, and poet generally referred to as Solṭān Ebrāhīm Mīrzā (b. Ḏu’l-qaʿda 946/April 1540; d. 5 Ḏu’l-ḥejja 984/23 February 1577). See ABŪ ESḤĀQ NAẒẒĀM. ee ṢAḤḤĀF-BĀŠĪ. See ŠARQĪ. John R. Perry nephew of Nāder Shah, claiming the Afsharid throne briefly (1161-62/1748-49). Ebrāhīm was born the second of four sons of Moḥammad-Ebrāhīm Beg, Nāder’s younger brother, and was first named Moḥammad-ʿAlī. After his father’s death on a campaign in 1152/1739, he took the name Ebrāhīm Beg. During the 1740s he was military commander (sardār) of Azerbaijan and campaigned successfully against the Safavid pretender Sām Mīrzā at Ardabīl. ... Carl W. Ernst (b. about 947/1540-41), historian of the ʿĀdelšāhī dynasty (q.v.) of Bījāpūr. He traveled from Persia to India as a merchant, and from the age of twenty served Sultan ʿAlī ʿĀdelšāh as a steward (ḵᵛānsālār) and scribe. In 1005/1596-97, he received from Sultan Ebrāhīm ʿĀdelšāh an appointment as ambassador to Aḥmadnagar; he also held posts as governor of the Bījāpūr (qq.v.) fort and treasurer. ... Priscilla P. Soucek b. Šāhroḵ, Timurid prince, ruler of Shiraz, military commander, and renowned calligrapher (796-838/1394-35). At his instigation and with his assistance Šaraf-al-Dīn ʿAlī Yazdī wrote his biography of Tīmūr (Tamerlane), the Ẓafar-nāma. Ebrāhīm himself achieved renown as calligrapher, particularly in the ṯolṯ script, which he employed in both Koranic manuscripts and architectural inscriptions. See ABU’L-QĀSEM EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN. Priscilla P. Soucek also known as Mīrzā ʿAmū, a calligrapher specializing in the nastaʿlīq script. One of the principal students of Mīrzā Ḡolām-Reżā Eṣfahānī (d. 1307/1889-90), he was active during the reign of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qājār (r. 1264-1313/1848-96). Although some albums of his calligraphy are also known, Ebrāhīm is chiefly remembered as the designer of architectural inscriptions for religious structures in Tehran, Ray, and Qom. ... dialect. See RĀMANDĪ. See ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ EBRĀHĪMĪ See ABU’ l-QĀSEM KHAN KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ. EIr a monthly magazine first published on 15 Bahman 1334 Š./4 February 1956 as the organ of Tūda party prisoners under the auspices and with the facilities of the Office of Tehran’s Military Governor, General Teymūr Baḵtīār. Its format was thirty-eight, and later sixty-six, 16.5 x 23 cm pages, priced at 10 rials. Munibur Rahman pen name of Sayyed MOḤAMMAD-QĀSEM, author of ʿEbrat-nāma, a history of the reigns of Awrangzēb’s successors, namely Bahādoršāh (d. 1124/1712), Jahāndāršāh (d. 1124/1713), and Farroḵ-sīar (d. 1131/1719), till the fall of the Sayyed Brothers (1135/1723). Very little is known about him. His father’s name was Sayyed Borhān-Allāh, who spent much of his life traveling in Deccan, Lucknow, and Multan. ... See JUDEO-PERSIAN. Stuart C. Brown (Pers. Ekbātān), present-day Hamadān (q.v.), capital of the Median empire, summer capital of the Achaemenids, and satrapal seat of the province of Media from Achaemenid to Sasanian times. Ecbatana (48°31’ E, 34°48’ N; alt. 1,800 m) is in the Zagros mountains of central-west Persia at the base of the eastern slope of the Alvand range (q.v.; the classical Mount Orontes; Diodorus Siculus, 2.13.7; Polybius, 10.27; “Iasonius mons” of Ammianus Marcellinus, 23.6.39). The city controls the major east-west route through the central Zagros, the so-called High Road. ... Eckart Ehlers Five primary ecological regions may be distinguished in Persia, each with a characteristic combination of features: the Caspian lowlands, the Alborz system (qq.v.) and mountain ranges in Khorasan, the Persian plateau, the Zagros system with the Makrān mountain ranges, and the lowlands along the Persian Gulf. Although most of these regions can be easily defined and characterized, the vast Persian plateau is host to considerable variation in vegetation cover. Four components are of decisive importance: climatic differentiation, phytogeographical diversity, the impact of topography, and the role of human intervention in nature. ... Xavier de Planhol, Robert C. Henrickson, Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Ryka Gyselen, Ann K. S. Lambton, Maria E. Subtelny, Bert Fragner, Hassan Hakimian, M. Hashem Pesaran, Vahid F. Nowshirvani, M. Siddieq Noorzoy, Habib Borjian OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Economic geography. ii. In the Pre-Achaemenid period. iii. In the Achaemenid period. iv. In the Sasanian period. v. From the Arab conquest to the end of the Il-khanids. vi. In the Timurid period. vii. From the Safavids through the Zands. viii. In the Qajar period. ix. In the Pahlavi period. x. Under the Islamic Republic. xi. In modern Afghanistan. xii. In Tajikistan. Xavier de Planhol i. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY The heartland of the Iranian world, encompassing both Persia and Afghanistan, is an arid high plateau, from which communication with the outside world is extraordinarily difficult. In the north there is an almost continuous barrier running from the Caucasus to the Alborz (qq.v.) and thence to the mountains of Khorasan and the Hindu Kush; it can be crossed only through narrow gorges (like the Darband pass, the Safīdrūd valley, and the passes of the Kopet Dag and the Hindu Kush), and the difficulties are compounded by such obstacles as the Caspian Sea (q.v.). ... Robert C. Henrickson ii. IN THE PRE-ACHAEMENID PERIOD Pre-Median Persia was a crucial economic component of ancient southwest Asia from the earliest times (Voigt and Dyson; Dyson, 1987; Voigt, 1987; E. Henrickson, 1989). Throughout its prehistory and early history, interregional diversity of economic scale and complexity characterized Persia. Gross topography, climate (q.v.), ecology (q.v.), and natural resources formed a regionally diverse mosaic of subsistence and economic potentials, ultimately reflected in cultural regions. ... Muhammad A. Dandamayev iii. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD The Achaemenid empire, extending from the Indus river to the Aegean sea, comprised such economically developed countries as Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, Babylonia, Elam, and Asia Minor, lands which had their long traditions of social institutions, as well as Sakai, Massagetai, Lycians, Libyans, Nubians and other tribes undergoing the disintegration of the primitive-communal phase. Therefore, the socioeconomic structure of the empire was characterized by extreme diversity. ... Ryka Gyselen iv. IN THE SASANIAN PERIOD The Sasanians, who inherited the economic conditions left by the Parthians, were quick to forge an economic state so powerful and distinctive that its fame spread well beyond their political frontiers and their period. Although it is impossible in this brief article to take note of all the factors that shaped Sasanian economic power, whether successively or in conjunction, it is possible to highlight several elements that contributed to its particular character, which became a model for the economic evolution of the Near East. ... Ann K. S. Lambton v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS The economic order in Islamic Persia was in theory, if not always in practice, derived from Islamic norms. Society was conceived of essentially as a political and moral entity, and extra-economic criteria were taken as the basis for material life. In Sasanian Persia society was theoretically divided into four estates: the religious classes; the warriors; the bureaucracy, among whom were included biographers, doctors, poets, and astronomers; and lastly peasants, shepherds, merchants, and artisans. A similar hierarchical division of society is found in the works of philosophers and in mirrors for princes in the Islamic period. These not only reflect, in some measure, historical reality—although that reality was, in fact, much more complex—but also, to some extent, molded the way men thought of themselves. However, in practice, the division between the various classes was not rigid. ... Maria E. Subtelny vi. IN THE TIMURID PERIOD The Timurid invasions against the Kartid rulers of Khorasan, which began in 783/1381, caused socioeconomic dislocation and unprecedented wholesale destruction and pillaging of towns, as well as brutal massacres of their populations (or, in more fortunate cases, the extraction of ransom money, large-scale confiscations, and the deportation of classes of people possessing specialized skills). Once he was established, Tīmūr’s (d. 807/1405) main concern, in the tradition of the Chingizid (see ČENGĪZ) models he sought to emulate, was to secure trade routes and to reestablish the exchange economy, with a view to enriching the Transoxanian base of his empire. ... Bert Fragner vii. FROM THE SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS The first Safavid king, Esmāʿīl I (907-30/1501-24), initiated a process of political and religious change in Persia that profoundly affected the economic structure. During the three centuries 1500-1800 the technology, organization, and ethnography of Persian agriculture, animal husbandry, manufacturing, and accounting underwent partial change. ... Hassan Hakimian viii. IN THE QAJAR PERIOD At the outset of the Qajar dynasty, the Persian economy displayed the characteristics of a traditional economy disintegrating under the stress of political anarchy. Several decades of external invasions, internal strife, and endemic lawlessness, exacerbated by the decline of transcontinental trade routes, had brought widespread decay and decline, if not near complete exhaustion, to the economy. ... M. Hashem Pesaran ix. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD From Reżā Shah’s rise to power to his abdication (1299-1340 Š./1921-41). Upon seizing power, Reżā Shah’s priority was to establish the authority of the state over the whole country and to build a strong central bureaucracy. He formed a national army, introduced conscription, and set about the establishment of social and economic infrastructures and the reform of the country’s financial, administrative, legal, and educational systems. ... Vahid F. Nowshirvani x. UNDER THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC The 1979 revolution and the establishment of the Islamic Republic in Persia has had a profound impact on the economy of the country. Since 1979 there have been marked changes in the economic policies, institutions, and structure of the country, in addition to major economic dislocation and disruption of production. Not all the changes have resulted directly from the revolution; many other factors, such as the protracted and costly war with Iraq, trade and financial sanctions, as well as wide fluctuations in the world oil market have also shaped the developments after the revolution. ... M. Siddieq Noorzoy xi. IN MODERN AFGHANISTAN Attempts at modernization in Afghanistan in such spheres as land tenure, taxation, currency, and trade were made in the 19th century by various governments and with different degrees of success. Two factors constrained government efforts at reform: limited domestic resources and an overriding concern for safeguarding the countryŐs sovereignty and independence. Modernization entailed opening avenues to European imperialism through dependence on European resources and technology, especially in the later 19th and early 20th centuries. ... Habib Borjian xii. IN TAJIKISTAN Before its incorporation into the Soviet Union the territory of Tajikistan constituted the eastern part of the Bukharan emirate, with an economy based on agriculture and animal husbandry, as well as on such highly skilled local manufacturing as silk weaving, pottery, and leatherwork. The Russian imperial government had introduced cultivation of cotton on a significant scale only in the densely populated Farḡāna valley, in the northern part of Tajikistan. Rudimentary modern industry was established mainly in Ḵojand, the only significant urban center incorporated into Soviet Tajikistan (Asimov, pp. 190-92; Nurnazarov and Rahimov, pp. 46-50). ... Fakhreddin Azimi (Ar. ʿAdālat “justice”), ḤEZB-E, Persian political party founded by ʿAlī Daštī (q.v.) in December 1941. After the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Persia in August 1941 Daštī, until then an ardent supporter of Reżā Shah (1924-41), was one of the first Majles deputies to defy him publicly and to advocate investigating the conduct and record of his regime (Moḏākarāt-e Majles, 1 Mehr 1320 Š./23 September 1941). ... See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION. Amir Hassanpour (Pers. and Ar. Adab), pen name of the Kurdish poet ʿAbd-Allāh Beg b. Aḥmad Beg Bābāmīrī Miṣbāḥ-al-Dīwān (b. Armanī Bolāḡī, a village northeast of Būkān in western Azerbaijan, 1277/1860, d. ca. 1297 Š./1918). He was born into a family of landed nobility that traced its descent from the local Mukrī rulers and educated first at the local mosque and then in Tehran, though he returned home after only a year. ... Samuel Lieu (Aram. and Syr. Urhai/Orhāi; Ar. Rohāʾ), now Urfa in southeastern Turkey, former capital of ancient Osrhoene. It is situated on a limestone ridge, an extension of the ancient Mount Masius in the Taurus mountains of southern Anatolia, where the east-west highway from Zeugma (in the vicinity of modern Birecik) on the Euphrates to the Tigris met the north-south route from Samosata (Somaysāṭ) to the Euphrates via Carrhae (Ḥarrān). Edessa was held successively by the Seleucids, Parthians, and Romans. ... Karim Emami (Pers. vīrāyeš, a neologism; Ar.-Pers. tahḏīb, tanqīḥ, now obsolete; rarely pīrāyeš, pardāḵt), the techniques of preparing a text for publication, now widely practiced at the major publishing houses in Persia. various authors Pers. āmūzeš o parvareš; earlier Ar. Per. taʿlīm o tarbīat) in Iranian-speaking areas. OVERVIEW of the entry: 1. Ancient and Traditional: i. In the Achaemenid period. ii. In the Parthian and Sasanian periods. iii. The traditional elementary school (maktab). iv. The medieval madrasa. v. The madrasa in Shiʿite Persia. vi. The madrasa in Sunni Kurdistan. 2. Modern: vii. General survey of modern education. viii. Nursery schools and kindergartens. ix. Primary schools. x. Middle and secondary schools. xi. Private schools and educational groups. xii. Vocational and technical schools. xiii. Rural and tribal schools. xiv. Special schools. xv. Foreign and minority schools in Persia. xvi. School textbooks. xvii. Higher education. xviii. TeachersŐ-training schools. xix. Teachers’-training colleges. xx. Adult education. xxi. Education abroad. xxii. Physical education: see PHYSICAL EDUCATION. xxiii. Military education: see MILITARY EDUCATION. xxiv. Education in postrevolutionary Persia, 1979-95. 3. Women’s Education: xxv. Women’s education in the Qajar period. xxvi. Women’s education in the Pahlavi period and after. 4. Education in Afghanistan and Tajikistan: xxvii. In Afghanistan. xxviii. In Tajikistan. Muhammad A. Dandamayev i. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD Little is known of the training of children during the Achaemenid period. In two Elamite documents from Persepolis drafted in the 23rd regnal year of Darius I (499 B.C.E.) “Persian boys (who) are copying texts” are mentioned (Hallock, nos. 871, 1137); the texts in question are records of the issue of grain to twenty-nine individuals and wine to sixteen. It is possible that the boys were learning Persian cuneiform script, which was probably known only to a few scribes, as it was used mainly for royal triumphal inscriptions. ... Aḥmad Tafażżolī ii. IN THE PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS No concrete evidence on education in Parthian times has survived. It may be postulated, however, that it was similar to education in the Sasanian period. Information about the latter period is confined mainly to education of princes, the nobility, the clergy, and administrative secretaries (dabīrs, q.v.). Most peasants were illiterate, but most urban merchants were probably acquainted at least with writing and calculation (Christensen, Iran Sass., p. 416). Jalīl Dūstḵᵛāh and Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī iii. THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (MAKTAB) Before the establishment of a modern educational system in Persia in the early 20th century children received their early and intermediate education in the maktab (or maktab-ḵāna, lit., “place of writing”) under the tutelage of an āḵūnd (q.v.), mulla (clerical teacher), or moʿallem (teacher), who worked alone or occasionally with one or two assistants. Women often served as instructors (zan āḵūnd, zan āqā, or mollā bājī) in maktabs. ... Christopher Melchert iv. THE MEDIEVAL MADRASA In the Middle Ages the madrasa (lit., “place to study” Ar. darasa “to study”; for discussion of darasa as a technical term meaning “to study jurisprudence” and darrasa meaning “to teach jurisprudence,” see Makdisi, 1961, pp. 10-11) was a college for the professional study of the Islamic sciences, particularly jurisprudence (feqh) but also the Koran, Hadith, and such ancillary fields as Arabic grammar and philology, knowledge of which helped in understanding sacred and legal texts. ... ʿAbbās Zaryāb v. THE MADRASA IN SHIʿITE PERSIA After the introduction of the institutionalized madrasa by Neẓām-al-Molk in the late 11th century (see iv, above) Shiʿite madrasas were also founded in Persia and Iraq. For example, by the mid-13th century madrasas had been established in such Persian cities as Qom (eight; Calmard; Mottahedeh, pp. 179-80; Madelung, pp. 77-84; Qazvīnī, pp. 194-95; Modarresī Ṭabāṭabāʾī), Ray (seven), Kāšān (four), Āba (two), Sāva (two), and Varāmīn (two). ... ʿAbd-Allāh Mardūḵ vi. THE MADRASA IN SUNNI KURDISTAN Until the mid-20th century the pursuit of education in Kurdistan was possible only through mosques, as only mullas were literate. Concomitant with their function as places of worship, mosques served as social centers and as rest houses for travelers and itinerant mendicants. Every mosque also contained a chamber called a ḥojra, where the mulla offered lessons in religion and theology free of charge to Muslim boys. Boys, though very seldom girls, began their studies at the age of seven years. ... Ahmad Ashraf vii. GENERAL SURVEY OF MODERN EDUCATION A modern system of national education emerged in Persia in the 1920s and 1930s, after the Pahlavi state had been founded; during this period the influence of the religious establishment was minimized, and the government gained control over schools, expanding enrollment at all levels. Tūrān Mīrhādī viii. NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS The beginnings of formalized preschool education in Persia can be traced back to about 1270/1891, when Armenians in Jolfā, near Isfahan, founded a kindergarten, which continues to function today. By 1298/1919 there were a few kindergartens in Tehran and other cities, primarily founded by missionaries and minority groups. They included Margaret Sorǖīān’s (or Sorūrīān’s) establishment in Tehran (founded in 1328/1910) and that of Šūšanīk Ḵānzādīān, in Tabrīz, which were open only to Armenians. ... Sayyed ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd ix. PRIMARY SCHOOLS A movement to introduce modern primary education into Persia began in 1315/1897, when the newly appointed grand vizier, Mīrzā ʿAlī Khan Amīn-al-Dawla (q.v.), initiated his modernizing reforms. In that year, under his patronage, Ḥājī Mīrzā Ḥasan Rošdīya founded the first modern primary school in Tehran. Rošdīya had already established the first Persian school in Erevan in 1300/1883 and the first modern primary school in Tabrīz in 1305/1888, though in the latter city he had met with continued resistance from conservative religious authorities. ... Aḥmad Bīrašk x. MIDDLE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS Modern secondary education in Persia was originally based on the 19th-century European humanistic system, which was focused on general knowledge and building character, rather than on professional or vocational training. This basic European philosophy dominated the Persian secondary-school system until the 1960s, when reforms were introduced by American advisers. Aḥmad Bīrašk xi. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUP Despite government intervention in educational matters since the foundation of Dār al-fonūn (q.v.) in the mid-19th century, the initial expansion of modern education in Persia was promoted by foreign missionaries and private individuals, usually philanthropists, who considered that national progress lay in expansion and development of the educational system. In 1315/1898 a group of citizens formed Anjoman-e taʾsīs-e makāteb-e mellīya (Council for the Foundation of Private Schools), later renamed Anjoman-e maʿāref (q.v.). ... Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr xii. VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS Attempts to train Persians in modern technology began under the crown prince ʿAbbās Mīrzā (q.v.) and his vizier, Mīrzā Abu’l-Qāsem Qāʾem-Maqām, in the 1810s and 1820s, when seven students were sent to England, three to Russia, and two to France for training in various technical skills. In 1260 Š./1844 the grand vizier Ḥājī Mīrzā Āqāsī (q.v.) sent five students to England, and in 1266/1850 the reforming grand vizier, Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr Kabīr (q.v.), sent five craftsmen to Russia for advanced training in various industrial arts (Maḥbūbī, Moʾassasāt I, pp. 187-95). Moḥammad Bahmanbeygī, Nāṣer Mīr, Moḥammad Pūrsartīp, and EIr xiii. RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1329/1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources necessary to implement these laws, and, in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts, fearing that “dangerous ideas” might disrupt traditional agrarian relations (Sīāsī, pp. 126-31). As a result, rural education underwent a sluggish growth in this period. ... Samineh Baghchehban-Pirnazar xiv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS Children with special educational needs include the gifted, slow learners, the physically handicapped, the emotionally disturbed (nā-sāzegār), and the blind and the deaf. In Persia education for such children basically consists of instruction in reading, writing, other elementary-school subjects, and some vocational training. Blind pupils and some deaf pupils can, however, with the help of interpreters, advance through secondary school and sometimes even university. ... Majd-al-Dīn Keyvānī xix. TEACHERS’-TRAINING COLLEGES Dānešgāh-e tarbīat-e moʿallem, the oldest institution for educating teachers in Persia, was founded as Dār al-moʿallemīn-e markazī (see xviii, above) in Tehran in 1336/1918. It has gone through various phases and changes of name since. Its purpose was to train primary-school teachers, and the curriculum was equivalent to that of a secondary school. In addition, courses in philosophy, logic, and principles of education were offered. ... EIr xv. FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA Modern education was introduced to Persia in the 19th century by European and American religious institutions and military advisers. From 1251/1836, when the first modern elementary school was founded by the American mission in Urmia, until the early 20th century scores of foreign schools were founded by Christian missionaries, the Alliance Universelle Israılite (q.v.), and secular educators in Tehran and provincial towns. In addition, religious minorities in Persia founded modern schools. ... Aḥmad Bīrašk and EIr xvi. SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS No standardized schoolbooks existed in Persia before the advent of the modern educational system. The first were written by European teachers at the Dār al-fonūn (q.v.) in the mid-19th century. They were translated by Persian assistants and printed at the school’s own press for distribution only among the students. A collection of fifteen textbooks from the Dār al-fonūn held in the library of the Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e āmūzeš o parvareš) shows that the emphasis was on mathematics and the exact sciences. ... David Menashri xvii. HIGHER EDUCATION Higher education in the modern sense was first introduced in Persia under the Pahlavis (1925-78) and through a continuing process of reform played a central role in social change in the country. Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾ ī xviii. TEACHERS’-TRAINING SCHOOLS The first institution specializing in the training of elementary-school teachers in Persia, Dār al-moʿallemīn-e markazī (Central Teachers’ College), was founded in a private house in Tehran in 1336/1918. The first director was Abu’l-Ḥasan Forūḡī (q.v.; d. 1959), younger brother of the well-known statesman Ḏakāʾ-al-Molk Forūḡī (q.v.). ... Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr xx. ADULT EDUCATION The first adult-literacy classes in Persia were organized by constitutionalists at primary schools in Tehran and provincial towns in 1327/1909, but those efforts did not outlast the chaos of the period following the Constitutional Revolution (q.v. v; Ḥekmat, p. 376). The first national campaign for adult literacy was initiated in 1936 by ʿAlī-Akbar Dāvar (q.v.), at that time minister of finance and one of the main architects of modernization under Reżā Shah (1924-41). ... Afshin Matin-Asgari xxi. EDUCATION ABROAD IN THE QAJAR PERIOD Persian awareness of a need to learn from Europeans arose in the wake of major military defeats and territorial losses in two wars with Russia in the early 19th century. In 1226/1811 Crown Prince ʿAbbās Mīrzā (q.v.) and his vizier, Mīrzā Bozorg Qāʾem-Maqām, sent two Persians to study in England, followed by five more in 1230/1815. They were to study engineering, medicine, and military technology. Among the second group were Mīrzā Ṣāleḥ Šīrāzī, who wrote the first detailed account of a parliamentary system published in Persia and in 1252/1836 issued the first Persian printed book and newspaper, and Mīrzā Jaʿfar Khan Tabrīzī, who as Mošīr-al-Dawla became a close adviser to Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1264-1313/1848-96). ... Golnar Mehran xxiv. EDUCATION IN POSTREVOLUTIONARY PERSIA, 1979-95 The history of education in the Islamic Republic falls into two phases: from the revolution to the cease-fire between Persia and Iraq in 1367 Š./1988 (the revolutionary period), when Islamic ideology predominated, and the subsequent period of reconstruction and privatization. Afsaneh Najmabadi xxv. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE QAJAR PERIOD The premodern conception of women’s education was varied. In some medieval books of ethical instruction and counsel (see ANDARZ ii) teaching women to read was recommended (Fānī Kašmīrī, p. 141), whereas other authors warned against it (Kay Kāvūs, p. 98; cf. Qoṭb-al-Dīn, pp. 135, 142; Ṭūsī, pp. 229-30, Šojāʿ, p. 220; Dawwānī, p. 206). In the Qajar period girls were sometimes sent to maktabs (see iii, above) until the age of eight or nine years, to be taught rudimentary reading and writing and to receive religious instruction. ... EIr xxvi. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD AND AFTER In the 1920s and 1930s women’s public education in Persia was established and grew rapidly. The number of elementary and secondary schools for women increased. In 1926-27 the enrollment of females in primary schools was about 17,000, 21 percent of total enrollment at that level, and in secondary schools about 700, 6 percent of the total enrollment at that level. By 1946-47 female enrollment in primary schools was 26 percent of the total, in secondary schools 21 percent, and in higher education 8 percent (Table 1). ... M. Mobin Shorish xxvii. IN AFGHANISTAN Traditional education in the regions lying within the present boundaries of Afghanistan followed the general pattern prevalent in pre-Islamic and Islamic Western Asia (see i-v, above). By the end of the 19th century, however, mosque schools (maktabs) and madrasas had lost their vitality, rigor, and scope. As modern Afghanistan emerged, internecine struggles among the ruling Abdālī (q.v.; see also DORRĀNĪ; AFGHANISTAN x) and subsequently among the Moḥammadzai clan ensured that no trace of regular and systematic education remained in the country. ... Habib Borjian xxviii. IN TAJIKISTAN Modern education in Tajikistan developed as the country emerged as a Soviet socialist republic, under the Soviet policy of standardizing the educational system throughout the Soviet Union, with language as virtually the only variable. In Tajikistan, as in other Central Asian republics, this policy brought about nearly universal literacy and establishment of institutions of secondary and higher education that provided training in a wide range of occupations required by the local economy. ... Afshin Matin-Asgari, Golnar Mehran, Afsaneh Najmabadi, EIr, M. Mobin Shorish, Habib Borjian xxi. Education abroad. xxii. Physical education: see PHYSICAL EDUCATION. xxiii. Military education: see MILITARY EDUCATION. xxiv. Education in postrevolutionary Persia, 1979-95. 3. Women’s Education: xxv. Women’s education in the Qajar period. xxvi. Women’s education in the Pahlavi period and after. 4. Education in Afghanistan and Tajikistan: xxvii. In Afghanistan. xxviii. In Tajikistan. S. Moinul Haq , ʿABD-AL-WAHHĀB BOḴĀRĪ (b. Ahmadnagar, date unknown, d. Dawlatābād, 1190/1776; Malkāpūrī, pp. 205-09), Deccani biographer and poet in Urdu and Persian. According to his own account (Taḏkera-ye bīnaẓīr, pp. 33-34; cf. Belgrāmī, pp. 241-42), he was born and spent his early years in the Neẓāmšāhī capital, Ahmadnagar (q.v.), but later moved to Dawlatābād. After completing his studies in Persian and Arabic, theology, law, and medicine, he practiced as a physician. ... François de Blois a family of officials and poets from Qazvīn, reputed descendants of the caliph Abū Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans (13th century). They came to prominence with five brothers, all of whom held high posts under the Mongols. See BĀDENJĀN. See SAYF-AL-DĪN ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN EḠLAMEŠ See NASTARAN. Edda Bresciani, Philip Huyse, Heinz Heinen, Ruth Altheim-Stiehl, Jonathan M. Bloom, Shahrough Akhavi, E. Yarshater, Moḥammad el Saʿīd ʿAbd al-Moʾmen, Ludwig W. Adamec : relations with Persia and Afghanistan. i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period. ii. Egyptian influence on Persia in the Pre-Islamic period. iii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periods. iv. Relations in the Sasanian period. v. Political and commerical relations in the Islamic period: see FATIMIDS, AYYUBIDS, IL-KHANIDS. vi. Artistic relations with Persia in the Islamic period. vii. Political and religious relations with Persia in the modern period. viii. Egyptian cultural influence in Persia, modern times. ix. IranŐs cultural influence in the Islamic period. x. Relations with Afghanistan. See HERBEDESTĀN. See HERBED. See FARĀBĪ Cosroe Chaqueri DŪSTDĀR (ʿAlī-ābādī; b. Sārī, Māzandarān, 1262/1883, d. Baku, ca. 1938), second most prominent figure in the the Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran (Ḥokūmat-e jomhūrī-e šūrawī-e Īrān), the radicalized second phase of the Jangalī movement in the years 1920-21 (see COMMUNISM i). Eḥsān-Allāh was born into a Bahai family and educated at Dār-al-fonūn (q.v.). ... Iraj Afšār also known as Eḥtešām-al-Molk and Moʿtamed-al-Dawla, second son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār (1233-305/1818-88). He seems to have belonged to Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah’s inner circle ... Kambiz Eslami (d. Tehran, Šawwāl 1278/April 1862), seventeenth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā (q.v.) and governor of several regions in Persia during the reigns of Moḥammad Shah (1250-64/1834-48) and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1264-1313/1848-96) Qajar. He was named governor of Yazd shortly after Moḥammad Shah had appointed Ḥājī Mīrzā Āqāsī (q.v.) premier in 1251/1835 and most probably on the latter’s recommendation. ... Īraj Afšār (1255-1310/1839-92), first son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār (q.v.) and maternal grandson of Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā Dawlatšāh (q.v.). Initially, he served as personal attendant (ājūdān-e ḥożūr; Ḵormūjī, p. 258) to the shah with the title Eḥtešām-al-Molk. In 1282/1865 he was governor of Kohgīlūya and Behbahān. ... Mehrdad Amanat , Mīrzā Maḥmūd Khan ʿAlāmīr Qajar, also known as Masʿūd Davallū (b. 6 Šaʿbān 1279/27 January 1863; d. 6 Bahman 1314 Š./26 January 1936), governor, diplomat, and speaker of the Persian Parliament (Majles; Plate I). He was the youngest son of Moḥammad-Raḥīm Khan Qājār Davallū, a highly influential chamberlain (ḥājeb-al-dawla) under Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah. At age nine, while continuing his traditional education in Arabic and Persian, he was sent to the Dār-al-fonūn (q.v.). ... Nassereddin Parvin weekly newspaper published in Tabrīz by ʿAlīqolī Khan Tabrīzī, known as Ṣafarov, who had distributed political šab-nāmas (lit. night letters) in 1310/1892. Seven issues of Eḥtīāj appeared between 12 Moḥarram and 1 Rabīʿ I 1316/3 June-20 July 1898. The meaning of its title (Need) alluded to Persia’s dependence on foreign manufactures. Its satirical articles on this subject led Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā, the crown prince, and his chief steward (pīškār) Amīr-Neẓām Garrūsī (q.v.). ... See ḠAZĀLĪ ii. Rüdiger Schmitt b. 27 September 1906 in Leipzig; d. 3 July 1989 in Würzburg), German scholar of oriental studies, particularly of Iranian onomastics, lexicography, and dialects. Devin J. Stewart (lit. permission, license, authorization), a term describing a variety of academic certificates ranging in length from a few lines to many fascicles. Giving, receiving, and collecting such certificates grew from the science of Prophetic tradition and became an essential part of Islamic education in nearly all academic fields. Three main types of certificate developed in the medieval period. ... Devin J. Stewart (consensus), a technical term in Islamic jurisprudence (oṣūl al-feqh). Opposed to ḵelāf (dissent, disagreement), ejmāʿ is defined by most jurists of the four Sunni schools and by many later jurists of the Twelver and Zaydi Shiʿite schools as the unanimous agreement of authoritative Muslim jurists on a given point of the law. ... S. Peter Cowe (or Echmiadzin; Arm. Eǰmiacin; Tk. Ūč Kelīsā), currently designation of three separate but interrelated entities: the cathedral and monastic complex which forms the residence of the supreme patriarch and catholicos of all the Armenians, the city in which this complex is located, and the district of which the latter is the administrative center. The name means “The Only-begotten descended” and is associated with a vision vouchsafed to the first primate of Armenia, St. Gregory the Illuminator. ... Aron Zysow in Shiʿism. Ejtehād is an Arabic verbal noun having the literal sense of exerting effort. Both ejtehād and its derivatives, including the active participle mojtahed, are used in Islamic literature in several distinct senses. Although as a technical legal term it has been variously defined, according to what is perhaps the most illuminating definition common to Sunni and Shiʿite writers, ejtehād is the “expending of one’s utmost effort in the inquiry into legal questions admitting of only probable answers” (masāʾel ẓannīya; ʿAllāma Ḥellī, p. 51). ... Janet Afary (Mojāhed), FERQA-YE (FEAM; lit., Social-Democratic party), an organization founded in 1905 by Persian emigrants in Transcaucasia with the help of local revolutionaries. It played an important role during the Constitutional Revolution of 1324-29/1906-11 (q.v.) by introducing radical ideas and by taking part in the struggle for the restoration of the Constitution in 1908-09. Members of the organization maintained close links with the Hemmat party, a radical-democratic party organized by Transcaucasian revolutionaries of both Muslim and non-Muslim origins. ... See ECBATANA. James Russell Gk. Akilisēnē, region along the Euphrates in northwest Armenia. Here stood the temple and estate of Anahit at Erēz (see ARZENJĀN). Strabo (11.12.3) describes the site, because of whose fame and prominence the region was known also as Lat. Anaetica, Gk. Anaitis khōra. After Chris-tianization, a necropolis of the patriarchs of the Armenian Church was located in the province, at Tʿil (Semitic l-w, “Hill”), where there had been a shrine of Anāhīd (q.v.). ... J. Bečka (Ekrom), MOḤAMMAD b. ʿAbd-al-Salām, known as Dāmollā Ekrāmče (contemporary Tajik: Domullo Ikromča), a Bukharan scholar and madrasa teacher (1847-1925). He was born in Bukhara, where he received a traditional madrasa ecducation. In 1896 he traveled to the Near East, where he acquainted himself with a more favorable intellectual milieu, which he compared to that in Bukhara. Upon returning to Bukhara, he used his new experience and the writings of Aḥmad Dāneš (q.v.). ... J. Bečka (Jalol Ikromī; 1909-93), considered to be Tajikistan’s most important fiction writer and playwright of the Soviet period. He was born in Bukhara to the family of a judge. He attended Samarkand’s teachers training college and moved to Dushanbe in 1930, where he spent a year in prison during the 1930 purges. F. Grenet and N. Sims-Williams Arabo-Persian form of a Sogdian royal title attested in Sogdian script as (ʾ)xšyδ (more anciently and more commonly written by means of the ideogram MLKʾ ) and in Manichean script as (ʾ)xšy(y)δ. The Old Turkish title šad may be a dialectal variant of the Sogdian word, which is almost certainly etymologically identical with OPers. xšāyaθiya-, Mid. Pers. and NPers. šāh “king”. ... See KĪMĪĀ. Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi , TĀJ-AL-MOLK MOḤAMMAD b. Aḥmad b. Ḥasan ʿAbdūsī Dehlavī (700-52/1300-51), author in Persian and secretary (dabīr) at the courts of the Tughluqid sultans Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Tōḡloq (720-25/1320-25) and his son Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Mo-ḥammad (725-52/1325-51). He joined the royal chancery at an early age and eventually became Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Moḥammad’s private secretary (dabīr-e ḵāṣṣ), who sent him in 1328 to the court of the Il-khanid Abū Saʿīd (q.v.). ... W. Thackston , ḴᵛĀJA, a master calligrapher of the chancery taʿlīq style from Herat (fl. mid 10th/16th cent.). Eḵtīār never left his native city and worked, according to Qāżī Aḥmad, for thirty years on the chancery documents of the Safavid prince Sultan Moḥammad Ḵodā-banda, who was appointed governor of Khorasan in 943/1536 and later ruled as shah from 985/1578 to 996/1588. Examples of his work are held by museums. ... Maria Eva Subtelny the citadel of Herat (referred to in the sources as qalʿa, ḥeṣār), located on an elevation adjacent to the north wall of the old city (Esfezārī, I, p. 77), and actually consisting of two parts, the stronghold proper—a rectangle of fired brick measuring about 18 x 42 m, and a larger area to the west of unfired brick, roughly 60 x 25 m—that were origin |