AFGHANISTAN

i. Geography

ii. Flora

iii. Fauna

iv. Ethnography

v. Languages

vi. PaÞáto

vii. Para@±^

viii. Archeology

ix. Pre-Islamic Art

x. Political History

xi. Administration

xii. Literature

i. Geography

Natural regions. Afghanistan is a fan-shaped country extending from the Wa@kòa@n “handle” in the northeast at about 70° east longitude, out through the highlands to the southwest desert border with Iran at about 61° 3l' east longitude. From north to south the country extends from about 38° 30' north latitude in the northeast to about 29° 30' north latitude in the southwest. With a 650,000 sq. km area, Afghanistan is much the same size as California and Nevada and similar in climate and landforms. The country is bordered on the extreme northeast tip of the Wa@kòa@n by the People's Republic of China, on the north by the Soviet Union, on the west by Iran, and on the south and east by Pakistan. Afghanistan has been divided into a variety of natural regions by different researchers (Humlum 1959, Cressey 1960, and others), but Dupree's work (1973) is probably the most useful. He recognizes eleven primary zones, which are basically either a part of the Hindu Kush mountain system or of the peripheral plains and deserts.

Wa@kòa@n corridor and Pamir knot: This Afghanistan “panhandle” is a long narrow border construct brought into existence by late 19th century political necessity and designed as a buffer zone between Czarist Russia and British India. More than three-quarters of the area is above 3,000 m in altitude, and numerous peaks rise above 6,000 m. Snowfields and glaciers are common in the area. Several wide, flat valleys between the mountains provide limited access and sites for human habitation.

BadakòÞa@n: This high rugged portion of northeastern Afghanistan is characterized by spectacular peaks, gorges, and alpine scenery. The highest peaks are over 6,000 m, but most are around 4,000-5,000 m. Glaciers occur in both the north and south and lakes, mostly of glacial origin, abound.

Central mountains: The main axis of the Hindu Kush spreads out in the center of the country in a broad, fan-shaped arrangement from northeast to southwest. Numerous near-parallel valleys also fan outwards from this massif. Two main passes in the central part allow north-south access; the ˆebar to the west and the Sa@lang to the east. The highest peaks range between 4,000 and 5,000 m.

Eastern mountains: These mountains are another topographically complex area of high-altitude peaks (about 6,000 m) and large valleys. Four main valley systems occur here: (1) the large, open Kabul valley with its thick, alluvial fill and high, surrounding mountains (Pag@ma@n range, Sef^d Ku@h, and Ku@h-e Ba@ba@); (2) the linear Ku@hesta@n-PanèÞ^r valley, which bears to the northeast from the open basin of Ku@h-e Dama@n around Ùa@r^ka@r, north of Kabul; (3) the GÚo@rband valley, which bears to the west from Ùa@r^ka@r to the ˆebar pass, and (4) the Nu@resta@n valley complex, which consists of five major north-south valleys and about thirty east-west lateral valleys. Many of these valley systems contain thick, late Cenozoic sedimentary valley-fill sequences and are much like those in Nevada or western Montana. The R^g-e Rava@n is an anomalous area of sand dunes south of Ùa@r^ka@r.

Southern mountains and foothills: Many low (about 2,500-3,000 m), northeast-southwest trending mountain ranges occur here. Extensive valley fills and broad alluvial plains extend between the ranges, and ephemeral stream channels are ubiquitous. Some alluvial fans and basins of interior drainage occur, together with a few minor areas of sand dunes.

Northern mountains and foothills: This is a broad zone of mountain plateaus and foothills, with some peaks over 3,000 m. The Band-e Torkesta@n range, the Paropamisus (not to be confused with the ancient Paropamisus), Ku@h-e Ùangar, and F^ru@zku@h are the chief ranges. The main valleys from west to east are the Morg@a@b, Band-e Am^r (Balkòa@b), Andara@b-Sayg@a@n-Sorkòa@b system, and the Kondu@z group.

Turkestan plains: The northern foothills decrease in altitude and pass into stony plains of 300-400 m. Sand drifts and dunes abound; loess deposits (wind-blown dust) and salt pans occur. This dry desertic area is commonly separated by marshy, alluvial terraces from the level floodplain of the AÚmu@ Darya@ river, which forms the northern border.

Herat-Fara@h lowlands: This area is a relatively low-lying complex of broad arid alluvial plains, playa basins, and low hills and mountain ranges. Numerous alluvial fans and dry desert washes occur. The general elevation is about 1,000 m, and the regional slope is to the west and southwest.

Helmand valley-S^sta@n basin: The Helmand river system, which rises in the central mountains section, passes through the center of this area. It empties into the endorheic S^sta@n basin through the Ha@mu@n-e Helmand system, a series of marshes and connecting lakes. In exceptionally wet years, it empties into the Gowd-e Zereh, which is an ephemeral brackish lake. The area as a whole is an alluvial plain of about 500-600 m altitude and is characterized by surrounding sandy and rocky desert.

Western stony deserts: These are waterless, barren, alluvial wastes north of the great arc of the Helmand as it swings from south to north. The DaÞt-e K¨aÞ and DaÞt-e Ma@rgo@ deserts are characterized by a desert pavement of stones left where finer sediments were blown away by wind. The altitudes average about 700 m.

Southwestern sandy deserts: This area (Re@gesta@n, DaÞt-e Po@g@dar, DaÞt-e Arbu@) is similar to the above but has many more fixed and mobile sand dunes with some moist, sandy, clay, interdune (pat) areas similar to playas. Much of the sand was probably derived from deflation in the Helmand-S^sta@n depression and the western stony desert section.

Drainage. Water is the life blood of an arid country such as Afghanistan, and the main sources are the melting glaciers and higher precipitation zones of the mountains. In general the rivers of Afghanistan reflect three major drainage controls: (a) the north and northwestward flow into the Central Asian depressions of the U.S.S.R.; (b) the strong west and southwestward flow, largely structurally controlled, into other basins, particularly the S^sta@n depression; and (c) the southeastward flow into the Indus system. Most of the drainage rises in the higher and wetter eastern half of the country. Many of the rivers have steep gradients and run through slender and commonly precipitous valleys in the higher elevations. They carry large silt loads, particularly during peak runoff in the spring and early summer storm-and-melt season, when many disastrous floods occur. About 10 river systems or major subsystems exist (Westfall and Latkovich, 1966, pp. 11-13), although it is difficult to group together many of these arheic and endorheic water courses, which disappear into deserts or swampy areas. Furthermore, nomenclature is as yet not standardized, differing between ethnic and political groups, a fact which makes understanding doubly difficult.

AÚmu@@ Darya@ (Oxus) system: This river of classical fame rises in the high mountain area of the Wa@kòa@n corridor-Pamir knot as the AÚb-e Pa@m^r and the AÚb-e Wa@kòa@n, which flow together to form the AÚb-e Panèa. This river, joining with the Ku@k±a and Kondu@z downstream (together with the WakòÞ from the U.S.S.R.), form the main AÚmu@ Darya@. Farther downstream the Ta@Þkorga@n (K¨olm), Balkòa@b, Sar-e Pol, and AÚb-e Qaysáar-ˆ^r^n Taga@o are also tributary to the AÚmu@ Darya@ during great floods, but most of their water is generally removed for irrigation. After forming the northern border of Afghanistan and the U.S.S.R. for about 1,100 km, the AÚmu@ Darya@ ultimately swings away to the north and empties into the Aral Sea.

Helmand-Arg@anda@b system: The Helmand is about 1,300 km long and drains about 40 percent of Afghanistan's land are. Classical and modern irrigation works along it and its tributaries attest to its importance in agriculture. The river flows generally southwesterly until it empties into the marshes of the S^sta@n basin on the Iranian border, where it is lost to evaporation. Overflow from it and other related rivers, together with the drying up of Pleistocene lakes (Smith 1974), has produced numerous salt flats such as Gowd-e Zereh. Several tributaries join the Helmand, e.g., the Kaè Ru@d, Ter^n, and Ru@d-e Mu@sa@ Qal¿a; but the Arg@anda@b (560 km long) and its tributaries are the most important. The chief among these are the Arg@asta@n, Do@r^, and Tarnak.

Kabul river system: This is the only prime river system in Afghanistan with an outlet to the sea; it flows about 350 km east to join the Indus in Pakistan. The Lo@gar and PanèÞ^r rivers contribute the bulk of the water in the upper reaches; the Lag@ma@n and Konará are the most important in the lower part.

Har^ Ru@d system: This river flows about 650 km west through Afghanistan out of the central highlands. It eventually turns north and forms the Afghan-Iranian border before becoming the Iranian-Soviet border and finally passing into the deserts of the U.S.S.R. The Har^ Ru@d has a single major tributary, the Ka@o@ Ru@d (Kowgo@n), which it parallels for a considerable distance.

Minor systems: The Morg@a@b river in the northwest has a fairly large drainage area with several important tributaries. It flows north into the U.S.S.R. The Adraskand and Fara@h rivers in the west empty into the marshes of the S^sta@n basin, together with the Helmand. Finally, there are a number of tributaries along the southeastern Afghan-Pakistan border which empty into the Indus. Chief among these are the Gumal and Matun.

Lakes: Few large lakes exist in Afghanistan because of the general aridity and lack of suitable depressions. Profuse small glacial lakes do occur, however, high in the mountains of the northeast. Sar-e Ko@l and Ùaqmaqt^n Ko@l are two of the large glacial lakes in the Wa@kòa@n corridor-Pamir knot region. Ko@l-e ˆ^va in eastern BadakòÞa@n is one of the largest in the northeast. In the central mountains the famous five lakes of Band-e Am^r are self-damming in that calcium carbonate is precipitated in the agitated water of the outflow, thus producing a natural rock rim much like that around hot springs. The endorheic DaÞt-e Na@wor basin receives water from the surrounding area and exists as a central, mineral-rich lake with surrounding playa flats (Förstner 1973). The AÚb-e Èsta@da in the southern mountains and foothills between GÚazn^ and Qandaha@r occurs as a depression into which the ephemeral GÚazn^ river flows. This lake is also much like the Na@wor with mineral-rich water and surrounding playa flats, a reflection of the high evaporation of the area and lack of outflow. At one time this lake flowed to the southwest through the Lora river system and into the Arg@anda@b. The numerous marshes, lakes and playas of the S^sta@n basin are collectively endorheic and are shrunken remnants of a much larger (65,000 sq. km) Pleistocene lake (Smith 1974). Within the Afghanistan part of the basin, the reed-filled marshes and lakes of the Ha@mu@n-e Sáa@ber^ and the Ha@mu@n-e Pu@zak receive much of their water from the Helmand system. During very wet years, the water flows out of these depressions into the Gowd-e Zereh, which is otherwise a playa depression of deflation origin (Smith 1974, p. 50). Ko@l-e Namaksa@r, on the border with Iran west of Herat, is a salt-crusted playa which dries up annually, although old beaches attest to its former greater size (Smith 1973). Numerous other playas occur along the border here; Dag@-e Namad^ (Dag@-e Tond^) west of Fara@h is one of the largest. Several other closed depressions with salt lakes occur on the Turkestan plains in the north (Smith 1973). These are Namaksa@r Andkòu@y (K¨úa@èa Mod) in the west and Namaksa@r Ta@Þkorga@n (Sar-e Namak) in the central part of the plains.

Geology. The geology of Afghanistan largely controls the topography. The fan-shaped, central highlands are comprised of old, resistant bedrock; and the younger, soft, and erodable sediments of Cenozoic age (Paleogene, Neogene, Quaternary) wrap around the edges, starting in the northern Turkestan plains, proceeding through the western Herat-Fara@h lowlands and the S^sta@n basin to the southeastern mountains and foothills. The highest, northeastern part of the country is characterized mainly by Prepaleozoic and Paleozoic metamorphosed sediments and granitic intrusions. About 150 km west of Kabul this group divides into two zones, the widest band of which strikes southwest toward Qandaha@r with the narrow zone heading towards Herat. To the north, Cretaceous and Paleocene limestones and red sandstones dominate; to the south are older Jurassic to Cretaceous limestones and sandstones. Tertiary (Paleogene, Neogene) sedimentary rocks are especially dominant along the border with Pakistan between Ôala@la@ba@d and Qandaha@r.

The present topography and geology of this part of Asia can be best understood by reference to the predominant, new theory of plate tectonics. According to it, the Indian subcontinent broke its attachment to Africa about 75 million years ago and moved slowly northeastward across what is now the Indian Ocean. Beginning about 45 million years ago, the leading edge of this plate began to collide with the continental shell that bordered the then southern edge of Asia. The result was a vast folding and fracturing, melting and intrusion of rock, earthquakes, and uplift of the entire Hindu Kush-Pamir-Himalaya mountain chain. The ever-present earthquakes of this unstable region testify to the continuation of this colossal collision (Heuckroth and Karim, 1970).

Geologic wealth may be measured not only in terms of minerals but also in terms of deposits capable of producing good soils for agriculture. The vast plains and valley fills along all but the northeastern borders of the country are predominantly composed of Cenozoic alluvium and wind-blown dust (loess) and sand (dunes). Where adequately watered, some of these materials have good agricultural potential. Some, however, contain excess salts and are agriculturally sterile. A few lakes and playas in these areas may be potential sources of valuable evaporites (Smith 1973). Sweetwood (1968) has listed 24 types of actually or potentially important mineral occurrences: asbestos, barite, beryl, celestite, chromite, coal, copper, dolomite, fuller's earth, gold, iron, lapis lazuli, lead-zinc, limestone, magnesite, manganese, marble, mica, ruby, salt, silica sand, sulfur, talc, and natural gas.

Climate. Afghanistan has an extreme continental, arid climate which is characterized by desert, steppe, and highland temperature and precipitation regimes. The climate is also characterized by strong radiation, copious sunshine (more than 3,000 hours annually in many places), low relative humidity, and high evaporation.

Temperature: High annual fluctuations amounting to 25°-28° C are dominant, with a sudden transition from summer to winter and vice versa (Fischer 1968, p. 73). The map of January isotherms (Sahab 1974, p. 21) shows temperatures greater than 6° C for the Ôala@la@ba@d basin and the two other small low-lying areas along the southeast border of the country. The same temperature regime encompasses most of the southwestern part of the country up to about a line connecting Fara@h and Qandaha@r. The Turkestan plains average between 0°-3° C; and elsewhere temperatures decrease regularly with altitude, so that a minimum of less than -15° C is attained in the central high mountain areas, the glacierized northeast, and in the Wa@kòa@n corridor-Pamir knot area.

The July isotherms show similar distribution patterns (Sahab 1974, p. 22) with a high of about 35° C or greater in the S^sta@n depression in the extreme southwest. The Ôala@la@ba@d basin, the lowest part of the Turkestan plains along the AÚmu@ Darya@, and most of the southwestern part of the country average between 32°-35° C. Qandaha@r, Fara@h, Herat, and much of the Turkestan plains average between 29°-32° C; and elsewhere temperatures decrease regularly with altitude down to a minimum of less than 10° C.

Winds: The general circulation patterns for Afghanistan are (a) a limited southerly monsoonal effect in the southeast which is largely responsible for higher summer precipitation in that area; (b) a persistently northerly effect of the outflow of dry, subsiding, continental air from the high pressure zone of interior Asia; and (c) winter mid-latitude cyclones originating in the Mediterranean basin. During the summer months the strong thermal and pressure differences between the northern plains and southern lowland deserts create the seasonal hot and dusty “wind of 120 days” in the west of the country (Dupree 1973, p. 28). Northwesterly katabatic winds stir up much dust in Kabul during summer (Fischer 1968, p. 74).

Precipitation: Afghanistan is mostly arid with an extreme minimum of about 0-5 cm in the S^sta@n depression, 5-10 cm in the Wa@kòa@n corridor, and subsidiary minima of 10-20 cm in the Ôala@la@ba@d basin and the northernmost Turkestan plains. Elsewhere precipitation increases with altitude to maximums of more than 40 cm in the central highlands, the mountains north and south of Ôala@la@ba@d (which receive the limited monsoonal effects from the Indian Ocean), and the extreme north of BadakòÞa@n (Sahab 1974, p. 20). The highly variable summer precipitation tends to be convectional everywhere except in the southeast, monsoonal, orographic zones. Winter precipitation tends to be largely cyclonic throughout the country and is also highly variable. Blizzards are common in the highlands.

Climate type: The climate of Afghanistan is newly mapped according to a modified Köppen system using the latest available weather statistics (R. Bifaro, personal communication). The dry climates are divided into four subgroups, warm and cold deserts (BWh, BWk) and warm and cold semiarid steppes (BSh, BSk). The warm deserts occur around Ôala@la@ba@d and in the southwest. The cold deserts occur on the Turkestan plains along the AÚmu@ Darya@ and possibly along the higher edge of the warm deserts of the southwest (these could be warm steppes also). The warm steppes definitely occur at slightly higher elevations around the Ôala@la@ba@d basin. The cold steppes occur as a wide loop around the central highlands, extending from Kabul to GÚazn^, through Herat, and back around through Maza@r-e ˆar^f and Kondu@z. They probably also occur in the Wa@kòa@n corridor. The humid mesothermal climates (Cs), characterized by relatively warm temperature regimes, occur at isolated stations at higher more humid elevations with a winter precipitation maximum. Several stations in BadakòÞa@n and one north of Kabul and between Herat and Maza@r-e ˆar^f report such climate statistics. The humid microthermal D climates of the central highlands are also a reflection of lower temperatures and higher precipitation. They grade progressively upward into even colder and wetter boreal climate (E) zones and ultimately into alpine tundra (Ft) and glacier ice (Fi) zones where appropriate.

Soils. Soils in Afghanistan clearly show the impact of centuries of overuse and neglect (Hildreth 1957, p. 9). Descriptions herein are based primarily on the preliminary reconnaissance of Salem and Hole (1969) using classic terminology.

Soils of alluvial plains: Because of leaching or precipitation of minerals, most of these soils lack normal horizonation; some may have it as a result of repeated floodplain sediment deposition. Some reflect strong aridity and have altered upper horizons or slight hardpans. These soils occur in lower reaches of most river valleys.

Saline, alkalai, and salt marsh soils: These halomorphic soils occur in poorly drained areas where soluble salts of sodium, calcium, and magnesium become concentrated through high evaporation. They are most common in the low-lying S^sta@n depression, the Herat-Fara@h lowlands, and the Turkestan plains.

Desert soils, mostly dunes: Soils in this group have little horizonation and are dominantly sand; they occur in the desert wastes of southwestern Afghanistan and on the Turkestan plains.

Desert soils, with few dunes: As used in this classification, these soils tend to be true desert soils with thin or discontinuous organic layers. They commonly have a calcium-rich lower zone which may be a hard-pan. The upper horizons may be deflated away to leave a truncated soil profile consisting of a lag-gravel concentrate. These soils are most common in the Herat-Fara@h lowlands between the low-lying halomorphic soils along the Iranian border and the Sierozemic and brown soils further to the east, towards the mountains. This soil group also occurs along the border with Pakistan.

Sierozem, brown, and mountain soils with lithosols and regosols: The arid-land sierozems have a thin discontinuous gray or brown upper organic layer developed under desert shrubs and a lower carbonate zone. The brown soils tend to have a brown surface zone developed under grass and a more clay-rich subsoil. The regosols are poorly horizonated, sandy deposits; and the lithosols are thin, discontinuous rocky soils. This group of soils occurs as a loop surrounding the central highlands and open to the northeast.

Mountain soils of chestnut, brown forest, and podzolic zones: These soils tend to exist in areas of slightly greater precipitation in the mountains of eastern Afghanistan and possibly in the Paropamisus in the central and western parts. They are transitional between the calcic, arid, and grassland-steppe soils and the soils of the high mountain areas, so they tend to have shrubs and trees and increased leaching of soil materials. The chestnut and brown soils tend to lie between the steppe meadows and the more heavily forested zones, and the scanty precipitation on them restricts organic matter accumulation in the upper horizon. Some may have calcium-rich horizons; others may not, especially as precipitation increases into the podzolic soils. This soil type tends to occur beneath the more heavily watered and forested zones of the higher mountains. They may have a dark, humus-rich layer underlain by a light, leached layer and a lower, clay-rich layer.

Soils of high mountain areas: Alpine tundra and meadow soils commonly have a wet, organic-rich, upper layer, which may overlie gray or mottled yellow or brown subsoils, which may be permanently frozen. Peat accumulations can occur. Lithosols are common wherever rock outcrops predominate and soils are thin. Soil horizonation is limited in these situations and is characterized by profuse rock fragments. Bare bedrock, glacial ice, and snowfields are also included in this group for mapping convenience.

Vegetation. The existing vegetation maps and texts commonly disagree or use different systems of division (Linchevsky and Prozorovsky 1949; Volk 1954; Fischer 1968; Freitag in Kraus 1972; and Sahab 1974). Volk modified the work of Linchevsky and Prozorovsky and divided Afghanistan into five vegetation-group provinces which are essentially geologic-topographic-climatic regions: (a) The Afghan-Turkestan province in the north is thus characterized by poplars, willows, tamarisk trees, and reeds on valley floors and riverbanks; by meadows of annual grasses and geophytes at slightly higher elevations; and a scrub of grasses, small wormwood (Artemesia) bushes of the sagebrush type, and scattered pistachio trees at high elevations. Saxaul bushes occur on moist sites and salt-tolerant plants grow on the halomorphic soils. (b) The central highland province, with its high dry climate, has a characteristic Eurotia-Artemesia shrub association together with leaf-poor, thorny cushion or mat plants (“hedgehog” steppe or “Igelsteppe”). Dwarf almond (Amygdalus) semi-desert occurs together with various grasses at lower elevations, alpine meadow and tundra vegetation at higher altitudes. In addition tragacanth bushes and a few juniper and birch trees occur. (c) The southern, desert province has a hot dry climate and a variety of arid-and salt-tolerant communities such as wormwood, Calligonum, Haloxylon, Arthraphaxis, and Zygophyllum. In sandy areas saxaul bushes and Aristida occur with salicornian shrubs, tamarisk, and members of the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae) near high ground water. Dwarf almond, pistachio, and Prunus trees occur in some places on the contiguous mountains. (d) The central steppe and semi-desert province is transitional between the latter two provinces and is characterized by wormwood communities with a variety of grasses, geophytes, dwarf almond, and sparse pistachio trees. (e) The east and southeast Afghanistan province has the greatest variety of climates, and hence vegetation. In the warm dry lowlands occurs a largely subtropical scrub with various flowering plants and shrubs. The increased precipitation in the mountains produces an evergreen, hard-leafed (Schlerophyllous) mixed wood with various species of birch, juniper, oak, pistachio, almond, ash, olive, walnut, and alder. At higher elevations conifers occur, including pines, cedar, fir, larch, and yew.

Bibliography : The physical geography of Afghanistan is not well known, and much of the existing material is unreliable. That which has been published until recently tends to be superficial and commonly does not relate or refer adequately to other published work. The above can only be preliminary; it is largely based upon the following references, which are regarded as the most reliable: E. Stenz, The Climate of Afghanistan, its Aridity, Dryness and Divisions, New York, Polish Institute of Arts and Science in America, 1946. I. A. Linchevsky and A. V. Prozorovsky, “The Basic Principles of the Distribution of the Vegetation in Afghanistan,” Kew Bulletin 2, 1949, pp. 179-214. O. H. Volk, “Klima und Pflanzenverbreitung in Afghanistan,” Vegetatio, Acta Geobotanica 5-6, 1954, pp. 422-33. A. C. Hildreth, Afghan Soils in Relation to Agricultural Production, U.S.A.I.D. file report, 1957. J. Humlum, La ge‚ographie de l'Afghanistan, Copenhagen, 1959. G. B. Cressey, Crossroads: Land and Life in Southwest Asia, Chicago, 1960. V. Subramanian, V. Nasirov, and M. Z. Salem, Generalized Soil Map of Afghanistan (first soil correlation seminar for south and central Asia, soil map of the world), FAO/UNESCO project, 1962. N. M. Herman, Le climat de l'Afghanistan, Monographies de la Me‚te‚orologie Nationale no. 52 (Min. des trav. publ.), Paris, 1965. A. O. Westfall and V. J. Latkovich, Surface Water Resources Investigations Plan for Afghanistan (U. S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division, Admin. Rept.), Kabul, 1966. L. Fischer, Afghanistan, a Geomedical Monograph (with 10 maps), Berlin, 1968. C. W. Sweetwood, Afghanistan; Important Mineral Occurrences, American Embassy map, Kabul, 1968. M. Z. Salem and F. D. Hole, “Soil Geography and Factors of Soil Formation in Afghanistan,” Soil Science 107, 1969, pp. 289-95. L. E. Heuckroth and R. A. Karim, Earthquake History, Seismicity and Tectonics of the Regions of Afghanistan (with numerous maps), Seismological Center, Faculty of Engineering, Kabul University, 1970. W. Kraus, ed., Afghanistan, Tübingen and Basel, 1972. J. Pias, “Sols d'Afghanistan: Pe‚dogeneàses anciennes et actuelles,” Revue de ge‚ographie physique et de ge‚ologie dynamique 14, 1972, pp. 433-42. L. Dupree, Afghanistan, Princeton, 1973, pp. 1-42. U. Förstner, “Petrographische und geochemische Untersuchungen an afghanischen Endseen,” Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Abhandlungen 118, 1973, pp. 268-312. G. I. Smith, Potash and Other Evaporite Resources of Afghanistan (U. S. Geological Survey Project Report, Afghan. Invest.), 1973. A. Sahab, General Atlas of Afghanistan (with numerous maps but without any references to origin), Sahab Geography and Drafting Institute, Tehran, 1974. G. I. Smith, “Quaternary Deposits in Southwestern Afghanistan,” Quaternary Research 4, 1974, pp. 39-52.

(J. F. Shroder, Jr.)

ii. Flora

Ecological conditions. Meteorological records on Afghanistan have been available since the late 1950s. The findings of the meteorological centers have been applied in climatic studies, maps, and tables of precipitation (see bibliog.); and these have shown the importance of precipitation and altitude as conditioning factors for the diversity of Afghanistan's flora. Precipitation patterns define two main climate and vegetation zones. Ninety-five percent of Afghanistan's territory belongs to the “Mediterranean” zone; and the greater part of its flora pertains to the greater “Turkestan” and “Iran-Turan” regions (see ˆaf^q Yu@nos 1353 ˆ./1974). A limited area—about five percent of the country, in the east and southeast—receives the impact of the Indian monsoons and belongs to the sub-tropical zone. Altitude, throughout both zones, may allow for the development of different strata of vegetation.

The importance of precipitation is evident. In the southwest, where altitude varies from 300 to 1,000 m above sea level, total annual precipitation does not exceed 100 mm. Hence the area (i.e., Re@gesta@n and the region south of the Helmand river) is desert. By contrast the northern plains at a similar altitude experience continental weather conditions and receive more than 200 mm of precipitation. The vegetation of this area is comparable to that of Central Asia and the Uralo-Caspian region. In Afghanistan's mountainous central regions, plains vegetation occurs between 1,200 and 2,400 m altitude, particularly in Kabul province. Above 2,500 m, cool-climate vegetation is observed. In the higher altitudes, where little precipitation is received, only a few forms of Alpine flora occur.

Flora. Afghanistan experiences a real winter, and thus much of its small vegetation has an annual life. With the spring rainfall is observed the growth of terophytes (Ranunculaceae, Brassicaceae) and, more especially, geophytes, including such bulbs as Muscari (grape hyacinth, g@ala@g@ak), Eremurus (desert candle, s^±, sere@Þ-e ka@h^), Tulipa (la@la), Merendera (la@lak-e gorg), and Gagea (zardp^a@z). This vegetation disappears with the coming of summer and the drying up of the plains. Only the xerophytes, which are generally thorny, resist the dry, warm weather of summer. Afghanistan's climate is suitable for halophyle vegetation, especially that of the families Chenopodiaceae, Polygonaceae, and Compositae. Afghanistan's flora (outside of the small subtropical area) belongs generally to the holarctic and floristic group termed “Irano-Turkestanian.”

The following are the families of flora chiefly represented in Afghanistan, in order of numerical importance: Of the family of Compositae, more than 400 species are known, including about 100 species of Artemesia (terkò, kerm-botta, mast-ya@r; A. absynthium: darawna, afsant^n). The Cousinia (paÞmak-kòa@r, barg@aÞ) and Lactuca orientalis Boiss. (oriental lettuce, hu@za, sandra@n, sandrezd) are also present in significant number. The family Leguminosae is attested with about 350 species. The genus Alhagi (camelthorn, Þotor-kòa@r) is most numerous; the gum-producing Astragalus (loco, milkvetch, g^±-kòa@r, band^-botta, è^rak, bu@ya, anzaru@t) and Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (licorice, Þ^r^nbu@ya; a significant item in foreign trade) are also represented. In the Cruciferae family about 200 species are found, especially Brassica (cabbage, owr^; mustard, (kòardel) and Raphanus (radish, moll^), which provide foodstuffs. In the Gramineae family are more than 150 species, including such important cultivated ones as wheat, rice, barley, maize, and sugar cane. Others include the genera Agropyron (wheatgrass, kabal, ±em), Poa (bluegrass, ¿alaf), Arundo (giantreed, ney), Cymbopogon (lemongrass, gu@rg^a@h), and Andropogon (bluestem, ezkòar). In the Labiatae family, more than 160 species are recorded from Afghanistan, e.g., Perovskia (kòeng^, Þ^n-Þo@be@), Stachys (betony, pa@dola@), Phlomis (Jerusalem sage, ±alpo), Nepeta (bozba@Þ) , Salvia (ganda-bag@al, kanowÞa, malanga@n), Hyssopus (hyssop, zu@fa@), Thymus (thyme, ka@ko@t^, pu@d^na-ye ko@h^), Ziziphora (ka@ko@t^), Mentha (mint, na¿na@¿, pu@d^na), and Origanum (marzanèu@Þ, azu@l). The family Umbelliferae attests about 100 species; most notable is Ferula assafoetida L. (heng, alqo@za), an item of export to India. Chenopodiaceae halophyles are common, especially Salsola (Russian thistle, ¿alaf-e Þo@ra), Arthrophytum (s^a@hÞo@rak, oÞla@n), Halostachys, and Halocaris. Besides the Apiaceae, other short-lived terophytes are found: over forty species of Euphorbiaceae, especially Crozophora tinctoria L. (qarabora@q), which furnishes dyes for the carpet industry; over seventy species of Ranunculaceae; about eighty

species of Scrofulariaceae; more than sixty species of Boraginaceae; Rubiaceae; Plantaginaceae; Solanaceae, especially such Hyoscyami as H. muticus L. (bangde@va@na-ye ko@h^), H. senecionis Willd. (bang-da@na ye ko@h^), H. pusillus L. (bangak-e de@va@na), and also Datura L. (da@tu@ra@). The family Zygophyllaceae is represented mainly by Zygophyllum fabago Boiss. (Syrian bean-caper, q^±) and Peganum harmala L. (espand, sarmal). The Ephedra species attests the Ephedraceae (called ho@m in Herat).

Bibliography : The methodical study of Afghanistan's wild plants began with W. Griffith, Itinerary Notes on Plants Collected in the Khasyah and Bootan Mountains 1837-38, in Afghanistan 1839, 1841, Calcutta, 1848. See also his Journals of Travels, Calcutta, 1847. In the wake of the Second Anglo-Afghan War was published J. E. T. Aitchison, “On the Flora of Kuram Valley,” J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 18, 1881, pp. 1-113; 19, 1882, pp. 139-200. There followed a long gap until the major publications of the 1950s: Otto H. Volk, Klima und Pflanzenverbreitung in Afghanistan, Den Haag, 1954. Karl-Heinz Rechinger, Symbolae Afghanicae 1-5, in Det kong. Danske videnskabernes Selskab Biologiske Skrifter 8/1, 1954; 8/2, 1955; 9/3, 1957; 10/3, 1959; 13/4, 1963. Idem, Flora Iranica, Graz, 1965. The results of the Kyoto University Scientific Expedition, 1955, were published in Acta Phylotaxonomica et Geobotanica 16, 1956, pp. 131-42; 17, 1957, no. 1, pp. 14-16, no. 2, pp. 46-51; 1958, no. 3, pp. 73-75, no. 5, pp. 131-42; and in S. Kitamura, Flora of Afghanistan, Results of the Kyoto University Scientific Expedition to the Karakorum and Hindukush, 1955, Kyoto, 1960. Idem, ed., Additional Reports, Kyoto, 1966. On climatic and geographical factors, see: N. M. Hermann, Le climat de l'Afghanistan, Paris, 1965. Hermann, J. Zillhardt, and P. Lalande, Recueil de donne‚es des stations me‚te‚orologiques de l'Afghanistan, Kabul, 1971, and Cartes climatiques de l'Afghanistan, Kabul, 1974. GÚ. Ô. ¿Arezμ, “Geography of Afghanistan,” Kabul Times Annual, Kabul, 1970. Idem, “Eql^m-e háaya@t^-ye Afg@a@nesta@n,” Geographia (Kabul University) 3, 1351 ˆ./1972. M. ˆaf^q Yu@nos, “Motáa@le¿a-ye b^yu@-`^yu@g@ra@f^-e Ma@h^par ela@ Ôala@la@ba@d az nega@h-e naba@ta@t,” Afg@a@n táebb^ maèalla 19, 1353 ˆ./1974.

(M. ˆaf^q Yu@nos)

iii. Fauna

The complex geography of Afghanistan supports a particularly diversified fauna. The Hindu Kush mountains have been a barrier to a westward dispersal of most elements of the Indian fauna realm, and as a result most of the fauna is typically Palearctic. This overlap of two major zoogeographic realms is made even more complex by the occurrence of five major ecological life zones in the country: The central highlands, steppes, southern semi-deserts, monsoon forests, and eastern intramontane basin (Figure 16).

Fishes (ma@h^ha@). The Hindu Kush range divides the country's fish into two assemblages, the trout and carp. Brown trout (Salmo trutta oxiana; kòa@lma@h^) present in northern drainages do not occur in streams of the southern slopes. Southern drainages are, however, rich in carp (Þ^r-ma@h^) species. Annandale (1920) made extensive ichthyological studies in S^sta@n and separated the fish of this dry basin into two geographical divisions. The Cyprinidae, which do not occur in the highlands of Central Asia, represent an element derived from the region lying south and southeast of the Helmand basin, while the Schizothoracinae and Cobitidae are thought to have been carried southward by the Helmand from the Hindu Kush and are probably descended from fish of the ancient and over-extensive Oxus system. Tributaries of the Indus river, which drain the eastern portion of Afghanistan, also contain several fish species. Brown trout (Salmo trutta) and carp (Oreinus sp. and Schizothorax sp.) occur in the colder mountain streams of Nu@resta@n and the Konar valley, while two species of Cyprinidae occur further downstream. The largest fish in this drainage is the spiny eel (Mastacembelus armatus), which attains a length of 75 cm.

Amphibians (dòu@ ma¿^Þatayn) and reptiles (kòazandaga@n). The herpetofauna of large parts of the country, especially the central highlands, has not been studied thoroughly, since most of the work done is centered around the Kabul river valley and southern Afghanistan. The fauna of the northern plains shows strong affinities with that of the deserts and steppes of southern USSR, while elements of the Indian fauna are included in the herpetofauna in the south and east. Only one salamander (Batrachuperus musteri) is known from the Pag@ma@n range and occurs in mountain streams up to 3,000 m. The most common and abundant amphibian is the green toad (Bufo viridis; baqh-e sabz), which is found all over the country. The three species of frogs belong to the Rana genus. They frequently inhabit irrigation streams, although in far smaller numbers than toads. Among the two species of turtles, the land turtle (Testudo horsfieldii, sangpoÞt) inhabits arid steppes all over the country up to 2,400 m. Trionyx gangeticus, a soft-shelled turtle, is known from the Indus drainage system in eastern Afghanistan.

The Agama family, represented by twenty-three species in four genera, is by far the largest group of lizards. The most characteristic of this group is Agama agilis, which is widely dispersed below 2,500 m throughout the country. Caucasian Agama (Agama caucasica) and BadakòÞa@n Agama (Agama badakhshana), the latter being an endemic form, inhabit montane biotopes up to 3,200 m. Nine species of toad-headed Agamas (Phrynocephalus) are typical representatives of this family in the southern and northwestern semi-deserts. The two species of spiny-tailed lizards (Uromastyx) are herbivorous and live in long tunnels which they dig in stony soil of scree-covered deserts. There are fifteen species of geckos. Alsophylax pipiens, a nocturnal animal, is found frequently lingering near lights on the walls of most houses in Kabul. To the east, the leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) occurs near human settlements. Among the Lacertidae the most common genus is Eremias (race runners), representing twelve of the fourteen Lacertid species found in the country. Widely dispersed and abundant are Eremias guttulata watsonana and Eremias velox persica. The small skink, Ablepharus bivittatus lindbergii, which attains a body length of six cm, is commonly found at higher elevations (2,300 to 3,300m). Two species of monitors are known to occur at lower elevations. The desert monitor (Varanus griseus) is found throughout the country; while the Bengal monitor (Varanus bengalensis), an Indian fauna element, is only known from the Kabul river valley.

Twenty-seven species of snakes have been recorded from Afghanistan, of which seven are poisonous (five vipers and two cobras). Among the poisonous snakes the most common is the carpet viper (Echis carinatus), which occurs at lower elevations north and south of the Hindu Kush. The cobra Naja naja oxiana occurs in the south and northwest, while the common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) is known only east of Ôala@la@ba@d. Among the non-poisonous snakes, three species of sandboas (Eryx) occur all over the country. The Colubriadae is the largest snake family with fifteen species distributed in the southern lowlands, the western and northern steppes. A common Eurasian species, the diced snake (Natrix tessellata), reaches the eastern limit of its distribution in Nu@resta@n and into Chitral. In contrast to most other members of this family which inhabit arid areas, Natrix is found near watercourses, where it lives on fish and amphibians. Another snake restricted to the same habitat, Xenochrophis piscator, is known only from the environs of Ôala@la@ba@d. Species belonging to the Psammophis, Coluber, and Lytorhynchus genera are other members of this family found in Afghanistan. The distribution of two wormsnakes, Typhlops vermicularis and Leptotyphlops blanfordi, is not well known.

Birds (parandaga@n). Almost 450 species of birds are known, of which nearly half occur in the steppe region. Within this region, more than 100 species of waterfowl and waders pay regular visits to the alkaline lakes of AÚb-e Èsta@da and DaÞt-e Na@wor. The rare Siberian crane (Grus leucogeranus, kolang-e sef^d) visits AÚb-e Èsta@da en route from India to its breeding grounds on the Ob river in the Soviet Union. Many species also breed at these lakes, including shelduck (Tadorna tadorna, ardak-e waháÞ^), black-winged stilt (Himantopus himantopus, gaz-e l^ng), avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta, ÞamÞ^rnu@l), terns, and gulls. About 20,000 greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber ruseus, g@a@z-e háosayn^) breed at the two areas; DaÞt-e Na@wor (3,200 m) represents the world's highest breeding ground of this species.

The Ha@mu@n-e Sáa@ber^ and Pu@zak lakes extending along the Afghan-Iranian border form an extensive habitat for many water birds, which overwinter annually. More than half a million waterfowl and waders have been recorded in these lakes. Coots (Fulica atra, qaÞqel-e asál^) dominate the scene; greylag goose (Anser anser, angir), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos, sabzgardan), wigeon (Anas penelope, nu@la@b^), pintail (Anas acuta, s^kòdom), shoveler (Anas clypeata, ala-peka), teal (Anas crecca, ardak-e ±u@±a), pochard (Aythya ferina, kalla-sorkò), and three species of grebes (Podiceps, g@awtáa÷^ha@) are some of the major species encountered. Besides waterfowl, two species of pelicans (qotáan), grey heron (Ardea cinerea, ma@h^kòúorak-e kòa@k^), great white egret (Egretta alba, ma@h^kòúorak-e sef^d), spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia, qa@Þoqnu@l), and cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo, qa@z-e s^a@h), and hundreds of waders (shanks, plovers, sandpipers, snipes, and gulls) are also prevalent. Of the raptors, eagles, harriers, kestrels and some vultures abound in the lake surround.

About 150 species of birds occur in the central mountains. The Sa@lang pass forms a major flyway during spring and autumn for large numbers of white storks (Ciconia ciconia, laklak-e sef^d), black storks (Ciconia nigra, ±^la@n), starlings (Sturnus vulgaris, qarakoÞ), and numerous species of waterfowl and waders, which migrate from their wintering grounds to northern latitudes (Nogge 1973). The chukar (Electoris chukar, kabk), Himalayan snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayensis, kabk-e dar^), magpie (Pica pica, ¿akka), hoopoe (Upupa epops, atu@tak), raven (Corvus corax, g@ora@b), chough (Phyrrhocorax phyrrhocorax, za@g@-e ar±a), alpine chough (Phyrrhocorax graculus, za@g@-e nu@lzard), and a number of eagles and buzzards, together with lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus, karges-e boru@tdar), are some of the more characteristic birds encountered in the mountains. Kestrels (Falco tinnunculus, sorkòpoÞtak) are by far the most abundant raptors of this zone.

Many species with Himalayan affinities are found in the Nu@resta@n and Pakt^a@ forests in eastern Afghanistan. Species such as the Himalayan monal pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus, morg@-e zarr^n), black-throat jay (Garrulus lanceolatus, balu@tákòúorak), white-headed bulbul (Hypsipetes leucocephalus, bolbol-e kalla-sef^d), and Himalayan black drongo (Dicrurus macrocerus, Þa@hkara@) occur in these forests. The ringed-necked parakeet (Psitacula krameri, táu@tá^-e táawq^) and saltyheaded parakeet (Psitacula himalayana, táu@tá^-e nu@resta@n^) are summer visitors.

The arid semi-deserts and lowlands harbor few breeding birds. During spring and autumn migrations, the avifauna of this region is enriched by large concentrations of larks and pipits. Tree sparrow (Passer montanus, gonèeÞk-e sáahára@÷^), house sparrow (Passer domesticus, gonèeÞk-e kòa@nag^), and swallow (Hirundo rustica, ga@±^-e kòa@nag^) are common year round in towns and villages.

Mammals (pesta@nda@ra@n). The rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta, Þa@d^ langu@r) is the only primate species besides man which occurs in Afghanistan. It is restricted to the Nu@resta@n and Pakt^a@ forests, where it is found in fairly large numbers. Because of their destructive habits, they are not tolerated by local people near settlements and cultivations; but they are left unharmed in the forests.

The country harbors a rich assemblage of carnivores, but unfortunately most populations are experiencing drastic reductions in numbers. The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus, ta@z^ palang), once common in the southern and western steppes, is now apparently extinct due to reduction in its primary prey species, the goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa, ga@za@l) and onager (Equus hemiones onager, gu@ra-kòar). Likewise, the Caspian tiger (Panthera tigris virgata, babr), once found in the wetlands of AÚmu@ Darya@ and the Morg@a@b basin, has been exterminated through habitat destruction and intensive hunting. Similarly human predation has depleted the numbers of snow leopard (Uncia uncia, palang-e barf^), which is found in alpine valleys of the Pamir plateau and northern Hindu Kush range. The leopard (Panthera pardus, palang) and lynx (Lynx lynx, s^a@hgu@Þ) inhabiting the central highlands have also declined in numbers during recent years. Among the smaller cats, the Pallas's cat (Felis manul, peÞak-e ku@h^) and desert cat (Felis lybica, peÞak-e daÞt^), although not endangered, are experiencing intense human predation to supply the expanding fur trade.

Wolf (Canis lupus, gorg) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes, ru@ba@h-e sorkò) are widely distributed throughout the country in all life zones. They are found at elevations ranging from 300 m in the S^sta@n basin up to 4,000 m in the alpine valleys of BadakòÞa@n. Lack of any substantial records of sand fox (Vulpes ruppelli, ru@ba@h-e daÞt^) and Blanford's fox (Vulpes cana, ru@ba@h-e kòa@k^) suggests that these two desert foxes have become very rare in Afghanistan. The jackal (Canis aureus, Þag@a@l), however, has maintained substantial numbers in the steppes and deserts. During summer months, jackals are occasionally also encountered in the mountains.

Of the two species of mongoose, the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus, mu@Þkòorma@-ye hendu@sta@n^) is common around Qandaha@r and in the Har^ Ru@d and S^sta@n basin, while the status of the Indian gray mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) is uncertain. The bears of Afghanistan are restricted to mountainous and forested zones. The Asiatic black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus, kòers-e s^a@h) inhabits the Lag@ma@n and Nu@resta@n forests (Povolny 1966), while the brown bear (Ursus arctos, kòers-e nasva@r^) has apparently been exterminated in this region but still inhabits the Pamir mountains.

Eight species of Mustelids occur in Afghanistan. They have an extensive range and are found in varying habitats. Trapping by hunters has caused a decline in the numbers of such species as stone marten (Martes foina, dala-kòaffak-e zard táawq), ermine (Mustela erminea, mu@Þ-e táarz^), and weasel (Mustela nivalis, ra@su@) in the montane biomes. The common otter (Lutra lutra, sag-e a@b^) occurs along watercourses of most rivers, and its range extends into the forested Konar region. The striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena, kafta@r) is distributed in the steppes around Qandaha@r and in parts of the Kabul river valley.

The mountains of Afghanistan are the home ranges of five ungulate species. Over 2,500 Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon poli, a@hu@-ye qeÞqa@r) seasonally occupy the Pamir region (Petocz 1973). Siberian ibex (Capra ibex sibericus, a@hu@-ye rang-e pa@m^r^) not only occur in the Pamir but also in the Darwa@z peninsula and the Ze@bak region of eastern BadakòÞa@n and partially into Nu@resta@n. BadakòÞa@n urial (Ovis orientalis, a@hu@-ye sorkò) co-inhabit much of the same range as Siberian ibex in southeastern BadakòÞa@n. The alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex, a@hu@-ye rang) is found in large numbers in the Hindu Kush, Pag@ma@n, and Ku@h-e Ba@ba@ ranges, while the wild goat (Capra aegagrus, a@hu@-ye mog@ol^) is largely found in the southern Haza@raèa@t mountains. The markhor (Capra falconeri, ma@rkòúor) is one of the most spectacular and least known species among the country's feral goats. Four sub-species of markhor occur in Nu@resta@n, Lag@ma@n, the Pakt^a@ forests, and Ku@h-e Sáa@f^ region of Ka@p^sa@ and northern BadakòÞa@n. Local hunting has been a major factor in reducing their numbers in recent years. The Bactrian deer (Cervus elaphus bactrianus, gavazn-e ba@kòtar^), once common in the wetlands of the AÚmu@ Darya@, is also endangered because of habitat destruction and hunting pressure. The musk deer (Moschus moschiferus, a@hu@-ye kòotan), which occurred in Nu@resta@n, has not been reported during recent years and may be extinct there. The wild boar (Sus scrofa, kòu@g-e waháÞ^) has an extensive ecological range and breeds successfully in swamps and reed beds along major river drainages in many parts of the country.

Of the insectivorous mammals, the long-eared hedgehog (Hemiechinus auritus, kòa@rpoÞtak-e gu@Þdera@z) and Afghan hedgehog (Hemiechinus megalotis, kòa@rpoÞtak-e afg@a@n^) are sparsely distributed in the steppes and semi-deserts, while Brandt's hedgehog (Paraechinus hypomelas) is only recorded from the Ôala@la@ba@d valley in eastern Afghanistan. Besides occurring in the lowlands, shrews (Soricidae, mu@Þha@-ye waháÞ^) are also found in mountainous terrain, e.g., the centrally located Sa@lang and ˆebar passes. The cape hare (Lepus capensis, kòargu@Þ-e kòa@k^) is the most common Lagomorph species and has a wide range extending from the western steppes of Herat to the Pamir mountains. The Afghan pika (Ochotona rufescens, pengmu@Þ-afg@a@n^) occurs in sub-alpine valleys and is scattered from the Sa@lang pass to the Oru@zga@n mountains, while the range of large-eared pika (Ochotona macrotis, pengmu@Þ-e gu@Þdera@z) is limited to the valleys of BadakòÞa@n.

The long-tailed marmot's (Marmota caudata, tabarg@a@n) range is restricted to alpine valleys above 3,000 m. It occurs in the Pamir, Ze@bak, and Darwa@z valleys of BadakòÞa@n and northern Hindu Kush as well as the centrally located mountains around Na@war. Two arboreal species of squirrels, the giant flying squirrel (Petaurista petaurista, kaftarmu@Þ-e bozorg) and arrow-tailed flying squirrel (Hylopetes fimbriatus, kaftarmu@Þ-e domba@r^k), inhabit the Nu@resta@n and Sp^nga@r forests. During spring and summer, when not hibernating, the ground squirrel (Spermophilus fulvus, senèa@b-e zam^n^) is abundant in the GÚazn^ and Katawa@z plains, while the long-clawed squirrel (Spermophilopsis leptodactylus, senèa@b-e bozorg) occurs in clay and loess biotopes of northern Afghanistan. The rapidly expanding populations of smaller rodents, i.e., voles and gerbils (Cricetidae) and rats (Muridae), are posing serious problems to agriculture in the steppes. An expanding agricultural economy, reduction in predator numbers, especially wild cats and foxes, and favorable weather conditions have fostered the increase.

Thirty-two species of bats have been identified in Afghanistan (Gaisler et al. 1968). Their preferred habitat is in warmer sections of the country, where they may be found in abandoned ruins and caves of the S^sta@n basin and the steppes. To the east, common bats (Myotis and Pipistrellus) have been observed in La@gma@n and the Kabul river valley.

Bibliography : N. Annandale, “Aquatic Fauna of Seistan,” Rec. Indian Museum 18, 1920, pp. 150-253. K. Paludan, On the Birds of Afghanistan, Copenhagen, 1959. J. Niethammer, “Die Säugetiere Afghanistans: Insectivora, Rodentia, Lagmorpha,” Science Quarterly (Kabul), 1965, pp. 18-41. J. Gaisler et al., “Faunal and Ecological Review of Mammals Occurring in the Environs of Jalalabad: Chiroptera,” Zool. Listy 17/1, 1968, pp. 41-48. B. Kral, “Notes on the Herpetofauna of Certain Provinces of Afghanistan,” Zool. Listy 18/1, 1969, pp. 55-66. E. Kullmann, “Die Tierwelt Ostafghanistans in ihren geographischen Beziehungen,” Freunde des Kölner Zoo 13/1, 1970, pp. 3-25. A. E. Leviton and S. C. Anderson, “The Amphibians and Reptiles of Afghanistan,” Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences 38, 1970, pp. 163-206. P. Schneider and A. S. Jalal, “Erstnachweis einer Weichschildkröte, Trionyx gangeticus, in Afghanistan,” Bonn. zoologische Beiträge 21/3-4, pp. 269-73. M. Ehsan, “Herpetofaunal Regions of Afghanistan,” Science Quarterly (Kabul) 2/1-2, pp. 20-42. J. Hassinger, “A Survey of the Mammals of Afghanistan,” Fieldiana: Zoology 60, 1973. C. Naumann and J. Niethammer, “Zur Säugetierfauna des Afghanischen Pamir und des Wakhan,” Bonn. zoologische Beiträge 24, 1973, pp. 237-48. G. Niethammer, “Zur Vogelwelt des Afghanischen Pamir und des Darwaz,” ibid., 24, 1973, pp. 270-84. G. Nogge, “Vogeljagd am Hindukush,” Natur und Museum 103, 1973, pp. 276-79. R. G. Petrocz, “Marco Polo Sheep (Ovis ammon poli) of the Afghan Pamir,” mimeo. report, United Nations Development Program, Kabul, 1973. Idem, W. F. Rodenburg, and K. Habibi, “The Birds of Hamune Puzak,” mimeo. report, Kabul, 1976.

(K. Habibi)

iv. Ethnography

In their ethnolinguistic and physical variety the people of Afghanistan are as diverse as their country is in topography. Basically, however, they may be described as of Muslim religion, speakers of Indo-European languages, and of the Mediterranean sub-stock of the great Caucasoid human stock (see bibliog. under physical anthropology). Most groups north of the Hindu Kush mountains exhibit varying degrees of Mongoloid physical characteristics. Except in rural areas off the main lines of communications, few peoples maintain racial homogeneity. Many groups have practiced intermarriage for centuries; and composite communities exist in broad bands of ethnic gray zones (see the map of ethnic groups). Where long contact has existed between Caucasoid and Mongoloid peoples, particularly in the north among the Fa@rs^- (or Dar^-) speaking Tajik and the Turkic Uzbek, there occur combinations of red or blond hair and blue or mixed-color eyes in association with epicanthic eyefolds and high cheekbones. In the south many darker-skinned Balu@± and Bra@hu@^ also have blue-green, or mixed eyes. Blondism occurs with comparatively high frequency among the more remote Nu@resta@n^; and blue and mixed eyes occur in combination with blond or red hair. The research on the fringes of Nu@resta@n by the Soviet anthropologist G. Debets indicates a great mixture of “Mediterranean-Indian” types; but more blondism exists in the center of the region.

Afghanistan is not a self-contained ethnic unit, nor is its national culture uniform. Few of its ethnic groups are totally indigenous: The number of PaÞátu@n who live in Pakistan's tribal agencies and North-West Frontier Province is almost equal to the number of those who are Afghan citizens. The Tajik, Turkman, Uzbek, and Qirg@iz have their own soviet republics in Central Asia. Most inhabitants of far western Afghanistan (which is geographically and culturally an extension of the Iranian plateau) are Persian-speaking Fa@rs^wa@n. And the Balu@± in the southwestern corner of Afghanistan extend into western Pakistan and southeast Iran; also several groups of Balu@± live in the Turkmen SSR. In the same general area as the Balu@± are found the Bra@hu@^—speakers of a Dravidian language, who are occasionally Australoid in appearance. The Nu@resta@n^, Ku@hesta@n^, Guèur, and other small groups of mountaineer sheep— and goat-herders, dairymen, and farmers occupy the rugged mountain zones of eastern Afghanistan and continue into Chitral (Pakistan). The Wa@kò^-Pamiri groups likewise extend into the mountains of Pakistan. The Barbar^ of eastern Iran probably derive their origin from the Ayma@q or Haza@ra, the principal peoples of the central mountains of Afghanistan. These groups present many local and ethnolinguistic variations in their forms of Afghan peasant-tribal society. This society may be described generally as patriarchal, patrilineal, and patrilocal, but imbued with many strong matri-aspects.

In December, 1979, the armed forces of the USSR invaded Afghanistan; subsequently the patterns described in this section have been altered to some degree. The situation remains unclear as of this writing (July, 1982), and the war continues to escalate.

Ethnic groups in Afghanistan. In the following list, the form of religion is, except where noted or as qualified, Hanafite Sunni.

PaÞátu@n. Language: PaÞáto@ dialects. They are of the Mediterranean subgroup of the Caucasoid human stock. About 4,800,000 live in Afghanistan as agriculturists, nomads, and semi-nomads. The Tu@r^ are Shi¿ites. Bibliog.: L. Dupree, “The Changing Character of South-central Afghanistan Villages,” Human Organization 14, 1956, pp. 26-29. K. Ferdinand, “Nomad Expansion and Commerce in Central Afghanistan,” Folk 4, 1962, pp. 123-59. Idem, “Nomadism in Afghanistan,” in Viehwirtschaft und Hirtenkultur, ed. L. Föeldes and B. Gunda, Budapest, 1969, pp. 127-60. O. Caroe, The Pathans, London, 1965. H. -J. Wald, Landnutzung und Siedlung der Pashtunen im Becken von Khost, Opladen, 1969. C. Jentsch, Das Nomadentum in Afghanistan (Afghanische Studien 9), Meisenheim, 1973. N. Tapper, “The Advent of Pashtun maldars in North-western Afghanistan,” BSOAS 36, 1973, pp. 55-79. R. Tapper, “Nomadism in Modern Afghanistan,” Afghanistan in the 1970s, ed. L. Dupree and L. Albert, New York, 1974, pp. 126-43. A. Janata, “Ghairatman—Der gute Pashtune,” Afghanistan Journal 2/3, 1975, pp. 83-97. B. Glatzer, Nomaden von Gharjistan, Wiesbaden, 1977. G. Kuhnert, Falknerei in Afghanistan, Bonn, 1980. A. Christensen, “The Pashtuns of Kunar,” Afghanistan Journal 7/3, 1980, pp. 79-92. W. Steul, Paschtunwali, Wiesbaden, 1981. G. Pedersen, “Socio-economic Change among a Group of East Afghan Nomads,” Afghanistan Journal 8, 1981, pp. 115-22. Relevant, though particularly concerned with the PaÞátu@n of Pakistan, are: F. Barth, Indus and Swat Kohistan: An Ethnographic Survey, Oslo, 1956. Idem, Political Leadership among the Swat Pathans, London, 1959. For the various PaÞátu@n tribes, see also A Dictionary of the Pathan Tribes of the North-West Frontier of India, Calcutta (General Staff, Army HQ India), 1910. Afghanistan: Field Notes of General Staff; India, 2nd ed., Calcutta, 1915. R. Ridgway, Pathans, Calcutta, 1918. C. Davies, The North-West Frontier, 1890-1908, Cambridge, 1932. Afghanistan: British Intelligence Survey, London, 1948. A. Ahmed, Millennium and Charisma Among Pathans, London, 1976. Idem, Social and Economic Changes in the Tribal Areas, Karachi, 1977. L. Dupree, “On two Views of the Swat Pushtun,” Current Anthropology 18, 1977, pp. 514-17. J. Robertson, Notes on the Nomad Tribes in Eastern Afghanistan, Quetta, 1978 (repr. of the 1934 classic). E. Howell, Mizh: A Monograph on the Government's Relations with the Masud Tribe, Karachi, 1979; foreword by A. Ahmed. A. Ahmed, Pukhtun Economy and Society, London, 1980. F. Barth, Selected Essays: Features of Person and Society in Swat. Collected Essays on Pathans, vol. 2, London, 1981. A. Singer, Guardians of the North-West Frontier: The Pathans, Amsterdam, 1982. See Balland under Tajik.

Tajik. Language: Dar^; Tajiki dialects. Of the basic Mediterranean sub-stock, they show Mongoloid attributes increasingly from south to north. About 3,500,000 live in northern Afghanistan, primarily as agriculturists. They are concentrated in the northeast, where they usually refer to themselves by the valley or region in which they live. Those living in areas dominated by other ethnic groups refer to themselves simply as “Tajik.” (For the history of the term, see Tajik.) Some are Isma¿ili. Bibliog.: M. Andreev, --> Po[Author:AVP] etnografii Afganistana, Tashkent, 1927. Idem, Po etnologii Afganistana, Tashkent, 1932. P. Snoy, “Nuristan und Mung¡an,” Tribus 14, 1965, pp. 101-49. F. Kussmaul, “Siedlung und Gehöft bei den Tag¡iken in den Bergländern Afghanistans,” Anthropos 60, 1965, pp. 487-532. Idem, “BadaxÞan und seine Tag¡iken,” Tribus 14, 1965, pp. 711-99. L. Dupree, “Aq Kupruk: A Town in North Afghanistan,” 2 parts, American University Field Staff (AUFS), Fieldstaff Reports 10/9-10, Hanover, N. H., 1966; repr. in Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East, ed. L. Sweet, II, New York, 1970, pp. 344-87. J. Uberoi, “Men, Women and Property in Northern Afghanistan,” India and Contemporary Islam, ed. S. Lokhandwall, Simla, 1971, pp. 388-416. N. Allan, “The Modernization of Rural Afghanistan: A Case Study,” Afghanistan in the 1970s, pp. 113­-25. D. Balland, “Vieux se‚dentaire tadjik, les immigrants Pachtoun dans le sillon de Ghazni (Afghanistan oriental),” Bulletin de l'Association des ge‚ographes français 51, 1974, pp. 171-80.

Fa@rs^wa@n. Language: Dar^. Of the basic Mediterranean sub-stock, about 600,000 live near the Afghan-Iranian border or in the districts of Herat, Qandaha@r, GÚazn^, and other southern and western towns. The term Fa@rs^wa@n also has the regional forms Pa@rs^wa@n and Pa@rs^ba@n. In religion they are Imamite Shi¿ite. In the literature they are often mistakenly referred to as Tajik. Bibliog: P. English, “The Pre-industrial City of Herat,” Cities in the Middle East, ed. L. Brown, Princeton, 1973. H. Baghban, The Content and Concept of Humor in Magadi Theater, PhD thesis, Indiana University (University Microfilms 77-10-977).

Qizilba@Þ. Language : Dar^. Of the Mediterranean sub-stock, they are scattered throughout Afghanistan and are primarily urban. They are descendants of the military and administrative personnel stationed in Afghanistan by Na@der Shah AfÞa@r (1148-60/1736-47). Many hold important bureaucratic and professional appointments, and they form one of the more literate groups in Afghanistan. They practice Imamite Shi¿ism but may also, to avoid discrimination, resort to dissimulation (taq^ya). Bibliog.: H. Hahn, Die Stadt Kabul (Afghanistan) und ihr Umland (Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen 34, 35), 1964, 1965. D. Wiebe, “Struktur und Funktion eines Serais in der Altstadt von Kabul,” Schriften der Geographischen Instituts der Universität Kiel 38, 1973, pp. 213-33. L. Dupree, “Further Notes on Taqiyya: Afghanistan,” JAOS 99, 1979, pp. 680-82.

Haza@ra. Language: Haza@rag^ dialect of Dar^. They are physically Mongoloid, but admixture is common in the ethnic gray zones. The Haza@ra number about 1,000,000, primarily highland agriculturalists; many work seasonally in Kabul and other urban centers. Their ancestors may have arrived in Afghanistan from Chinese Turkistan within the period 626-850/1229-1447. In religion they are divided into Imamite Shi¿ite, Isma¿ili, and Hanafite Sunni groups. Bibliog.: E. Bacon, Obok (Wenner-Gren Foundation Monograph 25), New York, 1951. Idem, “An Inquiry into the History of the Hazara Mongols of Afghanistan,” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 7, 1951, pp. 230-47. K. Ferdinand, Preliminary Notes on Hazara Culture, Copenhagen, 1951. Idem, “Ethnographical Notes on the Chahar Aimaq, Hazara and Moghol,” Acta Orientalia 28, 1964, pp. 175-203. H. Dianous, “Hazaras et Mongols en Afghanistan,” Orient 5, 1961, pp. 71-113. H. Schurmann, The Mongols of Afghanistan, The Hague, 1962. Dupree, “The Green and the Black,” AUFS, Fieldstaff Reports, South Asia Series, 7/7, 1963. R. Canfield, “Hazara Integration into the Afghan Nation,” The Asia Society, Afghanistan Council, Occasional Paper 3, New York, 1972. Idem, “Faction and Conversion in a Plural Society: Religious Alignments in the Hindu Kush,” Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Anthropological Paper 50, Ann Arbor, 1973.

Ayma@q. Language: Dar^ dialects, incorporating much Turkic vocabulary. They are Mongoloid in basic physical type, but less notably so in appearance than the Haza@ra. Numbering about 500,000, they are agriculturalists and transhumants. They refer to themselves by tribal names (see map) and not by the expression “Ùaha@r Ayma@q;” the first of these two terms is used only when people are prompted. Bibliog.: G. Mandersloot and J. Powell, Firozkohi een Afghanistan Reisjournal, Rotterdam, 1971. See also Ferdinand, “Ethnographical Notes,” under Haza@ra.

Mog@ol. Language: Dar^, incorporating much Mongol vocabulary; some southern Mog@ol speak PaÞáto@. They are basically Mongoloid, but occasional Mediterranean admixture occurs. Several thousand are scattered throughout central and north Afghanistan as highland agriculturalists and transhumants. They were originally concentrated in GÚo@r province, their dispersion occurring at least 125 years ago; they may be descended from troops that accompanied Genghis Khan. Bibliog.: A. Mariq, “Arwitsch, un village mongole,” Le minaret du Djam, Paris, 1959, pp. 77-78. S. Homam, “Afghan Moghols,” Afghanistan 33/1-2, 1980, pp. 87-99, 33-39. See also bibliog. under Haza@ra.

Uzbek. Language: Ùag@ata@y (central Turkic) dialects. Basically Mongoloid, these people show much Mediterranean admixture in the ethnic gray zones. About 1,000,000 live in northern Afghanistan, chiefly sedentary farmers or transhumants. They refer to themselves by old tribal names—Harak^, Kamak^, Mang^t, Ming, ˆe@Þ Qara, Taymu@s. Bibliog.: G. Jarring, On the Distribution of Turk Tribes in Afghanistan: An Attempt at a Preliminary Classification (Lunds Universitets Arsskritt, N.F., avd. 1, bd. 35, no. 4, 1939). P. Centlivers, “Les Uzbeks du Qattaghan,” Afghanistan Journal 2, 1976, pp. 28-36. See also Dupree, “Aq Kupruk,” under Tajik.

Turkman. Language: Og@uz dialects. In physical type they are acquiline Mongoloid; about 400,000 live as semi-sedentary and semi-nomadic farmer-herdsmen in north Afghanistan (concentrated in the northwest). After the failure of the 1920s basma±é resistance to the Bolsheviks in Central Asia, Turkman groups brought with them into Afghanistan the karakul lamb and rug-weaving industries; others had arrived earlier. Major groups include: Tekke, Yomu@d, Tariq, Lakai in the Herat region; Tekke and Ersar^ in Aq±a; Sa@roq and Ùakra in Andkòu@y; Salo@r in Maymana and in Maru@±ak; Ersar^ and Mawr^ in Dawlata@ba@d. Bibliog.: Jarring, On the Distribution of Turk Tribes. W. Irons, “The Torkoman Nomads,” Natural History 77, 1968, pp. 44-51. Idem, “Variation in Political Stratification among the Yomut Turkmen,” Anthropological Quarterly 44, 1971, pp. 143-56 (both on the Iranian Yomu@d, but relevant). E. Franz, “Zur gegenwartigen Verbreitung und Gruppierung der Turkmenen in Afghanistan,” Baessler-Archiv 20, 1972, pp. 191-238. Idem, “Ethnographische Skizzen zur Frage der Turkmenen in Afghanistan,” Orient 4, 1972, pp. 175-84. X. de Planhol, “Sur la frontieàre turkmeàne de l'Afghanistan,” Revue ge‚ographique de l'Est 13/1-2, 1973, pp. 1-16. A. Stucki, “Unter Turkmenen,” Tages Anzeiger Magazin 44, 1978, pp. 6-13.

Qirg@iz. Language: Qép±aq dialects. Two groups of the Mongoloid Qirg@iz, comprising several thousand transhumants, tend sheep, goats, and yaks in the Little Pamir and Great Pamir. Bibliog.: Jarring, On the Distribution of Turk Tribes. R. Dor, Contribution aà l'e‚tude des Kirghiz du Pamir Afghan (Cahiers Turcica 1), Paris, 1975. R. de Grancy and R. Kostka, ed., Grosser Pamir, Graz, 1975. R. Dor and C. Naumann, Die Kirghisen des afghanischen Pamir, Graz, 1978. M. Shahrani, The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan, Seattle, 1979. L. Dupree, “The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan,” Asian Affairs 11, 1980, pp. 322-25.

Bra@hu@^. Language: Bra@hu@^ (Dravidian); most also speak PaÞáto@ or Balu@±^. A modified Mediterranean sub-stock with moderate Australoid admixture, the Bra@hu@^s in southwest Afghanistan number about 10,000. They are usually tenant farmers or hired herders for PaÞátu@n or Balu@± khans. Principal groups include: Aydoz^, La@warz^, Ya@g@^z^, Zirkand^, Mahámasa@n^. See the literature on the Bra@hu@^ in Pakistan: D. Bray, The Life-History of a Brahui, London, 1913. N. Swidler, “The Political Context of Brahui Sedentarization,” Ethnology 12, 1973, pp. 299-314.

Nu@resta@n^. Language: Nu@resta@n^ dialects. They are of the Mediterranean sub-stock with about one-third recessive blondism. About 70,000 are settled in eastern Afghanistan. Formerly termed “Kafirs,” they were converted forcibly to Islam in the late 19th century by Amir ¿Abd-al-Raháma@n. (About 2-3,000 Chitrali Kafirs still practice the old religion, according to the unpublished research of P. Parkes.) The Nu@resta@n^s designate themselves by local geographical names, e.g., BaÞgal^, Waygal^, Pa@ru@n^, AÞku@n, Wama@÷^. They practice both agriculture (using elaborate terracing on the mountain slopes) and herding of sheep, goats, and cattle. Particularly noticeable in their culture is the proliferation of wood artifacts. Bibliog.: G. S. Robertson, Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, London, 1896, new ed., 1900; repr., Karachi, with foreword by L. Dupree, 1975. A. Scheibe, ed., Deutsche im Hindukusch, Berlin, 1937. P. Snoy, “Nuristan und Mungan,” Tribus 14, 1965, pp. 101-49. S. Jones, An Annotated Bibliography of Nuristan (Kafiristan) and the Kalash Kafirs of Chitral, 2 parts, Copenhagen, 1966-69. Idem, The Political Organization of the Kom Kafirs, Copenhagen, 1967. A. R. Palwal, “History of Former Kafiristan,” Afghanistan 21/3, 1968, pp. 48-66; 21/4, pp. 61-88; 22/1, 1969, pp. 6-27; 22/2, pp. 20-43. L. Dupree, “Nuristan: The Land of Light Seen Darkly,” AUFS Fieldstaff Reports, South Asia Series, 15/6, 1971. K. Jettmar, ed., Cultures of the Hindu Kush, Heidelberg, 1974. Idem, Die Religionen des Hindu Kusch, Stuttgart, 1975; English tr., Warminster, 1980. R. Strand, “The Changing Economy of the Kom Nuristani,” Afghanistan Journal 2, 1975, pp. 123-34. M. Melabar, “A Native Account of the Folk History of the Kalashum,” Afghanistan 30/3, 1977; 30/4, 1978. L. Edelberg and S. Jones, Nuristan, Graz, 1979. B. Kingsley, “The Cap that Survived Alexander,” JAOS 85, 1981, pp. 39-46.

Ko@hestan^. Language: Dardic (Indo-Aryan) dialects. The term Ko@hestan^ is applied to the distinct linguistic groups, numbering about 60,000 individuals, on the southern fringe of Nu@resta@n—e.g., speakers of PaÞa^, Gawar-ba@t^, Sa@waè^, Dag@na^, and Kuwa@r. They are of Mediterranean physical type. Bibliog.: R. L. Keiser, “Social Structure in the Southeastern Hindu Kush: Some Implications for Pashai Ethno-history,” Anthropos 69, 1974, pp. 445-56. Idem, “Genealogical Beliefs and Social Structure among the Sum of Afghanistan,” Afghanistan Council, Asia Society, Occasional Paper 5, 1975. P. Snoy, Bagrot, Eine dardische Talschaft im Karakorum, Graz, 1975. K. Wutt, Pashai, Graz, 1981.

Gal±a (or Mountain Tajik). Language: in addition to Dar^, various Pamir (Eastern Iranian) languages: EÞka@Þm^, Munj^, OÚrmurá^, Para@±^, Ro@Þa@n^, Sangle@±^, ˆug@n^, Wa@kò^, Yag@no@b^. They are of the Mediterranean sub-stock with Mongoloid admixture; several thousand live as farmers, mainly in BadakòÞa@n and the Wa@kòa@n. In religion some are Hanafite Sunni, others Isma¿ili. Bibliog.: K. Gratzl, ed., Hindukusch, Graz, 1974. See also Shahrani under Qirg@iz, Kussmaul under Tajik, and bibliog. under v. Languages.

Balu@±. Language: Balu@±^. Of the Mediterranean sub-stock with brachycephalic tendencies, about 200,000 live in Afghanistan. They are now semi-sedentary and semi-nomadic, having traditionally been nomads and caravaneers (and slavers until the late 19th century). Some live in the northwest; others travel from S^sta@n to Herat in summer and return in winter. Most Afghan Balu@± are RokòÞa@n^; main sub-groups include: Sanèara@n^, Nahu@r^, Yamarzay, Sumarzay, GumÞa-zay, Sarband^, M^a@ngol, Haru@t, Sa@la@rzay. In the S^sta@n swamps lives a specialized hunter-fisherman group, the Sáayya@d. Bibliog.: See under Balu@±. R. Pehrson and F. Barth, The Social Organization of the Marri Baluch, Chicago, 1966. B. Spooner, “Politics, Kinship and Ecology in Southeast Persia,” Ethnology 7, 1969, pp. 139-52. E. Gafferberg, Perezhitki religioznykh predstavleni¥ u Beludzhe¥, Moscow, 1975. See also Embree under Other.

Guèur. Language: of the Indo-Aryan group; most also speak PaÞáto@. Of Mediterranean type, they are cattle-herders and farmers on the eastern fringe of Nu@resta@n. See Dupree and Strand under Nu@resta@n^ and Rao under Ôat.

Ôat (or Guè^, called Guèur in the north). Language: Indo-Aryan; most also speak Dar^ or PaÞáto@. Of Mediterranean type, they form gypsy-like bands of tradesmen, tinkers, musicians, and fortune-tellers. Many claim Arab descent, e.g., the Shaikh Moháammad^, who are traders only. Other groups include the Ùangar, Musal^, and Ùalu@. Bibliog.: A. Rao, “Note pre‚liminaire sur les Jat d'Afghanistan,” Studia Iranica 8, 1979, pp. 141-49. Idem, “Qui sont les Jat d'Afghanistan?,” Afghanistan Journal 8, 1981, pp. 55-64.

Arab. Language: Primarily Dar^ or PaÞáto@; some speak an Arabized Persian, and a few speak Arabic. Various small, semi-sedentary villages and semi-nomadic bands claim Arab (Sayyed) descent; their physical types are Mediterranean, Mongoloid, and mixed. Bibliog.: R. Farhadi, “Die Sprachen von Afghanistan,” Zentralasiatische Studien 3, 1969, pp. 409-16. T. Barfield, The Central Asian Arabs of Afghanistan, Austin, 1981.

Hindu. Language: Hindi, Panjabi, or Lahnda@; they also speak either Dar^ or PaÞáto@. About 20,000 people, basically of north Indian physical type and Hindu in religion, are found mainly in urban centers; they are merchants and moneylenders. Bibliog.: L. Dupree, “The Indian Merchants in Kabul,” AUFS Fieldstaff Reports, South Asia Series 6/3, 1962.

Sikh. Language: see under Hindu. About 10,000 are scattered throughout the cities and towns of Afghanistan as merchants and moneylenders. Like the Hindus, they are mostly Afghan citizens and practice their religion without undue interference. Their basic physical type is Mediterranean, with extreme hirsuteness. See Dupree under Hindu.

Jew. Language: Hebrew; all speak Dar^ or PaÞáto@ or both. Several hundred live in Kabul, Qandaha@r, and Herat as merchants and moneylenders. Many went to Israel, but most subsequently either returned or emigrated to the United States. Their physical type is Mediterranean.

Bibliography : Most writings on Afghan peoples and cultures have been footnotes to M. Elphinstone, An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul and its Dependencies in Persia, Tartary and India. Comprising a View of the Afghaun Nation and a History of the Dooraunee Monarchy, London, 1815. See list of bibliographies in Bibliographie der Afghanistan—Literatur 1945-1967, 2 vols., Hamburg, 1968-69. On films and unpublished research, see L. Dupree, “Anthropology in Afghanistan,” AUFS Fieldstaff Reports, South Asia Series 20/5, 1976. The most complete, continuing bibliography is Biblioteca Afghanica, Liestal, Switzerland. The following periodicals publish many ethnographic articles: Afghanistan (Kabul), Folklore (Kabul), Afghanistan Journal (Graz), Pasáto (Kabul), Journal of Central Asia (Islamabad), Central Asia (Peshawar), Afghan Studies (British Academy).

General works, J. Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindu Koosh, Calcutta, 1880. H. Raverty, Notes on Afghanistan and Part of Baluchistan. Geographical, Ethnological and Historical, London, 1888. H. Bellew, An Inquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan, London, 1891 (more reliable than Raverty). Another basic source is the six volume Imperial Gazetteer of Afghanistan by the British General Staff, Calcutta, 1908-14. Several volumes have been updated and edited by L. Adamec under the title Historical and Political Gazatteer of Afghanistan: I. Badakhshan and Northeastern Afghanistan, Graz, 1973. II. Farah and Southwestern Afghanistan, Graz, 1973. III. Herat and Northwestern Afghanistan, Graz, 1975. IV. Mazar-i-Sharif and North-Central Afghanistan, Graz, 1979. V. Kandahar and South-Central Afghanistan, Graz, 1980. J. Humlum, La ge‚ographie de l'Afghanistan, Copenhagen, 1959. M. Klimburg, Afghanistan, Vienna, 1969. A. Aslanov et al., “Ethnography of Afghanistan: A Russian Study,” Afghanistan: Some New Approaches, ed. G. Grassmuck et al., Ann Arbor, pp. 1-11. W. Kraus, ed., Afghanistan, Tübingen and Basel, 1972. J. Blanc, L'Afghanistan et ces populations, Paris, 1976. A. Embree, ed., Pakistan's Western Borderlands, New Delhi, 1977. N. H. Dupree, An Historical Guide to Afghanistan, 2nd ed., Kabul, 1977 (containing good ethnographic material). R. and M. Poulton, R^ Ôang: Un village ta@è^k dans le nord de l'Afghanistan, Paris, 1979. Les temps modernes, revue mensuelle: Afghanistan, Paris, no. 408-09, 1980. L. Dupree, Afghanistan, 3rd revised ed., Princeton, 1980. C. Rathjens, ed., Neue Forschungen in Afghanistan, Opladen, 1981.

Physical anthropology. G. Maranjian, “The Distribution of ABO Blood Types in Afghanistan,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 10, 1958, p. 263. R. Woodd-Walker et al., “The Blood Groups of the Timuri and Related Tribes in Afghanistan,” ibid., 27, 1967, pp. 195-204. H. Hughes, “Finger Dematoglyphics from Nuristan, Afghanistan,” Man 2, 1967, pp. 119-25. G. Debets, Physical Anthropology of Afghanistan, Cambridge, Mass., 1970.

Family, village and town; social change. A. Janata, “Verlobung und Hochzeit in Kabul,” Archiv für Völkerkunde 17-18, 1962-63, pp. 59-72. K. Honrich, “Die Einstellung Afghanischer Studenten zum sozialen Wandel,” Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozial-Psychologie 16, 1964, pp. 703-26. E. Friedl, Trager mediater Begabung im Hindukusch und Karakorum (Acta Ethnologica et Linguistica 8), Vienna, 1965. E. Hahn, Die Stadt Kabul (Afghanistan) und ihr Umland (Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen 34-35), 1964, 1965. C. Kieffer, “A propos de la circoncision aà Caboul et dans le Logar,” Festschrift für Wilhelm Eilers, Wiesbaden, 1967, pp. 191-201. H. Amoss, “Dari-Zul: "Village in transition",” American Historical Anthropology: Essays in Honor of Leslie Spier, Carbondale, 1967. P. Centlivres, Un bazar d'Asie Centrale. Forme et Organisation du bazar de Tâshkurghân (Afghanistan), Wiesbaden, 1972. E. Grötzbach, Kulturgeographische Wandel in Nordost-Afghanistan seit dem 19. Jahrhundert (Afghanische Studien 4), Meisenheim, 1972. C. -J. Charpentier, Bazaar-e-Tashqurghan. Ethnographical Studies in an Afghan Traditional Bazaar, Uppsala, 1972. N. H. Dupree, Kabul: City in Transition (Afghanistan Council, Asia Society, Special Paper 2), New York, 1975. L. Sakata, The Concepts of Music and Musicians in Three Persian-Speaking Areas of Afghanistan, PhD thesis, University of Michigan, 1976 (UM 76-17-09). M. Slobin, Music in the Culture of Northern Afghanistan, Tucson, 1976. B. Sarif, Zur Situation des Frauen in Afghanistan, Frankfurt, 1977. L. Dupree, “USAID and Social Scientists Discuss Afghanistan's Development Prospects,” AUFS Fieldstaff Reports, South Asia Series 20/2, 1977. E. Knabe, Frauenemanizipation in Afghanistan, Meisenheim, 1977. M. Miran, “Sociolinguistic Factors in Afghanistan,” Afghanistan Journal 4, 1977, pp. 122-27. A. and B. Szabo, Preliminary Notes on the Indigenous Architecture of Afghanistan, Harvard, 1978. P. Hunte, Women and the Development Process in Afghanistan (AID/NE-C-1487), Washington, 1978. J. Anderson and R. Strand, ed., “Ethnic Processes and Intergroup Relations in Contemporary Afghanistan,” Afghanistan Council, Asia Society, Occasional Paper 15, New York, 1978. R. Kraus, Siedlungspolitik und Erfolg dargestellt an Siedlungen in dem Provinzen Hilmend und Baghlan, Afghanistan (Afghanische Studien 12), Meisenheim, 1975. J. Hanifi, “The Central Asian and its Role in Cultural Transformation,” Afghanistan Council, Asia Society, Occasional Paper 6, 1974. L. Dupree, “Settlement and Migration Patterns in Afghanistan,” Modern Asian Studies 9, 1975, pp. 385-400. R. Dor and M. Nicolas, Quand le crible e‚tait dans la paille, Paris, 1978. A. Ghani, “Islam and State-Building in a Tribal Society: Afghanistan 1880-1901,” Modern Asian Studies 12, 1978, pp. 269-84. I. McArthur, S. Sayad, and M. Nawin, “Rangeland Livestock Production in Western Afghanistan,” Journal of Arid Environments 2, 1979, pp. 163-79. T. Faegre, Tents-Architecture of the Nomads, 1979. M. Casimer, J. Winter, and B. Glatzer, “Desertification of Arid and Semi-arid Areas,” Remote Sensing Possibilities and Limitations, Cologne, 1979, pp. 11-14. B. Dupaigne, “Le dernier jour des hommes, les hommes et la mort,” Les hommes et la mort, 1979. A. Velter, E. Delloye, and M.-J. Camothe, Les Bazars de Kaboul, Paris, 1979. S. Hallet and R. Semizay, The Traditional Architecture of Afghanistan, New York, 1980. L. Boesen, “Women, Honour, and Love,” Afghanistan Journal 7, 1980, pp. 50-59. R. O'Conner, ed., Managing Health Systems in Developing Areas: Afghanistan, Lexington, Mass., 1980. L. Dupree, “Militant Islam and Traditional Warfare in Islamic South Asia,” AUFS Asia 21, 1980. S. Lajoinie, Conditions de femmes en Afghanistan, Paris, 1980. A. -S. Zadran, “Kinship, Family, and Kinship Terminology,” Afghanistan 33/2, 1980, pp. 45-68. I. Delloye, Des femmes d'Afghanistan, Paris, 1980. N. H. Dupree, “Revolutionary Rhetoric and Afghan Women,” Afghanistan Council, Asia Society, Occasional Paper 23, 1981. W. Azoy, Buzkashi: Game and Power in Afghanistan, Philadelphia, 1982.

Other. R. Hackin and A. A. Kohzad, Legendes et coutumes afghans, Paris, 1953. K. Ferdinand, “The Horizontal Windmills of Western Afghanistan,” Folk 5, 1963, pp. 71-89; see also ibid., 8-9, 1966-67, pp. 83-88. M. Demont and P. Centlivres, “Poteries et potiers d'Afghanistan,” Bulletin annuel du Muse‚e et Institut d'Ethnographie de la Ville de Geneve 10, 1967, pp. 23-67. B. Dupaigne, “Aperçus sur quelques techniques afghanes,” Objets et mondes 8, 1968, pp. 41-84. L. Dupree, “Sports and Games in Afghanistan,” AUFS Fieldstaff Reports, South Asia Series 14/1, 1970. F. R. Matson, “Summary: The Archaeological Present: Near Eastern Potters at Work,” AJA 88, 1974, pp. 345-57. N. H. Dupree, “An Interpretation of the Role of the Hoopoe in Afghan Folklore and Magic,” Folklore 85, 1974, pp. 173-93. A. Janata, “Beitrag zur Völkerkunde Afghanistans,” Archiv für Völkerkunde 29, 1975, pp. 7-36. L. Dupree, “Saint Cults in Afghanistan,” AUFS Fieldstaff Reports, South Asia Series 20/1, 1976. M. Centlivres-Demont, Popular Art in Afghanistan, Graz, 1976. H. Einzmann, Religioses Volksbrauchtum in Afghanistan, Wiesbaden, 1977. M. Mills, “Cupid and Psyche in Afghanistan,” Asia Society, Occasional Paper, no. 16, New York, 1978. R. Weekes, ed., Muslim Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey, Westport, Conn., 1978 (including sections on Aimaq by A. Janata, Baluch by S. Pastner, Brahui by N. Swidler, Hazara by R. Canfield, Kirghiz by V. Mote, and Nuristani, Pushtun, Tajik and Uzbak by L. Dupree). M. Dutreux, La peinture des camions en Afghanistan, Paris, 1978 (Paris I Sorbonne, section arts plastiques; a seminal work; mimeo). L. Dupree, “Functions of Folklore in Afghan Society,” Asian Affairs 66, 1979, pp. 51-61. Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, 3/2, 1979 (entire issue devoted to Afghan ethnography). N. van Oudenhoven, “Common Afghan Street Games and Child Development,” Afghanistan Journal 7, 1980, pp. 126-38. A. Janata, Schmuck in Afghanistan, Graz, 1981.

(L. Dupree)

v. Languages

It would be impossible to summarize here all the specialized research that has been carried out in linguistic and related ethnological fields. With few exceptions, dialectology and ethnology have proceeded independently; any attempt to provide a synthesis would reveal gaps at every stage and disparities that could not be resolved without the help of a vast undertaking such as the forthcoming Atlas linguistique de l'Afghanistane (ALA; ed. G. Redard, Berne). Only a cursory account can be given, a rough sketch delineating the present linguistic situation and the tribes that speak the various languages.

Situated at the intersection of three geographically and culturally different worlds—India with its monsoons, Central Asia with its steppes, and the Iranian plateau—Afghanistan has seen a succession of invaders and colonizers of all kinds. Its political history has been a constant battle for independence, its cultural history a struggle to maintain its own personality. States have appeared and disappeared, north, south, and straddling the Hindu Kush, but it has not been possible to confuse them with Central Asia, India or Persia. The Achaemenids (6th-4th cent. B.C.), Alexander and the Greeks (4th cent.), As‚oka and Buddhism (3rd cent.), Kanishka and the Kushans (1st cent. A.D.), the Sasanians (2nd-6th cents.), the Iranian Huns (4th-8th cents.) and the Hendu@Þa@h^s of Kabul (1st-3rd/7th-9th cents.) demarcate pre-Islamic history. The coming of Islam (1st-3rd/7th-9th cents.) was the most important event in Afghan history. Islamic civilization flourished under the Ghaznavids (4th-6th/10th-12th cents.) and the Ghurids (6th-7th/12th-13th cents.), but the Mongol invasion in the 7th/13th century was a catastrophe from which Afghanistan never fully recovered. Nevertheless, the Timurid renaissance made Herat one of the great cities of the Islamic world in the 9th/15th century. In the 10th/16th century Ba@bor founded the dynasty of the Great Mughals. But the opening of the maritime route to the East Indies plunged the countries bordering the traditional silk route into economic and cultural stagnation. In the 12th/18th century Ahámad Shah Dorra@n^ liberated Afghanistan from the influence of Persia and India and gave birth to modern Afghanistan.

Afghanistan's ability to amalgamate rather than assimilate is such that it presents an extraordinary ethnic and linguistic medley. Ethnic diversity results from an agitated past, nomadism—which to this day is a way of life for about one million inhabitants (eight percent of the population)—and the geographic structure of the country. Around Afghanistan's center of gravity, the Hindu Kush, are located great natural areas opening out on neighboring countries and lacking natural frontiers. The AÚmu@ Darya@ in the north, the desert of the west and the south, the mountain ranges in the east, are all passageways over which soldiers, missionaries, and merchants have traveled, while the central mountains are hospitable, having been populated since ancient times.

The linguistic situation (Table 7). Best represented are the Iranian languages (see I. M. Oranskij, Iranskie jazyki, Moscow, 1963; tr. J. Balu, Les Langues iraniennes, Paris, 1977), followed by Turkish languages of

recent import, and Indian languages which are either native (Nu@resta@n^ and Dardic) or imported (New Indian). Most Afghans who are not native Persian speakers are more or less bilingual. The population of Afghanistan can be estimated at 12 million.

A. Official languages. PaÞáto@ (1) promoted to the status of official language by royal decree in 1936, is the native tongue of 50 to 55 percent of Afghans; as a second language it is spoken by less than 10 percent of the population. The PaÞáto@-speaking areas are located in the east, the south, and the southwest of the country. Important colonies of na@qel^n (displaced populations) have settled in Bactria. Persian (2) is the language most spoken in Afghanistan. The native tongue of twenty five percent of the population, it is split into numerous dialects. Dar^ (q.v.) is a term long recommended by Afghan authorities to designate Afghan Persian in contrast to Iranian Persian; a written language common to all educated Afghanis, Dar^ must not be confused with Ka@bol^, the dialect of Kabul and surrounding areas that is more or less understood by eighty percent of the non-Persian speaking population and is fast becoming the nation's koine.

Although PaÞáto@ has enjoyed official favor, it is little propagated among Persian speakers. First, it is difficult to proceed from a less complex (more analytical) language such as Persian to a more complex (more synthetic) language such as PaÞáto@; and second, PaÞáto@ has been poorly taught, despite the efforts of the Ministry of Public Instruction. The tendency is, rather, for PaÞátu@ns to learn Persian in the course of their movements or during their military service, while the number of Persian-speakers who can express themselves in PaÞáto@ remains stationary.

B. National languages. Since 1980 Balu@±^ (3), OÚzbe@k^ (23), Torkman^ (24), PaÞa^ (16), and Nu@resta@n^ (in fact the Kat^ or Kat™‚ dialect, 12) have been officially promoted to the rank of national languages. During the autumn of 1981, each of these had a daily radio broadcast. At the Ministry of Public Education classroom texts for elementary school were being prepared; several such texts had already been printed in OÚzbe@k^, Torkman^, and Balu@±^. Several issues of newspapers had also appeared in these languages.